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CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION

1.1 GENERAL BACKGROUND

Georeferencing means that the internal coordinate system of a map or aerial photo
image can be related to a ground system of geographic coordinates. The relevant coordinate
transforms are typically stored within the image file (GeoPDF and GeoTIFF are examples),
though there are many possible mechanisms for implementing georeferencing. The most
visible effect of georeferencing is that display software can show ground coordinates (such as
latitude/longitude or UTM coordinates) and also measure ground distances and areas. In other
words, Georeferencing means to associate something with locations in physical space. The
term is commonly used in the geographic information systems field to describe the process of
associating a physical map or raster image of a map with spatial locations. Georeferencing
may be applied to any kind of object or structure that can be related to a geographical
location, such as points of interest, roads, places, bridges, or buildings. Geographic locations
are most commonly represented using a coordinate reference system, which in turn can be
related to a geodetic reference system such as WGS-84.

Fig: 1.1 satellite image

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When co-ordinates of spatial dates are referenced to their corresponding positions on

the surface of earth then it is called Georeferencing of spatial data. Here data is registered
with a co-ordinate system that is related to the earth’s surface that means a relationship is
established between (x, y) co-ordinate on the map or on the computer screen and its
corresponding latitude, longitude co-ordinate on earth’s surface.

In order to achieve this, first datum is selected to model the surface of earth. Then the
latitude and longitude co-ordinates on the datum surface are projected on to a paper or on a
computer screen which is called map projection.After that spatial data of that area are
referenced to the map projection by co-ordinate transformation. Thus in Geo-referencing of
spatial data, it requires the knowledge of co-ordinate system including datum, map projection
and co-ordinate transformation

1.2 NEED AND SCOPE OF STUDY

The georeferencing technique of using control points within the topographic content
of maps is suitable where such points can be readily identified in the source. In tests on
medium and large scale maps, its success depends upon gaming a reasonable number of
points which correspond to those all and up to date maps. Regarding scale it is necessary to
use different types of point. For example symbol representing whole towns and villages on
medium scale maps, or the corners of important buildings on large scale maps or city plans.
However a regular pattern of control points, while ideal, is usually unattainable. Further more
area with totally characteristics are often encountered.

Those without any possible point versus those with plenty , but for a good result ,it is
essential to be as through and consistent as possible when choosing points across the map
surface .Up to date coordinates of a stated positional accuracy can be obtained using web map
server. Georeferencered early maps can be added to a map it is because of the the conditions
to it which occupy the three dimensional view can get from the map more comfortly server
or integrated within a GIS application. This make the early map accessible for comparison
with other map or against a current presentation and can be very useful for ecological , urban
, historical or purely cartographic studies. An early map data has been accurately
georeference can reveal dramatic changes in the countryside or in urban areas more easily.

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1.3 NEED

 Georeferencing is crucial to making aerial and satellite imagery, usually raster

images, useful for mapping as it explains how other data, such as the above GPS
points, relate to the imagery.
 Very essential information may be contained in data or images that were produced at
a different point of time. It may be desired either to combine or compare this data
with that currently available. The latter can be used to analyze the changes in the
features under study over a period of time.
 Different maps may use different projection systems. Georeferencing tools contain
methods to combine and overlay these maps with minimum distortion.
 Using georeferencing methods, data obtained from surveying tools like total stations
may be given a point of reference from topographic maps already available.

1.4 OBJECTIVE

The objective of georeferencing is to establish a relationship between image pixel

coordinates and a corresponding geographic coordinate system. In order to use an image in a
mapping system these arbitrary image coordinates must be transformed into a geographic
map coordinate system. Georeferencing is a necessary step prior to the processing of spatial
data; there are different methods used directly following the spatial data capture. A frequently
used method is based on the use of ground control points, i.e. points on the terrain with
known coordinates and which are recognisable in the photo. We can use the coordinates of
several control points to calculate coordinates of all other points in the photo.

