WITS SCHOOL OF ART

American and Japanese

Animation
in Relation to Genre and the
Formation of National Identity
John Constantinou
9/29/2014
Table of Contents

Introduction ................................................................................................................................................................ 3

Early Animated Cartoons in the America

............................................................................................................................................................................................ 4

Post-War Effects on American Animated Productions

............................................................................................................................................................................................. 6

Early Animated Cartoons in Japan

............................................................................................................................................................................................ 6

Post-War Considerations for Japanese Animation

............................................................................................................................................................................................ 7

Construction of "Anime"

............................................................................................................................................................................................ 8

Animated Sitcoms, The Simpsons 'Genre Mixing' and its Subsequent Effects on Social
Commentary

............................................................................................................................................................................................ 9

'Just for Kids!'

......................................................................................................................................................................................... 11

Science Fiction Altering/ Reinforcing Gender Perceptions

......................................................................................................................................................................................... 12

Supernatural and Technological Musings on the Ghost

......................................................................................................................................................................................... 13

The Idea of the Post-Apocalyptic/Post-Human Entity in Science Fiction/Fantasy

.......................................................................................................................................................................................... 15

Conclusion
.......................................................................................................................................................................................... 16

Bibliography
.......................................................................................................................................................................................... 18

2
Introduction

Often incorrectly considered as a genre in and of itself animation, although an aspect for
consideration in defining genre, is rather a mode of production. A dense inter-relationship
between animated films and television exists, by looking at the intermingling of historical
occurrences, social trends and formations of national identity in relation animated television
shows from United States and animated films from Japan to gain an understanding of how these
productions perform as cultural mediators.

Systems of classification culminate to produce a set of ideas that help enable a reading of a
particular work. Within the mode of animation what genres have formed? What attributes to
these formations? What effects have the respective societies experienced as a result of these
formations and how do they inform subsequent animated productions? Within American and
Japanese animation certain aspects of social life determined the formation of genres that were
originally indicative of, though not specific to the countries of origin. Animated cartoons are
inextricably bound to cultural production, they inform perceptions of society by making both
subtle metaphorical allusions and obvious satirical comment on contemporary issues
illustrating a range of relevant subject matter. How has the generic status of the television
shows and films affected cultural circulation and thus informed construction social and national
identity?

The formations of genre will be looked at briefly to set up an understanding of how it is

approached in this paper. The early productions of animation in the United States and in Japan
will be looked at identifying early traces of generic formation around the cultures specific to
each country. World War II is a crucial point in the history of animation the effects of the war on
animated cartoon production during the war and the following post-war period are established
as points of significance in both countries perhaps the post-war period for Japan in particular, as
this is seem as the point at which 'anime' begins to circulate. Moving on to American animated
sitcoms and mixing of genres that becomes more frequent after the iconic series The Simpsons
gained popularity. Following the trends of theses cartoons to arrive at the most contemporary
'science fiction' cartoons. Modern Japanese films will are looked at, specifically Akira (1988).
The final part of the paper is about the influence of Japanese animation on contemporary
American cartoons specifically the relationship between Akira and Adventure Time to science
fiction genres relevant to post-modern culture.

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Genre is ultimately an abstract conception, it does not exist empirically in the world as Jane
Fever suggests1. Genres constantly supersede and sub-divide over and within one another.
David Bordwell states that the formation of genres are constituted by the considerations of
"grouping by period and/or country, by director or star or producer or writer or studio, by
technical process, by cycle, by series, by style, by structure, by ideology, by venue, by purpose,
by audience, by subject or theme2".Thus genre analysis situates texts within textual and social
contexts, emphasising the social nature of production and reading of texts3. Derrida proposed
that "text cannot be without . . .a genre and that every text participates in one or several genres,
there is no genre-less text. 4"

The commercial animated format in the U.S. has largely been associated with childhood. The
shift towards 'Saturday morning cartoons' which occurred in the 1960's and 1970's enforced
this notion. The result was the misplaced generic assumption that all cartoons were for children.
However the medium has the ability to appeal to both children and adults. Cartoons are able
cater to the 'sado-erotic fantasies' of the creators and the adult audiences in a manner that it
inaccessible to children. Jane Goodall asserts that there is a reoccurring theme of ' innocence'
and 'experience' within animation that can illuminate the 'polarity of audience appeal'. The
themes themselves can also serve as approaches to animation. The animator has control over
animated character the manipulative relationship ranges from playfulness to extreme abuse the
cartoon body however always returns to its default state.5 As is evident in early animation the
experienced viewer will recognise innuendo and the like as majority of the films were produced
to be screen to a range of demographics.

