Dunman High School (Senior High Physics Department)

H2 Topic 18c

Quantum Physics (III):

A Primer of Quantum Mechanics

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Content

• Energy of a photon
• The photoelectric effect
• Wave-particle duality
• Energy levels in atoms
• Line spectra
• X-ray spectra
• The uncertainty principle
• Schrodinger model
• Barrier tunnelling

Learning Outcomes

Candidates should be able to:

(a) show an appreciation of the particulate nature of electromagnetic radiation.

(b) recall and use E = hf.
(c) show an understanding that the photoelectric effect provides evidence for a particulate nature of electromagnetic radiation
while phenomena such as interference and diffraction provide evidence for a wave nature.
(d) recall the significance of threshold frequency.
(e) recall and use the equation ½mv2max = eV s , where V s is the stopping potential.
(f) explain photoelectric phenomena in terms of photon energy and work function energy.
(g) explain why the maximum photoelectric energy is independent of intensity whereas the photoelectric current is proportional to
intensity.
(h) recall, use and explain the significance of hf = Φ + ½mv2max .
(i) describe and interpret qualitatively the evidence provided by electron diffraction for the wave nature of particles.
(j) recall and use the relationship for the de Broglie wavelength λ = h/p.
(k) show an understanding of the existence of discrete electron energy levels in isolated atoms (e.g. atomic hydrogen) and deduce
how this leads to spectral lines.
(l) distinguish between emission and absorption line spectra.
(m) recall and solve problems using the relation hf = E 1 – E 2 .
(n) explain the origins of the features of a typical X-ray spectrum using quantum theory.
(o) show an understanding of and apply the Heisenberg position-momentum and time-energy uncertainty principles in new
situations or to solve related problems.
(p) show an understanding that an electron can be described by a wave function 𝛹 where the square of the amplitude of wave
function |𝛹| 2 gives the probability of finding the electron at a point. (No mathematical treatment is required.)
P

(q) show an understanding of the concept of a potential barrier and explain qualitatively the phenomenon of quantum tunnelling of
an electron across such a barrier.
(r) describe the application of quantum tunnelling to the probing tip of a scanning tunnelling microscopy (STM) and how this is used
to obtain atomic-scale images of surfaces. (Details of the structure and operation of a scanning tunnelling microscope are not
required.)
(s) apply the relationship transmission coefficient T ∝ exp(-2kd) for the STM in related situations or to solve problems. (Recall of the
equation is not required.)
(t) recall and use the relationship R + T = 1, where R is the reflection coefficient and T is the transmission coefficient, in related
situations or to solve problems.

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18c.0 Introduction
Quantum mechanics, as the name implies, is a study on the behaviour of quantum objects when
subjected to external stimuli. Since the behaviour of quantum objects can be either represented in a
wave form or a particle form, one can expect the mathematics involved to be somewhat…
challenging.

A reasonable “cheatsheet” for introductory

Quantum Mechanics at the undergraduate level

Fortunately, we shall aim to achieve a basic understanding of “QM” here without the need for
rigorous mathematical treatment.

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18c.1 The Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle

Werner Heisenberg was a German theoretical physicist who was
awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1932 “for the creation of
quantum mechanics”. He was best known for his uncertainty
principle, which was published in 1927.

His paper puzzled both physicists and historians because of the

obscure system of math used. It was later through the combined
efforts of other scientists that Heisenberg’s findings were transcribed
to using matrices. Up to this time, matrices were seldom used by
physicists and were considered to belong to the realm of esoteric
mathematics.

The uncertainty principle asserts a fundamental limit to the degree of precision with which certain
pairs of physical properties can be determined at the same time.

It is impossible to simultaneously measure the exact position and exact momentum of an object.

The Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle (Position and Momentum)

If a measurement of the position of a particle is made with precision Δ𝑥,
and a simultaneous measurement of its momentum is measured in the x-direction
with precision Δ𝑝,
ℏ
the product of these two uncertainties can never be smaller than .
2
ℏ
Δ𝑥 Δ𝑝 ≥
2
ℎ
where ℏ (h-bar) is the reduced Planck’s constant, ℏ = 2𝜋.

Loosely speaking, if we restrict the length in which a quantum particle is allowed to move around, it
starts to move all around violently.