Precise georeferencing is a complex task and depends on several factors, i.e. the quality
of devices used to capture images, shooting altitude, terrain type and incline, transformation
between coordinate systems, levelling methods etc. Contemporary aerial photography
systems achieve the georeferencing precision in terms of position and altitude of 1–2 pixels.
If, for example, GSD=5 cm, the anticipated georeferencing precision is 5–10 cm.

Georeferencing is the process of taking a digital image, it could be an airphoto, a scanned

geologic map, or a picture of a topographic map, and adding geographic information to the
image so that GIS or mapping software can 'place' the image in its appropriate real world
location. This process is completed by selecting pixels in the digital image and assigning
them geographic coordinates. In rare instances, one may already know the geographic

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coordinates of certain pixels in an image; more frequently, a non-georeferenced image is

georeferenced to an existing image that already has embedded geographic information, such
as a DRG, DLG, or DEM (see Data Resources).

Specialized software is generally necessary to complete the process of geocoding. ArcGIS

has functionality for this procedure, as do many remote sensing software packages, such as
ENVI. For the purposes of GeoPads, the most pressing need for georeferencingare the digital
images of geologic maps available from the National Geologic Map Database. The USGS
provides a comprehensive tutorial on georeferencing in ArcGIS. Other programs will follow
a similar procedure.

The geo referencing of spatial data can be done through two main methods. Firstly, you
can use 3D coordinates in which the center of earth serves as the point of origin of all 3 axes.
It is a popular method for scientific applications but it is not considered feasible for applying
to the points on earth’s surface. The second method is the projection of the points. In this
method, 3D coordinates are expressed as a plane with some height above them. This
technique helps in flattening the curved area of a small region into a flat surface for
referencing purposes. The plane coordinates point towards a particular point within the
projection. It is measured in terms of distances, north and east from the origin.

understood as the process of conveying real coordinates to the spatial data. It assigns
coordinates to the pixels of raster images. Common frames and coordinate systems are
developed to define the positions within the information. It helps in determining how the
areas in an image correspond to the surface. When you know about the coordinates of points
given in the images, you can match these points to those on the charts.

 Analysing the satelite data of wetlands at ponnani.

 For improving the wetland conditions to make it cultivable.
 As a part of Government’s project, collecting datas of wetland.
 Using ARCGIS , grouping wetlands and marking their geographic measurements.
 To establish a relationship between image pixel coordinates and a corresponding
geographic coordinate system.
 To learn the digitization process.
 To know the area of barren land

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CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 ARCGIS SERVER

ArcGIS Server becomes a complete, integrated GIS server that supports spatial data
management, mapping, and spatial analysis across distributed systems. ArcGIS Server is a
Web GIS which helps us to take geographic information and make it available to others.
ArcGIS Server allows you to share GIS resources across an enterprise and across the web.
This paper studies the key technology and the way to implement geospatial information
sharing platform based on ArcGIS Server which are necessary to develop it. GIS technology
has long been valued for enhancing communication and collaboration in decision making,
effectively managing resources and assets, enhancing the efficiency of workflows, improving
the accessibility of information, and generally offering tangible cost saving to organizations
both large and small.

The service-based GIS model is rapidly materializing, owing in part to advancements

in general Web service technologies, and in part to focused efforts by the Open GIS
Consortium (OGC) to sponsor consensus-based development of interoperable GIS Web
service interfaces. It is possible to dynamically assemble applications from multiple GIS Web
services for use in a variety of client applications.

2.2 SOFTWARE ARCGIS

Georeferencing involves image alignment in a coordinate system. Is the stage at

which the image becomes a form of spatial data, since they are characterized by reference to
a coordinate system defined by parameters such as projection and point of origin
(datum).pieces of information: a series of points easily identifiable on the map whose location
(latitude and longitude, rectangular coordinates) is precise (here the principle is: “the more,
the better”) and the projection system where the original map on paper was made. That
consisit of the well defined members

The georeferencing process of the topographical maps based on known coordinates

represents the most ordinary process of georeferencing a scanned map. This type of
georeferencing process is used when we can accurately find the positions of the points on the
surface of the map (usually a topographical map).