Early Animated Cartoons in the America

Early cartoons were based on news paper comic strips, Winsor McCay, the pioneer character
animator, after being a famous comic strip artist, found success with Gertie the Dinosaur the first
animated character. News reels were show with animated segments and so there was a direct
relationship between newspaper, comic strip and newsreel, animations. After the move to
theatrically screened animation; early cartoons referred to sexual relationship in strange
symbolic ways, wives would often hit husbands over the head with blunt object for no apparent
reason like in Paul Terry's Bonehead Age (1925) . Felix the Cat would indulge in beer and
whiskey during the prohibition era and guns and cannons would go limp after firing like in

1 CHANDLER, D. (1997) An Introduction to Genre Theory

2 BORDWELL, D. (1989) Making Meaning :Inference and Rhetoric in the Interpretation of Cinema. Pg. 148
3 CHANDLER, (1997) Pg. 10
4 CHANDLER, (1997) Pg. 5
5 GOODALL, J. (2007) Hybridity and the End of Innocence, In: CHOLODENKO, A. (eds) The Illusion of Life II: More

Essays on Animation.

4
Betty Boop's Boop-oop-a-Doop (1932) 6. Felix was often placed in surreal situations however
these were offset by relational subject matter like prohibition and promiscuity, expressing real
anxiety of the time.

A film produced in 1928 by an anonymous group of animators, to apparently celebrate Winsor

McCay's birthday, was the first pornographic cartoon made, and depicted explicit sexual acts as
well as bestiality, it was entitled Eveready Harton in Buried Treasure. This film proved that
animators were not innocent creators of children's films. Animators often put in suggestive
jokes that would not be decoded by children, allowing for a more adult reading of the works.
Between 1930-1934 cartoon characters made reference to sex, alcoholism, drug use, sexuality
and were exploitative of racial and cultural stereotypes. Thereafter the depiction of such
material became of concern to the viewing public setting in motion the gears of censorship.
Aside from being a slightly profitable enterprise the censorship board was set up with the most
positive of intentions. This would however cause American productions to be more
conservative as a result for a number of years (until the release of Ralph Bakshi's Fritz the Cat
in 1972) 7.

Early characters were essential the force propelling or being propelled towards the joke or 'gag'
in the films. Adaptable to any situation the range of texts that could be referenced was rather
vast, although always displayed in a comedic light. The character could find audience with
anyone and so adjusts the generic forms accordingly.

The Looney Tunes (1930-) known the depiction of the Sisyphean struggle of Wile E. Coyote
against his ever-elusive-meal the Road Runner, the linguistically challenged Porky Pig and wise
guys Bugs Bunny and Daffy Duck were employed in propaganda films such as Bugs Bunny Nips
the Nips (1944) by Friz Freleng. The characters are not inherently racist but the social situation
of the time when such films were produced called for the attribute to be inscribed upon them.
There were also number of racist Popeye cartoons produced between 1940 and 1947 serving as
a reason as to why he was placed within the Japanese propaganda films around Momataro 8.

During the war many propaganda films were produced and screened. The U.S. government even
commissioned 26 films for the Army Signal Corps. The films followed Private Snafu in various
situations depicting correct conduct in the army as well as wartime enemies in a racist manner.

6 COHEN, K. F. (1997) Forbidden Animation: Censored Cartoons and Blacklisted Animators in America.
7 COHEN, (1997)
8 ONO, K. (2007) The Long Flight of Manga and Anime: The History of Comics and Animation in Japan, In:

CHOLODENKO, A. (eds) The Illusion of Life II: More Essays on Animation.

5
The Private Snafu series was considered a classified government document and the content was
more mature as it was for an adult military audience9.

Post-War Effects on Animated Productions

"1930's and 1940's [animation] was well known for its reflexivity and self-awareness, regularly
breaking down the artifice and illusion of the medium. Techniques tied to the work of Tex Avery
and Chuck Jones.10"

Near the war's end there seems to be a greater emphasis placed on the character and their
experience as in The Great Piggy Bank Robbery (1946) directed by Robert Clampett, depicting a
driven and obsessive Daffy Duck no longer solely the functional force driving towards a 'gag'.
The short even featured heavy reference to war time instruments such as machine guns, hand
grenades, aircraft carriers and hand-to-hand combat. This is of course an internalized
dream/delusion as a metaphor for a violent post-traumatic experience. The Great Piggy Bank
Robbery unfolds its detective, film-noir activities within the frame of desire, Daffy Duck Twacy's
(Dick Tracey model) desire. The theme of this film being the futility of desire " unfulfillable and
always one step beyond what can be had" 11. Modernist sensibilities are displayed in the 1953
short directed by Jones, Duck Amuck due to its identification as an example of self-reflexivity
and as 'a catalogue of the material conditions of cinema 12. This is an example of a post-WWII
Warner Bros. (WB) cartoon. Phillip Brophy suggests that the post war period moved WB
cartoons into the realm of the cacophonous opposing the symphonic Disney cartoons. The
cacophonous is indicated by effects of speed, exigencies, excitations, explosions, syncopative
deformation and modernist deflation 13.