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Example 1
The size of a nucleus in an atom is about 1.0 × 10−15 m (or 1 femto-metre). If an electron of mass
𝑚𝑖 = 9.11 × 10−31 kg is confined within the nucleus, estimate the uncertainty in the velocity of the
electron.

Solution:
By Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle:
ℏ
Δ𝑥 Δ𝑝 ≥
2
ℎ
Δ𝑥 [𝑚𝑖 (Δ𝑣)] ≥
4𝜋
ℎ
Δ𝑣 ≥
4𝜋𝑚𝑖 Δ𝑥
6.63 × 10−34
≥
4𝜋(9.11 × 10−31 )(1.0 × 10−15 )

Δ𝑣 ≥ 5.7 × 1010 m s −1
NB: The uncertainty “allows” the electron to be possibly faster than the speed of light. Hence, it is not
physically possible for an electron to be confined within an atomic nucleus

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Example 2
The Bohr’s model of a hydrogen atom assumes that the lone electron revolves around the 1-proton
nucleus in a circular path with a fixed, well-defined radius. The tangential velocity of the electron is
estimated to be 2.2 × 106 ms −1 .

Estimate the uncertainty in the position of the electron if the uncertainty in the momentum is half
1
the momentum of the electron (Δ𝑝 = 2 𝑝).

Solution:
By Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle:
ℏ
Δ𝑥 Δ𝑝 ≥
2
ℏ electron
Δ𝑥 ≥ cloud
2Δ𝑝
ℎ
≥ nucleus
1
4𝜋 �2 𝑚𝑣�
ℎ
≥
2𝜋𝑚𝑖 𝑣 a0
6.63 × 10−34
≥
2𝜋(9.11 × 10−31 )(2.2 × 106 ) uncertainty

Δ𝑥 ≥ 0.0526 nm

NB: The “average” distance the electron is from the nucleus, denoted as a 0 , is 0.529 nm, which makes
the uncertainty to be at 10%.

This is where the concept of an “electron cloud” and the “orbital” being “a region of space around the
nucleus with the highest probability of locating electrons” comes about; we can never really exactly
pinpoint where the electron is.

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The Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle (Energy and Time)

There is another form of the uncertainty principle which sets a limit to the change
in energy of a system Δ𝐸, over a finite time internal Δ𝑡.
ℏ
Δ𝐸 Δ𝑡 ≥
2

Example 3
Lasers ideally output light of a fixed wavelength. However, there is a slight margin of error in the
wavelength due to the Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle. Given that the lifetimes of atomic de-
excitations occur in the order of 3 ns, find the range of output wavelengths for a laser designed to
provide laser of wavelength 590 nm.

Solution:
Photon energy of laser:
ℎ𝑐
𝐸 = ℎ𝑓 =
𝜆
By Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle:
ℏ
Δ𝐸 Δ𝑡 ≥
2
ℎ
Δ𝐸 ≈
4𝜋Δ𝑡
Wavelength limits:
ℎ𝑐
𝐸𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑖𝑠 = 𝐸 ± Δ𝐸 =
𝜆𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑖𝑠
ℎ𝑐
𝜆𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑖𝑠 =
𝐸 ± Δ𝐸
ℎ𝑐
=
ℎ𝑐 ℎ
±
𝜆 4𝜋Δ𝑡
1
=
1 1
±
𝜆 4𝜋𝑐Δ𝑡
1
=
1 1
±
590 × 10−9 4𝜋(3 × 108 )(3 × 10−9 )
= [589, 590] nm

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Example Quattro
The force which holds the protons and neutrons together in an atomic nucleus is known as the
nuclear strong force. It has to be far stronger than the forces of electromagnetism, in order to
overcome the electrostatic repulsion between protons.

The strong force is facilitated by the nucleons (either protons or neutrons) exchanging elementary
particles called gluons, which travel at light speed. Given that the rest mass of the gluon is 265 𝑚𝑖 ,
estimate the (i) range of the nuclear strong force and (ii) the life-time over which the exchange takes
place.