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2.3 GEOREFERENCING WORKS

A pilot web application for collaborative georeferencing of Slovenian works of

literature was developed. Problems in georeferencing in general and georeferencing works of
literature are discussed. The pilot system can be a model for establishing web sites for
georeferencing literature for different languages. The application is based on Google Maps
and implemented using PHP, JavaScript and MySQL.

Recently, we can witness a wealth of georeferenced information sources on the

Internet which are all the more valuable if they can be accessed on handheld devices such as
smartphones. Based on our location we can find restaurants, gas stations, bus stops, automatic
banking machines and other sites of interest displayed on a map centered around our position
or listed according to the proximity to our standpoint.

Georeferencing is in general a good way to make sense of the huge amount of

information available on the Internet. Traditionally, web resources were organized into
hierarchically organized pre-defined categories but many types of information that we seek
on the Internet are closely connected to a physical location in the world. Dedicated navigation
devices that can just display our position on a map and give directions to a point are being
supplanted by smart devices that can get from the Internet also a variety of other
georeferenced information.

2.4 SOIL EROSION MAPPING USING USLE AND GIS

Soil erosion assessment for watershed management is a world -wide concern for
ecologist and land users. In this study soil erosion was predicted using Universal Soil
Loss Equation (USLE) for Katteri watershed in Nilgiris, Tamilnadu.

The GIS technique was also utilized for the determination of those physical
parameters of individual cells are re-lated to soil erosion. Surface erosion was then
computed within the individual cells using the USLE for the Katteri watershed in
Nilgiri, Tamil Nadu.Rainfall characteristics, soil properties and ground surface
conditions are represented by empirical constants. This method is to take down in the
new directin of the surveying and mapping statics these are those to don’t have the
internal controlling two the nature of the each software to the basic consumption

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CHAPTER 3

METHODOLOGY

There is a great deal of geographic data available in formats that can be immediately
integrated with other GIS data. In order to use these types of data in GIS it is necessary to
align with the existing geographically referenced data, this process is called georeferencing
.georeferencing is also a necessary step in digitalizing process. Digitalizing in GIS is the
process of tracing informations from images/maps. The process of georeferencing relies on
the coordination of points on the scanned images with points on a geographically referenced
data. By linking points on the image with those same locations in the geographically
referenced data you will create a polynomial transformation that converts the location of
entire image to the correct geographic location. We can call the linked points on each layer
control points.

First of all we have to obtain the satellite data for georeferencing for this an area was
chosen. We have to analyses the properties of the land such as latitude, longitude, elevation
etc. For this we have to obtain the satellite images of this area of interest. Now using websites
like ‘USGS Earth explorer’ which is NASA’s satellite portal, ‘ESA’ which is European space
agency’s sentinel satellite data, ‘NOAA’ which gives data from us department of defense
(d0d) polar orbiting operational environmental satellite and NOAA’s geostationary
operational environmental satellite, ‘NASA Reverb’ , ‘NATIONAL INSTITUTE FOR
SPACE RESEARCH (INPI)’ which is a portal of china and brazil, ‘BHUVAN’ which is
ISRO’s geoportal, ‘JAXA GLOBAL ALOS’ which is a portal of japan eurospace exploration
agency, ‘VITO vision’, ‘GLOBAL LAND COVER FACILITY’ these are indian portals used
for study of vegetation and hydrology, ‘UNAVCO’, ‘GEO AIRBUS’ etc. we can obtain the
satellite data and required informations For the project we collected the satellite image from
‘BHUVAN’ which is ISRO’s satellite portal. The digital map must be built by using all the
resources available based on a rigorous analysis of their content and the costs involved,
having the purpose of reaching the necessary quality under conditions of maximum
efficiency. Each data source implies the existence of specialized software which will bring
that data in a digital map format, starting with insuring the necessary equipment, going
through the technological problems and data conversion and ending with the proper training
and preparation of the personal.