Early Animated Cartoons in Japan

With the introduction of sound in film, during the 1930's, the animated format became popular
as an educational and entertainment medium in Japan. Towards the end of the decade, with the
expansion of the military, these films began to reflect national policy. A film in 1938 depicting
the Fleischer studio character Popeye in the form of a cloud blocking a Japanese aircraft from
rescuing its friendly unit, would have been decipherable to the audience, especially the youth, as

9 COHEN, (1997)
10 MITTELL, J. (2001) Cartoon Realism: Genre Mixing and the Cultural Life of The Simpsons Pg. 15
11 THOMPSON, R. (2007) Pronoun Trouble II: The Missing Dick, In: CHOLODENKO, A. (eds) The Illusion of Life II: More

Essays on Animation Pg. 223

12 COHEN, (2007) Pg. 210
13 THOMPSON, (2007) Pg. 211

6
both Disney and Fleischer were popular in pre-WWII Japan 14 coding the figure in a negative
manner as an obstacle in the way of Japans natural course.

Between 1943 and 1945 six propaganda films were produced. Momataro's Sea Eagles
[Momataro no Umi Washi] directed by Mitsuse Seo in 1942 was a depiction of the attack on
Pearl Harbour using coded figures from Japanese culture, the titular Momataro 15, and the Oni
[demons/ogres] as representative of the U.S. Army. Another film starring the character,
Momataro's Divine Sea Warriors [Momataro Umi no Shinpe] was released in April 1945, it is
considered the technical peak for Japanese animated films of the time. Due to an intensification
in the bombing of major cities the film was not seen by many people. Apparently Osamu Tezuka
saw the film repeatedly while he was in high school.16.

Anthropomorphised characters and the transition from education and entertainment to

propaganda, similar to the Western approach. Utilizing the same character forms, although the
aspect of fantasy is more dominant in the Momataro films, it stand as an effectively emotive
piece of propaganda.

Five months after the premier of the second Momataro film Hiroshima was bombed. "In the
midst of the devastation and suffering caused by the dropping of the atomic bomb on
Hiroshima, such an unnatural blooming of flowers, caused by the heat of the atomic blast itself,
must have seemed miraculous. It can be seen retrospectively as a moment of reanimation , a
rebirth, albeit in a mutated form, offering Japanese people qualified hope for the future 17 ".This
apocalyptic event at the hand of a country obsessed with its own self-destruction, is a key factor
in the genres built to inform a national identity in the post-war period.

Post-War Considerations for Japanese Animation

In the decade following the war a number of educational films were produced. Between 1958
and 1963 Toei Doga, a feature animation studio produced 6 feature films and monopolized the
Japanese film market. Television broadcast began in 1953 in Japan. Disney and Fleischer Shorts
were screened along with Terrytoons' Mighty Mouse from 1960 Hanna-Barbara Cartoons were
also shown and the result was an understanding of the weekly serialized format.18. Induction of
these Western produced formats and narratives coupled with the immense trauma and anxiety
of the war resulted in a new hybrid form, that of which has been termed 'anime'.

14 ONO, (2007) Pg. 100

15 Japans most famous fairytale character.
16 ONO, (2007) Pg. 102
17 MOORE, P. (2007) When Velvet Glove Meets Iron Fists: Cuteness in Japanese Animation, In: CHOLODENKO, A. (eds)

The Illusion of Life II: More Essays on Animation. Pg. 119

18 ONO, (2007)

7
Construction of "Anime"

Osamu Tezuka was instrumental in the post-war rise of anime within Japan and thus its
eventual global circulation. Tezuka was exposed to Disney and Fleischer studio shorts, as well as
war time propaganda films. He was also a manga artist and produced content for a range of
publications, playing a crucial role in the adjustment of the general Japanese attitude towards
manga as an 'acceptable' medium for all age groups. In 1963 Tetsuwan Atomu, [ 'Iron Arm
Atom'/'Mighty Atom'] or Astro Boy, as it is known in the West, was aired on Japanese television,
the first 'anime' ever broadcast 19. Tetsuwan Atomu coded in terms of Japan's relationship with
science poses the dangers as well as the benefits of technology, a theme that Japan was
considering during the post-war period.