Solution:
(i)By Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle: (ii)
ℏ range
Δ𝐸 Δ𝑡 ≥ Δ𝑡 ≈
2 𝑐
ℎ ≈ 2.4 × 10−24 s
(𝑚𝑐 2 )Δ𝑡 ≥
4𝜋
ℎ
Range ≈ 𝑐Δ𝑡 ≈ NB: the range of the nuclear strong force, going by
4𝜋𝑚𝑐
this estimation, is about 0.6 times the radius of a
6.63 × 10−34
≈ proton.
4𝜋(265)(9.11 × 10−31 )(3 × 108 )
≈ 0.73 fm (0.73 × 10−15 m)

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18c.2 The Wave Function

Erwin Schrödinger was an Austrian physicist who was awarded the
Nobel Prize for Physics in 1933 for the formulation of the
Schrödinger equation.

Since a quantum particle can behave both as a particle and as a

wave, the equation completely describes all the various properties
of the quantum particle.

Here, we deal with a wave function representing an electron,

confined along a 1-dimensional length.

The Wave Function 𝜳

The square of the amplitude of wave function |𝛹| 2 gives the probability of finding P

the electron at a point.

electron
|Ψ|2 probably!!
electron cannot exist outside here

electron cannot exist outside here

x=0 a b L/2 x=L

When we graph out the square of the wave function along the x-axis, we obtain the probability
distribution function. This PDF is for the probability of locating the quantum particle. It follows that
(i) the total area marked by the diagonal checks is 1
(ii) to find the probability of finding the electron between a and b, we find the area under
𝑏
graph (mathematically, ∫𝑎 |Ψ|2 𝑑𝑥)

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Example 5
The wave-functions for individual electrons are given on the left-hand columns. Sketch the probability
function for the corresponding electron on the right.

Solutions:

𝛹 |𝛹|2

exist outside here

Electron cannot
exist outside here

exist outside here

exist outside here

Electron cannot

Electron cannot

Electron cannot
x x
L/2 L L/2 L
Electron is most likely to be at L/2. Total area
under graph is 1.

𝛹 |𝛹|2

exist outside here

Electron cannot
exist outside here

exist outside here

Electron cannot

Electron cannot

L/2 L/2
x x
L L
The electron is half as probable to be in [0, L/2] as
[L/2, L]. Total area under graph is 1.

𝛹 |𝛹|2
exist outside here
exist outside here

Electron cannot
Electron cannot

x x
There is still a remote possibility of finding an
electron as x  ∞. Total area under graph is 1.

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Example 6
The probability density function for the location of the lone electron in a hydrogen atom can be
described by the equation
4𝑟 2 −2𝑟
|Ψ|2 = 3 𝑒 𝑎0
𝑎0

ℏ2
where 𝑎0 is the Bohr radius, a constant defined by 𝑎0 = 𝑚𝑖 2 = 0.0529 nm.

Sketch (i) the probability density function of the location of the electron and hence (ii) state the
distance away from the nucleus at which the electron is most probably located.

Solution:
(i) (ii)
The electron has the highest probability of being
|𝛹|2
found 0.0529 nm away from the centre of the
nucleus.

NB: It should be within your H2 mathematical

ability to show that
∞

a0 � |Ψ|2 𝑑𝑟 = 1
distance from 0
nucleus r
Hint: by parts… twice

Ψ1
Ψ2

We can only say how probable it is to find the lone electron along x.

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For the Chemistry students…

It was through solving the Schrödinger’s wave equation for the hydrogen atom that we obtain the spdf
orbitals. The hydrogen atom was chosen because it is the simplest atom; having only 1 electron
“orbiting” a lone proton for nucleus.

The experimental results were in good agreement, and the Chemists took over the subsequent studies
for other atoms, introducing correction factors as needed, and using the theory to further explain
aspects of atomic structure and chemical bonding.

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18c.3 Quantum Tunnelling

When we think of “tunnelling”, we often picture the burrowing of a passage way under and through
a tall obstacle, instead of going over the top.

For a classical particle, it can pass over an impenetrable barrier only if supplied extra energy to
overcome it:

energy energy
minimum
energy
needed to
go beyond
barrier additional
energy
energy barrier

energy barrier
required
energy to cross
available over
to
particle

distance x distance x

Potential Barrier
A region of higher potential energy which tends to prevent a particle from passing
from one side of the barrier to another.
Classically, the particle will be reflected when it hits the barrier. Hence, region II and region III are
forbidden to the particle.

energy

E
II
region I region III
distance x

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In quantum tunnelling, the particle can pass through the barrier without any loss of energy. The
particle “tunnels” through and penetrates a classically-forbidden region.

energy

potential barrier
1 possible
outcome: the only other
reflected possible outcome:
transmitted through
energy 1
available 2
to
particle

distance x

NB: In fact, in the quantum realm, even if the particle has more energy than the barrier, there is still a
chance of being reflected.