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Fig : 3.1 BHUVAN satellite portal interface

From this website by selecting the required area we can obtain the required satellite image in
raster form

Fig:3.2 raster image

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Raster data is commonly obtained by scanning maps or collecting aerial photographs

and satellite images. Scanned map datasets don't normally contain spatial reference
information (either embedded in the file or as a separate file), with aerial photography and
satellite imagery, sometimes the location information delivered with them is inadequate, and
the data does not align properly with other data you have. Thus to use some raster datasets in
conjunction with your other spatial data, you may need to align or georeference them to a
map coordinate system. A map coordinate system is defined using a map projection (a
method by which the curved surface of the earth is portrayed on a flat surface)

When you georeference your raster data, you define its location using map
coordinates and assign the coordinate system of the data frame. Georeferencing raster data
allows it to be viewed, queried, and analyzed with other geographic data. The Georeferencing
toolbar allows togeoreference raster datasets, raster layers (which may have raster functions),
image services and raster products.

Now this raster images are added in arc map and by using these a pyramid is created
in ARCMAP thus we get a panchromatic image. A panchromatic image consist of only one
band. It is usually displaced as grey scale image, ie the displayed brightness of a particular
pixel is proportional to the pixel digital number which is related to the intensityof solar
radiations reflected by the targets in the pixel and detected by the detector. Thus a
panchromatic image may be similarly interpreted as a black and white aerial photograph.

Fig:3.3 panchromatic image

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Now using arctools select data management tool and raster then select raster
processing and take composite bands. Add all the bands and produce a true color composite.

Fig:3.4 true color composite image

If a multi spectral image consists of the three visual primary colour bands (red, green,
blue), the three bands may be combined to produce a"true colour"image. For example, the
bands 3 (red band), 2 (green band) and 1 (blue band) of a Land sat image or multispectral
image can be assigned respectively to the R, G, and B colours for display. In this way, The
colours of the resulting colour composite image resemble closely what would be observed by
the human eye.

In addition to multispectral bands, panchromatic images are produced by satellites

such as Landsat, DigitalGlobe’s range of satellites and SPOT6/7. Such images have a single
band that “combines” the information from the visible bands of blue, green and red. In other
words, the band is formed by using the total light energy in the visible spectrum (instead of
partitioning it into different spectra). It renders a single intensity value per pixel that is
commonly visualized in a greyscale image. Information contained in each pixel of a
panchromatic image is, therefore, directly related to the total intensity of solar radiation that
is reflected by the objects in the pixel and is detected by the satellite sensor. Due to the higher
amount of solar radiation collected per pixel, panchromatic sensors/detectors are able to fix it

Now we have to convert this composite image to false composite for easy analysis.

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Fig:3.5 false color composite

The display color assignment for any band of a multispectral image can be done in an
entirely arbitrary manner. In this case, the colour of a target in the displayed image does not
have any resemblance to its actual colour. The resulting product is known as a false colour
composite image. There are many possible schemes of producing false colour composite
images However. Some scheme may be more suitable for detecting certain objects in the
image. Now we can analyse the given area and also we can obtain the geographic
charecteridtics like latitude longitude etc.

PPDAC develops evidence. Evidence, in the context of this discussion, refers to the
information that is gathered by exploratory analysis of spatial and temporal data. These
methods include remote sensing and GIS to develop intermediate products. "Exploratory data
analysis (EDA) is about detecting and describing patterns, trends, and relations in data,
motivated by certain purposes of investigation. As something relevant is detected in data,
new questions arise, causing specific parts to be viewed in more detail. So EDA has a
significant appeal: it involves hypothesis generation rather than mere hypothesis testing"
(Exploratory Analysis of Spatial and Temporal Data, Springer, 2006). Ultimately, what is
evidence is defined by the intelligence producer. Ideally, "evidence" in the context of the
framework of the problem should include: the context and the scientific and intuitive
evidence.

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CHAPTER 4

APPLICATIONS

Georeferencing is the method of assigning the real-world coordinates to each pixel of

the raster. Usually, these coordinates are obtained by doing proper field surveys and
collecting coordinates with a GPS device for few easily identifiable features in the image or
the map.

It is basically a means to associate something with locations in the physical space or the
process of associating a physical map or raster image of a map with spatial locations.