This series paved the way for subsequent television animated productions in Japan. Since
Tetsuwan Atomu was based on a printed publication character the trend was set and other
manga characters made the crossover, the series ran from 1963-1966. The next character to
have an anime serialized was Tetsujin Niju-hachigo or Gigantor which also serialized in 1963.
Thus robot/mecha genre was the initial form that televised anime took. The 1960's were a
turning point in the history of post-war Japan, the bullet trains began operating, Tokyo hosted
the 1964 Olympic games, (which increasing the number of households with television sets) it
was a phase of general economic growth for the country. The post-war baby-boomers were also
entering college and emphasis on education and study seemed to be a widely held value by
parents and children. The most accessible form of entertainment were television and manga
and the 1960's cultural environment was filled with cartoons and sequential narrative art
forms. In the late 1970's and early 1980's the mecha genre increased in popularity culminating
at the end of the 1980's in Japan's peak of international emergence.

" It is of interest that a wide variety of manga and anime seldom covers politics and social issues
as in the American animation The Simpsons, which seems to be a paragon of black humour
emerging from the relationships and behaviour of the family members. With the majority of
Japanese wishing to 'belong' to a group, the Japanese society is said to be built on homogeneity,
and its people may not have had enough training to express their opinions or be ready for
confrontation." 20. This serves as a possible reason as to why social commentary has not evolved
in the anime tradition.

19 PATTEN, F. (2007) Simba Versus Kimba: The Pride of Lions, In: CHOLODENKO, A. (eds) The Illusion of Life II: More
Essays on Animation.
20 ONO, (2007) Pg. 117

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Animated Sitcoms, The Simpsons 'Genre Mixing' and its Subsequent Effects on Social
Commentary

The Flintstones (1960-1966), created by William Hanna and Joseph Barbara, operates as an
animated sitcom, it is a representation of the ideal 1950's family. It was followed by The Jetsons
in 1962(-1963) also created by Hanna and Barbara, and mirrors the values displayed in The
Flintstones. These shows essentially set up the trajectory of animated sitcoms which would
ultimately become destabilized with the airing of The Simpsons (1989-) created by Matt
Groening. The animated sitcom up until that point illustrates the culture of self-representation
that was prevalent in earlier American sitcoms, which offer reflection on the national self in an
idealized form. The Simpsons entered as a parody of this genre, immersed in a 'cartoon-realism',
displaying self-reflexivity and self-awareness, The Simpsons provided relevant takes on modern
American society. Social commentary from a relatable point of view.

In the episode entitled '$pringfield (Or How I Learned to Stop Worrying and Love Legalized
Gambling)'21 in which a range of traditionally American social-references are made, the episode
opens up to an immediate parody of early newsreels shown before movies sometime between
the 1930's and 1950's. Abraham Simpson II, Homer's father, and his friend Jasper Beardly were
watching the footage. The two men exit the theatre, showing a vast difference in the perceived
reality and US ideology in a facetious manner. Moving on to a joke relating to the hypocrisy of
the capitalist citizen, as well as the elderly citizen in relation to state dependence. Due to recent
economic woes a town meeting is called, the proposition to legalize gambling in Springfield is
passed, allowing some funding to go to the public school system. Marge as the constant objector,
in fact supports the casino. Mr. Burns is an infinitely wealthy, white, capitalist figure, who enjoys
a cruel and strange existence. Lisa at the same time requires the assistance of her mother for an
upcoming geography pageant at school, (parodying the idea of socially constructed events in a
school setting as a ridiculous, yet oddly possible occurrence) an aspect of the cartoon realism
that Mittell refers to22. Bart starts his own casino. Marge enjoys gambling a little too much,
neglecting her motherly duties. Burns mental and physical state deteriorates as he is consumed
by watching the people moving through the casino. This episode also predicts the mauling of the
magicians Siegfried and Roy by their tiger, almost a decade before the attack left one of the
members paralyzed. Burns becomes some kind of omnipresent figure in the context of the
casino. There is a disintegration of the home around the Mother figure in the form of the
'bogeyman'. According to Jason Mittell "The Simpsons exemplify:1990's media, popular culture
sensation, marketing phenomenon, (alleged) embodiment of postmodernism and the

21 Season five Episode ten.

22 MITTEL, (2001)

9
representation of (post-Fordist network era), cultural hierarchies, assumptions about target
audiences, codes of realism and the implication of genre parody. 23" The Simpsons can be
considered an example "of postmodern media attention to its hyper-reflexivity and self-
awareness.