(But don’t worry too much about this phenomena in our context.)

energy
1

2
energy barrier

possibly possibly
reflected transmitted

distance x

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Transmission Coefficient
The transmission coefficient T is the probability of a particle
tunnelling through a potential barrier and appearing on the other side.
It decreases exponentially with the barrier thickness d.

𝑇 ∝ 𝑒 −2𝑘𝑖
Transmission and Reflection Coefficient
The reflection coefficient R is the probability of a particle failing to tunnel through
the potential barrier and getting reflected by a potential barrier.

𝑇 + 𝑅 = 1

For 𝑇 ∝ 𝑒 −2𝑘𝑖 ,
𝑘 =
8𝜋 2 𝑚(𝑈 − 𝐸)
�
ℎ2

𝑑: the thickness of the barrier in metres

𝑚: mass of the particle in kilogrammes
𝑈: the “height” of the potential barrier in joules (i.e. the energy needed to overcome the
barrier)
𝐸: the total energy of the particle in joules (both KE and PE)

energy
d

U
potential barrier

R
T
E m

distance x

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Example 7
Two copper conducting wires are separated by an insulating oxide layer. Modelling the oxide layer as
square barrier of height 10.0 eV, estimate the transmission coefficient and the reflection coefficient for
penetration by electrons with energy of 7.00 eV if the thickness of the layer is 1.00 nm.
𝐸 𝐸
Given: 𝑇 ≈ 𝐴 𝑒 −2𝑘𝑖 where A = 16 𝑈 �1 − 𝑈�

Solutions:
≈
energy/eV
8𝜋 2 (9.11×10−31 )(10−7)(1.6×10−19 )
1 nm 7 7 −2� �10−9 �
(6.63×10−34 )2
16 � � �1 − � 𝑒
10 10 10
potential barrier

7 e-
≈ 6.74 × 10−8

distance x
𝑅+𝑇 =1

inside adjacent 𝑅 = 1−𝑇

oxide

copper wire = 1 − 6.74 × 10−8

≈ 0.999999932

NB: Tunnelling is highly unlikely. Most of the electrons

𝑇 ≈ 𝐴𝑒 −2𝑘𝑖
reaching the barrier will be reflected.
16𝐸 𝐸 −2�8𝜋2 𝑚𝑒2(𝑈−𝐸)𝑖
≈ �1 − � 𝑒 ℎ
𝑈 𝑈
Electrons inside the copper exist as part of a sea of freely-
moving mobile electrons; and hence can move around
without loss in total energy. The oxide is an insulator and
doesn’t permit conduction, and hence poses as a barrier.

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At this point, it is important to take note of how we represent the wave nature of the matter wave:
Representing Wave Function in Tunnelling

energy
d
potential barrier U

potential barrier
particle energy E

distance x
wave function Ψ𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖

Ψ𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒

distance x

Important features:
(i) We typically represent a moving particle with a sinusoidal wave function.
In discussing the probability of locating the particle earlier, the particle is
confined to that length along the x-axis.
(ii) A quantum particle has a wave nature which is completely described by a wave function.
(iii) The square of the amplitude of the wave function gives the probability of locating the
quantum particle.
(iv) The amplitude of Ψ𝑖𝑒𝑖𝑖 is not zero.
There is a finite probability of finding the particle to the right of the barrier.
(v) The amplitude of Ψ𝑖𝑒𝑖𝑖 is reduced compared to Ψ𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 .
The probability of finding the particle on the right hand side of the barrier (T) is
lower. The wave function of the reflected wave (R) is not shown.
(vi) The amplitude of the wave function decays exponentially inside the barrier.
The transmission coefficient T decays exponentially with barrier width.
(vii) The total energy of the particle is not reduced.
This is shown by the wavelength remaining constant. Recall how the energy of a
ℎ 2
𝑝2 � �
particle is related to the de Broglie wavelength: 𝐸 = 2𝑚 = 𝜆
2𝑚