The importance of Georeferencing lies in its ability to turn non-spatial imagery into spatial
raster data for use in a variety of circumstances. Spatialized air photos can be used for GIS
land cover analysis.
The following are some of the uses of georeferencing
 It makes the different imagery required for mapping. It explains how other data, such
as the above GPS points, relate to the imagery.
 Necessary information may be contained in data or images produced at a different
point in time. It can be used to compare this data with that currently available.
 Different maps may use different projection systems. The tools of Georeferencing
contain methods to combine and overlay these maps with minimum distortion.
 Data obtained from surveying may be given a point of reference from topographic
maps by the application of Georeferencing.
 It may be required to establish the significant relationship between social survey
results which have been coded with postal codes or street addresses.
 To find the characteristics of the given area.
 To find out the rainfall characteristics of the area.
 To analyse the flood characteristics.
 Used for mapping
 Used for surveying
 Used to compare the changes of an area or point at different time

Also, for other geographic areas such as census zones or areas such as public administration
or service planning.

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CHAPTER 5
RESULT AND DISCUSSION
Using the most modern technology in surveying, geospatial analysis of a particular
area is done in terms of geographic coordinates as they are applied to geographic models.
Geographic information systems are used to predict, manage and learn about all kinds of
phenomena affecting the earth, its systems and inhabitants. Found the characterstics of the
land such as latitude , longitude and analysed the characterstics of the area given.

Fig:5.1 False Color Composite

This is an approach to apply statistical analysis and other analytic techniques to data
which has a geographical or spatial aspect. Such analysis would typically employ software
capable of rendering maps processing spatial data, and applying analytical methods to
terrestrial or geographic datasets, including the use of geographic information system and
geomatics .To georeference an image, one first needs to establish control points, input the
known geographic coordinates of these control points, choose the coordinate system and

Residuals are the difference between the actual coordinates of the control points and
the coordinates predicted by the geographic model created using the control points. They
provide a method of determining the level of accuracy of the georeferencing
process.Georeferencing is a necessary step prior to the processing of spatial data; there are
different methods used directly following the spatial data capture. A frequently used method
is based on the use of ground control points, i.e. points on the terrain with known coordinates
and which are recognizable. Once we know the coordinates of points on the image, we can
place the image precisely over the chart so that the points on the image match those on the
chart. The data obtained by remote sensing can thus be compared, analysed and integrated
with other spatial data sources

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CHAPTER 6
CONCLUSION
Studied georeferncing which is the gathering, display in terms of geographic
coordinates in terms as they are applied to geographic models. It is the process of assigning
real-world coordinates to each pixel of the raster. Many times these coordinates are obtained
by doing field surveys - collecting coordinates with a GPS device for few easily identifiable
features in the image or map. Studied digitalization process which is the process of
converting information into a digital format, in which the information is organized into bits.

Learned about the natural color composite, true color composite, false color
composite. An image is called a true-color image when it offers a natural color rendition, or
when it comes close to it. This means that the colors of an object in an image appear to a
human observer the same way as if this observer was to directly view the object: A green
tree appears green in the image, a red apple red, a blue sky blue, and so on. When applied to
black-and-white images, true-color means that the perceived lightness of a subject is
preserved in its depiction. In contrast to a true-color image, a false-color image sacrifices
natural color rendition in order to ease the detection of features that are not readily
discernible otherwise – for example the use of near infrared for the detection of vegetation in
satellite images.

Learned about panchromatic image. A panchromatic image consists of only one band.
It is usually displayed as a grey scale image, i.e. the displayed brightness of a particular pixel
is proportional to the pixel digital number which is related to the intensity of solar radiation
reflected by the targets in the pixel and detected by the detector. Thus, a panchromatic image
may be similarly interpreted as a black-and-white aerial photograph of the area. The
Radiometric Information is the main information type utilized in the interpretation.

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REFERENCES

 Pinto, J.K. and H.J. Onsrud, 1995. Sharing Geographic Information Across
Organizational Boundaries: A Research Framework. In Onsrud, H.J. and G. Rushton
(Eds.), Sharing Geographic Information, ( New Brunswick, NJ: Center for Urban
Policy Research, Rutgers).

 Shengru, T., M. Abdelguerfi, 2006. Web Services for Geographic Information

Systems. Internet Computing, IEEE 10(5): 13-15.