After the success of The Simpsons and its alteration of the perceived role of the cartoon on
television and generic conventions, other shows began to illustrates problems and effect of
American ideals further subverting television programming like Beavis and Butthead, (1993-
2011) created by Mike Judd. A highly problematic cartoon for the censorship board. The titular
characters explore popular culture, music and reckless 'teen' activities 24. The names of the
characters allude to sexual acts, indicating the duos immaturity and feelings sexual repression.
Beavis and Butthead in turn opened up the possibility for even 'edgier' shows, in particular
South Park.

South Park (1997-), created by Trey Parker and Matt Stone, is perhaps one of the most fast
paced social commentators, blending contemporary issues to the level of the absurd, to pose
questions about the way our society operates. Extremism, exaggeration of societal responses to
social events. The death of Clive's mother, in the first episode of season sixteen, after Clive
neglects to put the seat down after he urinates, resulting in his mother falling into the toilet
bowl and having her organs ripped out of her body due to the suction caused by the flush as she
fell in. This causes insane precautions to be taken to prevent further grotesque toilet deaths
from occurring. This is just one example of a direct social comment. The blurring of genre
conventions in this show relate directly back to The Simpsons however there is a lack of 'cartoon
realism' within the world, thus the extremity of the situations reaches levels of disgust and
immense discomfort. Having a series like South Park run for as long as it has attests to the
relevance of its content and power of its delivery.

The Boondocks, (2005-) created by Aaron McGruder. Family dysfunction, within a particular
socio-political climate. The younger brother in the series, Riley, is a stereotype of an American
youth, continuously participating in the consumer culture of the mainstream rap and hip-hop
scene, attempting to enact the behaviour mediated to him by phony, pretentious celebrities.
Huey the elder brother on the other hand seems more aware of the social and political factors at
play within their incredibly familiar society. He may even be suffering from a delusion brought
on by his own self righteous mentality. The Boondocks appears to highlight issues of race and
class, as well as the influence of external stimulus on the minds/lives of the youth. The main

23 MITTELL, (2001) Pg. 15

24 COHEN, (1997)

10
characters of the series are each references to historically significant African American figures
or models. Huey Freeman is based on Huey P. Newton a political and urban activist and was
cofounder of the Black Panther Party, Robert Freeman is based on a model of civil rights
movement participant, Tom Du Bois is based on William E. B. Du Bois an academic, civil rights
activist and Pan-Africanist, Uncle Ruckus is based on Uncle Remus or the Uncle Tom figure, the
House Negro, as addressed by Malcolm X 25. The use of these figures code the characters in a
specific way in addition to being a nod towards their legacy or serving as recognition of their
role in society. The Boondocks call upon these potential biographies to illustrate point around
social acceptance and convention in African American culture, in this sub-urban setting.
Episodes take influence from Japanese films and social productions, employing methods from
kung-fu and samurai anime in the fight sequences which the characters often engage in.

'Just for Kids!'

The Ren and Stimpy Show (1991-1996), created by John Kricfelusi (John K.). The aggressive
nature of Ren, opposed to ridiculously oblivious Stimpy. Ren and Stimpy are strong characters
much like most of the Looney Tunes this allows them the flexibility of being assigned any setting
and ultimately allowing their personalities to dictate how their interactions with the space will
resolve, they are in essence the inheritors of the Looney Tunes tradition. The stereotyping of
American ideologies with certain supporting character in addition to the mature, or rather,
explicit nature of the duos antic seeks to expose inconsistencies in ideological beliefs systems
pertaining to nature of the American dream 26 .John K. was directly influenced by the
productions of Tex Avery, Chuck Jones and Bob Clampet, drawing from the physical humour and
imposing various psychosis and instabilities within the characters caught in these slap stick,
often disturbing situations. John K. was removed from the show as Nickelodeon disagreed with
the direction he was taking, citing the episode "Man's Best Friend" as a turning point in creator-
corporation relationship. In this episode, which is a reference to Merrie Melodies: Elmer's Pet
Rabbit (1941) directed by Jones, the explicitly patriotic American; George Liquor, purchases Ren
and Stimpy and subjects them to a regimental series of disciplinary actions. The two are
terrified and confused throughout the training with Stimpy becoming a submissive, broken
animal companion and Ren eventually cracking and brutally beating George with a rowing oar.
The episode is layered with sexual innuendo and faecal references assuming to form of rewards,
while the former is noticeable in the training regiments. Near the end of the episode George
wears an immobilizing protective body suit in an attempt to attack train the pets to attack,
Stimpy is unable to attack but Ren takes full advantage. The scene is highly violent causing

25 X, (1963)
26 COHEN, (1997)

11
grotesque injuries to George. The master escapes from his protective suit and though
apparently in a blinding rage, exclaims Ren is a true champion, and the three indulge in "Lawn
Cigar: Doggie Treats" and dance in unison as the cartoon blacks out.