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18c.4 Scanning Tunnelling Microscope (STM)

Microscopy
The STM allows us to visualize an electrically-conductive surface at the atomic level.

graphite nickel

Tunnelling
The STM is a practical application of the quantum tunnelling effect.
A sharp conducting metal tip (only a few atoms at the tip) is placed very close to the surface of the
electrically-conductive sample. The vacuum or air in between the tip and surface serves as the
potential barrier.

nA
probe
tip

Vbias
tunneling
air or current
vacuum

z
y
sample
x surface

There is a small potential difference applied between the tip and the sample. A weak tunnelling
current occurs and it decays exponentially with the distance between the probe and surface.

Scanning sample
probe
The tip is moved across the surface surface

in a raster scan fashion in order to

next few
build the image one point at the positions
of probe
time.
y raster
scan
x
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Operation Modes
The tip of the STM can be made to move in 2 ways.
Mode Advantage Disadvantage
Constant Height Faster Danger of tip
probe
probe path
Tip is moved across the crash.
surface at constant height.
Only good for sample
Tunnelling current is relatively

current
recorded at each (x,y) point. smooth surfaces.
x

Constant Current Can measure Slower

Tunnelling current is surfaces probe
maintained by constantly with larger probe path

adjusting vertical distance (z) irregular

between sample surface and features sample

probe tip. height

Change in vertical distance is x

recorded at each (x,y) point.
After the data is recorded at each (x,y) point, a computer can display the information as a 3D image.

The inventors of the STM, Gerd Binning and Heinrich Rohrer of IBM, shared the Nobel Prize in
Physics in 1986 for the development of the instrument.

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18c.5.1 Other Applications of Quantum Tunnelling: Alpha Decay

One form of radioactive decay is the emission of alpha particle(s) (nuclei of Helium atoms) from an
unstable, massive nucleus.
A A−2
ZX → Z−2Y + 42He

The nucleus is originally held intact by an attractive nuclear strong force, one which is able to
overcome the electrostatic static repulsion of positively-charged protons in close proximity.

energy

wave function of alpha particle

distance between centres

nucleus

The wave function of the alpha particle is superimposed on the energy

profile of the potential barrier. (c.f. page 17)

The electrostatic (Coulombic) force poses as a potential barrier. There is a finite probability that an
alpha particle can tunnel through the barrier and leave the nucleus.

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18c.5.2 Other Applications of Quantum Tunnelling: Nuclear Fusion in Sun

The source of energy for the Sun is the nuclear fusion of hydrogen atoms. The atoms have kinetic
energy due to the temperature of the sun.

However, the energy is not enough to allow the hydrogen atoms to be close enough for nuclear
fusion; the proton nuclei repel each other due to electrostatic repulsion.

H not close H
enough

The electrostatic force of repulsion is the potential barrier. For nuclear fusion to successfully take
place, quantum tunnelling must occur.
18c.6 Tutorial Questions
T1 Suppose that the x-component of the velocity of a 2 x 10-4 kg mass is measured to an accuracy
of ±10-6 m s-1. Determine the limit of the accuracy with which we can locate the particle along
the x-axis.
T2 (a) A pulse of radio wave lasts for 1.0 × 10-5 s. A photon of the radio wave may be
considered to be at a point anywhere within this pulse, although the location of the
point is not known. Calculate
(i) the length of the pulse, [1]
(ii) the uncertainty in the position of the photon, [1]
(iii) the uncertainty in the momentum of the photon. [3]
(b) Show, with the aid of a diagram, what is meant by a potential barrier. Discuss how the
wave nature of particles allows particles to tunnel through such a barrier. [3]
(c) The process in (b) is used in a scanning tunneling microscope, where it is possible to
see individual atoms. Outline how these atomic-scale images may be obtained. [3]
T3 An electron with a total energy E of 5.1 e V approaches a barrier of height 6.8 e V and thickness
𝐸 𝐸
750 × 10-12 m. Given: T ≈ A e-2kd where A = 16 𝑈 �1 − 𝑈�

(a) Estimate the probability that the electron will be transmitted through the barrier. [3]
(b) A proton with the same energy as the electron approaches the barrier.
Compare (without calculations) the probability of this proton being transmitted
through the barrier, with the probability calculated in (a).
Explain your comparison. [2]

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