 D. Booth et al., eds., 2004. Web Services Architecture, W3C Working Group note.
www.w3.org/TR/ws-arch (access 1 Apr.2008).

 OGC Web Map Service, 2004. Open Geospatial Consortium.

http://portal.opengis.org/files/?artifact_id=5316 (access 1 Apr. 2008).

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APPENDICES 1
1.1 ArcGis
ArcGIS is a geographic information system (GIS) for working with maps and
geographic information. It is used for creating and using maps, compiling geographic data,
analyzing mapped information, sharing and discovering geographic information, using maps
and geographic information in a range of applications, and managing geographic information
in a database.

The system provides an infrastructure for making maps and geographic information
available throughout an organization, across a community, and openly on the Web.

ArcGIS includes the following Windows desktop software:

 ArcReader, which allows one to view and query maps created with the other ArcGIS
products;
 ArcGIS for Desktop, which is licensed under three functionality levels:[4]
 ArcGIS for Desktop Basic (formerly known as ArcView), which allows one to view
spatial data, create layered maps, and perform basic spatial analysis;
 ArcGIS for Desktop Standard (formerly known as ArcEditor), which in addition to
the functionality of ArcView, includes more advanced tools for manipulation
of shapefiles and geodatabases;
 ArcGIS for Desktop Advanced (formerly known as ArcInfo), which includes
capabilities for data manipulation, editing, and analysis.

There are also server-based ArcGIS products, as well as ArcGIS products for PDAs.
Extensions can be purchased separately to increase the functionality of ArcGIS

1.2 COLOUR COMPOSITE IMAGE

In displaying a colour composite image, three primary colours (red, green and blue)
are used. When these three colours are combined in various proportions, they produce
different colours in the visible spectrum. Associating each spectral band (not necessarily a
visible band) to a separate primary colour results in a colour composite image. That they can
be either in the band of the same or the controlling to get the nature color to th raster image
and thus it concludes with it

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Many colours can be formed by

combining the three primary colours
(Red, Green, Blue) in various
proportions.

1.2.1 True Colour Composite

If a multispectral image consists of the three visual primary colour bands (red, green, blue),
the three bands may be combined to produce a "true colour" image. For example, the bands 3
(red band), 2 (green band) and 1 (blue band) of a landsat tm image or
an IKONOS multispectral image can be assigned respectively to the R, G, and B colours for
display. In this way, the colours of the resulting colour composite image resemble closelwhat
would be observed by the human eyes.

In contrast to a true-color image, a false-color image sacrifices natural color rendition

in order to ease the detection of features that are not readily discernible otherwise – for
example the use of near infrared for data used is from electromagnetic radiation (EM)
outside the visual spectrum (e.g. infrared, ultraviolet or X-ray). The choice of spectral bands
is governed by th physical properties of the object under investigation.

fig : 1.2.1 a 1-m resolution true-colour ikonos image.

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1.2.2 False Colour Composite

The display colour assignment for any band of a multispectral image can be done in an
entirely arbitrary manner. In this case, the colour of a target in the displayed image does not
have any resemblance to its actual colour. The resulting product is known as a false colour
compositeimage. There are many possible schemes of producing false colour composite
images. However, some scheme may be more suitable for detecting certain objects in the
image.

A very common false colour composite scheme for displaying a SPOT multispectral image is
shown below

R = XS3 (NIR band)

G = XS2 (red band)
B = XS1 (green band)

This false colour composite scheme allows vegetation to be detected readily in the image. In
this type of false colour composite images, vegetation appears in different shades of red
depending on the types and conditions of the vegetation, since it has a high reflectance in the
NIR band (as shown in the graph of spectral reflectance signature).