Cow and Chicken (1995-2004), created by David Fiess who had previously worked as an
animation director on The Ren and Stimpy Show. Often brought up issues surrounding gender
roles and sexuality. The parents of the titular characters are often referred to in an ambiguous
manner or conducted acts traditionally associated with the opposite gender. Homosexuality was
directly alluded to in the episode Buffalo Gals, in which a motorcycle gang randomly bursts into
people's homes to chew on their carpets, this episode was banned. The sentiments expressed in
this occasionally disturbing show are those of acceptance, difference and uniqueness. Comically
presented in a format that sees similar generic diversity displayed in Ren and Stimpy.

Science Fiction Altering/ Reinforcing Gender Perceptions

Experimental science fiction series Aeon Flux (1991-1996), created by Peter Chung, explores the
fetishized, eroticized, secret agent, femme fatale, playing semi-deadly games with her male
counterpart Trevor Goodchild. Before being picked up for a series the show existed as a silent
narrative sequence taking strange turns and employing surreal methods of characterization
which often ended up in the death of the main character, only to be rebooted at the start of the
next episode. The world these characters inhabit is corrupt and disturbed a dystopian future,
alternate reality or alien planet, the series itself deals with strange technologies and potential
path human evolution can take. Clearly inspired by certain Eastern symbols, explorative of a
cyber-punk future.

Adventure Time (2009-), created by Pendleton Ward. There is a consistency of the world that
has been build up from the first season. It's a land of almost infinite possibility yet it remains
rooted in a kind of logic and relatability that is unparalleled by any other ongoing cartoon series
27. The exact references or inspirations of this show spin off almost exponentially but there is an
obvious salute to anime in many forms. The show remains concise whilst fleshing out a vast
world and an array of characters in the same way that certain anime series are produced. The
direct approach to anime gives the progression momentum and purpose, adventure time does
this but with no real end in sight, arcs are followed through and completed, and never seem to
lose appeal or interest, even the 'filler' further fleshes out the world. More direct references to
the fantastic forms found in the films of studio Ghibli and ideas surrounding human/post-

27 NUSSBAUM, E. (2014) Castles in the Air: The gorgeous existential funk of “Adventure Time.”

12
human existence. Finn, is a complex psychoanalytic subject 28 and Jake to is a sci-fi hybrid of the
world which they inhabit, biologically and psychologically they offset tradition ideas of
masculinity by affirming and subverting traditional roles. Truly a expansive world with highly
intriguing, flawed characters, alluding to so much yet remaining elusive and non-didactic even
when major elements are revealed.

Steven Universe (2014-) created by Rebecca Sugar. A pre-pubescent male, among three strong
female characters, the premise of the show is based on the four alien guardians of earth, Steven
in fact being half human, known as the Crystal Gems. These three alien beings are recognisable
as earth female however they have the ability to change their physical form into anything.
Another ability they possess is that they are able to combine their forms into larger more
powerful beings, Gem Fusions as they are known. Steven, having not yet fully realised his
powers is unable to fuse with the other members of the team however, he will be able to do this
eventually. Thus the potential exists for the fusion of genders to occur, a blurring of
predetermined gender roles to be explored further. This element of the show is partly
influenced by the anime Dragon Ball Z (1996-2003) created by Akira Toriyama, in which the
powerful male figure in the series are able to perform rituals to fuse their physical forms for
greater power. Appropriating this idea in the context of Steven Universe expand on the
misogynistic overviews of the potential source material. The idea of a non-binary gender form
could be interesting to explore through the course of the show 29.

Supernatural and Technological Musings on the Ghost

Akira (1988), created and directed by Katsuhiro Otomo, deals heavily with metamorphosis and
the adolescent body as a site of grotesque transformations, it also deals with revenge of the
abjected, along with the despair and entrapment that is part of the adolescent experience. The
film touches on themes of dystopia and apocalypse. Marie Morimoto describes Testsuo's outcast
status as a less obvious side of Japanese identity, "Dominant themes in Japanese cultural self-
representation have long been those of uniqueness, isolation and victimization - hence a lone
nations struggle against the odds. 30" Tetsuo embodies this aspect in his solitary struggle raging
within his body and mind. Akira was released in 1988, when Japan had reached a peak in post-
WWII international influence and '(mis-)recognition', a time of uncertainty for other nations as
well as Japan's as it was emerging as a global superpower. Tetsuo's monstrousness can be coded
in ideological terms as a reflection of Japan's own ambivalence at that time, "partly glorying in

28 NUSSBAUM, (2014).
29 SAIKA, (2014).
30 NAPIER, S. J. (2000) Anime from Akira to Princess Mononoke: Experiencing Contemporary Japanese Animation Pg.40

13
its new identity but also fearing it.31". Akira appears in a space for the marginal, the different, in
search of a new identity, ultimately fulfilled by the films end. Napier suggests "The film can be
read in two ways; as a fresh expression of an alienated youths search for identity and as a
cyberpunk meditation on apocalypse.32" "Body horror, according to Kelly Hurley, is of a human
subject dismantled and demolished, a human body whose parameters are breached/violated, a
human identity whose boundaries have been compromised from all sides in being dismantled or
having the human identity demolished, a platform for the post-human subject to occur exists.
After experiencing 'body horror' and all its effects the being is then liberated from human form
into that of a post human, the new universe in the film, linking back to the theme of
metamorphosis and transcendence. The experience of body horror can be linked to the Atomic
bomb blasts, especially in the context of Akira.

"Tetsuo's story as a whole , which is an example of what Freud calls the omnipotence of
thought33. Ultimately , Tetsuo manages to revenge himself on the social order (and implicitly on
his parents who abandoned him to the orphanage), succeeding in virtually destroying it in the
violence and explosions that strew the second half of the film. Given the generally safe and
contained nature of Japanese society, this orgy of destruction is especially interesting." Tetsuo's
anger and vengefulness may have been a relatable aspect for the films viewers. "Even among
viewers who were no longer adolescent the image of a youth going up against the destructively
triumphing against a repressive society that in certain ways was a daring but not totally distant
de-familiarization of today's Japan, is likely to have had a cathartic effect"34. The films finale
suggest that there is no hope for change in actual society.

Ghost in the Shell [Kokaku Kidotai - "Mobile Armoured Riot Police"] (1995) directed Mamoru
Oshii, adapted from the manga of the same name by Masamune Shirow (1989-1997). The
manga and film both follow Public Security Section 9, a Japanese counter-cyber-terrorist agency
led by Major Matoko Kusanagi in the year 2029. The film focuses on their hunt for an enigmatic
cyber-brain hacker known as the Puppet Master, the film is can be seen as a twist on the mecha
genre altering the tropes of the cyborg and of high-tech urban living to underline the questions
of reality/perception, the individual self, the transcendence of identity, the idea of the ghost or
of the soul in an increasingly technologically advanced age, gender constructs in relation to the
body and emotional disconnection from the outside world. Technological relationships of the
mind, body and soul.

31 NAPIER (2000) Pg.40

32 NAPIER (2000) Pg. 43
33 NAPIER (2000) Pg. 46
34 NAPIER (2000) Pg.47-48

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"It is suggested that this representation of a supernaturally charged technological monstrosity
first emerges in Japan, a country that is at once technologically advanced and 'non-Western.'. . .
Japan as a mix of technological modernity and traditional (fetishistic) belief in ghosts spirits and
supernatural forces beyond human control. . . Intersection of modern and traditional beliefs
may account for not only the supernatural overtones attached to the notion of technological
mutation (in monster films) but also the most explicit connection between the technological and
the supernatural. "in Akira the force of life that results from technological mutation is very
explicitly super-natural, beyond human control. Indeed this mutant technological life, despite
its monstrous and destructive aspects, seems to carry an almost Messianic premise of rebirth
and redemption."35 It is beneficial to extend the abovementioned theories to the cyber-punk
sci-fi genres of anime, in the case of Ghost in the Shell, similar spiritual forces are present in
techno-organic fusions of the cyborgs. Thought not explicitly supernatural, the forces of life or
the ghost in the centre of the main philosophical questions asked are beyond that of human
understanding and control.

The Idea of the Post-Apocalyptic/Post-Human Entity in Science Fiction/Fantasy

The Land of Ooo in the cartoon Adventure Time is considered a post-apocalyptic version of some
incarnation of earth, the last known surviving human is Finn, the main protagonist of the series.
Finn shares similarities with Testsuo Shima from the film Akira. Tetsuo is a post-nuclear being
as well as a post-human being as he acquires the ability to physically alter reality and his own
human form36. The combination of his new power, an inferiority complex and a immature
handling of his abilities causes him to spiral in an violently abusive display and he ultimately
transmutes his physical form into purely psychic seemingly infinite entity37. In this way Finn
emulates aspects of Testuo's transformations and manifesting similar abilities yet retaining his
sanity to a degree, he too is a post-nuclear/post-human being38. The settings of Ooo and Neo-
Tokyo both experienced a massive annihilating force, illustrative of post-WWII anxiety and
speculative histories. Finns powerful psychic power was brought on by emotional trauma and
the loss of his arm, another similarity shared by the two post-nuclear beings, allows his powers
to become fully realised.

The interactions of theory and science fiction within culture have resulted in a techno-cultural
mutation an aspect that underlines postmodern theory. The representing figure of the human

35 RUTSKY, (1999) Pg. 138

36 BROPHY, P. (2007) Sonic-Atomic-Neumonic: Apocalyptic Echoes in Anime, In: CHOLODENKO, A. (eds) The Illusion
of Life II: More Essays on Animation.
37 Akira (1988), Scene: Effects of the drugs wear off and Testsuo's full power begin to be revealed at the Olympic

Stadium.
38 Adventure Time (2014), Episodes 1,2 & 4 of Season 6.

15
subject as immersed in a vast and inescapably complex technological space seen in Ghost in the
Shell and Akira. "Fredric Jameson's' theorizing of contemporary 'postmodern space' to the
depiction of near-future urban-sprawl, that has become so familiar in recent [Sci-Fi] literature
and cinema. Indeed the dense "tech-noir" pastiche that surrounds the viewers in films such as
Blade Runner (1982), Robocop (1987) and Akira (1988) . . .has much in common with Jameson's'
visions of 'bewildering immersion' invoked by 'Postmodern Hyperspace'. 39"

"What body horror offers in place of this is a human/not-human subject, a post human subject
speculates an alternate logic of identity that rupture and exceed the ones we know 40". As
Jacques Derrida writes of deconstruction in general, even those who want to look after "turn
their eyes away when faced by the as yet unimaginable which is proclaiming itself and which
can do so as is necessary whenever a birth is in the offering, only under the species of the non-
species, in the formless, mute, infant and terrifying form of monstrosity" if post-humanity is our
postmodern condition, we will find this, "as yet unnameable state bodied forth most fully in the
monster film"41

Conclusion

Generic conventions form around the events regarding the creation and viewing of the work,
they act as dynamic cultural categories, comprised of discursive practices of definitions and
interpretation, and evaluation and constituted through the interactions between texts,
industries, audiences, and contexts. The products are encoded in a certain way based on the
external factors that surround its creation. Processes of production, feedback and
contextualization are key in constituting a sense of identity when the material is of some kind of
relevance to the viewer. John Hartly argues that "genres are agents of ideological closure they
hit at the meaning potential of a given text,"42 this becomes problematized when the agents
encompass a broad range of possible inferences. However this complication could paradoxically
lend itself to inference of a more complex state in a more comprehensive manner than the
previously limiting agent of ideological closure.

Early cartoons expressed anxieties of modern living in strange manners producing comic effect
in the relatable situation the characters experienced. This is a key in early U.S Productions the
depiction of anxious behaviour in relation to the state of being, morphing into the illustrator of
proper value systems. The animated sitcom was derived to subvert the ideals or values of the
traditional live action situation comedy and pervious cartoons based on this model. Propaganda

39 RUTSKY, R.L. (1999) High Techne: Art and Technology from the Machine Aesthetic to the Posthuman. Pg. 14
40 ."- of Ripley, Ash (cyborg/android) and Kane (gave birth to the chest popper) in Ridley Scott's Alien (1979).
41 HALBERSTAM, J.M., LIVINGSTON, I. (1995) Post-Human Bodies, Pg. 221
42 MITTELL, (2001)

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films were produced because they were effective in instilling the intended patriotisms. The
characters were familiar and 'trust-worthy' in a sense. The notions of post-
apocalyptic/dystopian futures are a direct result of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Technologies place
in post-war Japan, mediated through animations allows the extent of its function within society
to be playfully assessed. Recent ventures into animation by the U.S. are unmistakably in
conversation with precursory of Japanese animation which was in turn in conversation with
other U.S. produced texts. This constant appropriation and renewal of ideas mutates the
animated mode and the generic association become further blurred, exemplifying an increasing
postmodern dissolution of boundaries. The formation of national identities are in constant
relation to each other, stuck in a feedback loop, telescoping in on itself.

17
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