In contrast to a true-color image, a false-color image sacrifices natural color rendition

in order to ease the detection of features that are not readily discernible otherwise – for
example the use of near infrared for the detection of vegetation in satellite images.[1] While a
false-color image can be created using solely the visual spectrum (e.g. to accentuate color
differences), typically some or all data used is from electromagnetic radiation (EM) outside

fig:1.2.2 false colour composite multispectral spot image:Red: XS3; Green: XS2; Blue: XS

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Another common false colour composite scheme for displaying an optical image with a short-
wave infrared (SWIR) band is shown below:

R = SWIR band (SPOT4 band 4, Landsat TM band 5)

G = NIR band (SPOT4 band 3, Landsat TM band 4)
B = Red band (SPOT4 band 2, Landsat TM band 3)

An example of this false colour composite display is shown below for a SPOT 4 image.

fig :1.2.3 false colour composite of a spot 4 multispectral image including the swir band

simplest false-color encoding is to take an RGB image in the visible spectrum, but map it
differently, e.g. "GBR→RGB". For traditional false-color satellite images of Earth

False color is used (among others) for satellite and space images: Examples are
remote sensing satellites (e.g. Landsat, see example above), space telescopes (e.g. the Hubble
Space Telescope) or space probes (e.g. Cassini-Huygens). Some spacecraft, with rovers (e.g.
the Mars Science Laboratory Curiosity) being the most prominent examples, have the ability
to capture approximate true-color images as well Weather satellites produce, the controlling
through the incomplete stratum to the endeveloped nature of the connection nad it could be
done with the nature resource

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fig :1.2.4 False colour composite of a SPOT 4 multispectral image

Red: NIR band; Green: Red band; Blue: Green band. Vegetation appears in shades of red.
The smoke plume appears bright bluish white.

1.2.3 Natural Color Composite

For optical images lacking one or more of the three visual primary colour bands (i.e.
red, green and blue), the spectral bands (some of which may not be in the visible region) may
be combined in such a way that the appearance of the displayed image resembles a visible
colour photograph, i.e. vegetation in green, water in blue, soil in brown or grey, etc. Many

The SPOT HRV multispectral sensor does not have a blue band. The three bands,
XS1, XS2 and XS3 correspond to the green, red, and NIR bands respectively. But a
reasonably good natural colour composite can be produced by the following combination of
the spectral bands

R = XS2
G = (3 XS1 + XS3)/4
B = (3 XS1 - XS3)/4

where R, G and B are the display colour channels.

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The main part of the rastering process will e done by the an interval of the concluding to the
through of the nature and that it may be to the avoid and controlling and it can be the manage
of the controlling and analyzing process will be taken in the order of the nature and climate

fig 1.2.5 natural colour composite multispectral spot image:

RED: XS2; GREEN: 0.75 XS2 + 0.25 XS3; BLUE: 0.75 XS2 - 0.25 XS3

1.3 Vegetation Indices

Different bands of a multispectral image may be combined to accentuate the vegetated
areas. One such combination is the ratio of the near-infrared band to the red band. This ratio
is known as the Ratio Vegetation Index (RVI)
RVI = NIR/Red

Since vegetation has high NIR reflectance but low red reflectance, vegetated areas
will have higher RVI values compared to non-vegetated aeras. Another commonly used
vegetation index is the Normalised Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) computed by

NDVI = (NIR - Red)/(NIR + Red)

In contrast to a true-color image, a false-color image sacrifices natural color rendition in

order to ease the detection of features that are not readily discernible otherwise – for example
the use of near infrared for the detection of vegetation in satellite images.[1] While a false-
color image can be created using solely the visual spectrum (e.g. to accentuate color
differences), typically some or all data used is from electromagnetic radiation

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fig :1.2.6 normalised difference vegetation index (ndvi) derived from the above spot image

The NDVI map shown above, the bright areas are vegetated while the nonvegetated
areas (buildings, clearings, river, sea) are generally dark. Note that the trees lining the roads
are clearly visible as grey linear features against the dark background.

R = XS3 (Near IR band)

G = (XS3 - XS2)/(XS3 + XS2) (NDVI band)
B = XS1 (green band)

Fig : 1.2.7 ndvi colour composite of the spot image:red: xs3; green: ndvi; blue: xs1.
At least three types of vegetation can be discriminated in this colour composite image: green,
bright yellow and golden yellow areas. The bright yellow areas are covered with shrubs or
less dense trees. The golden yellow areas are covered with grass,The non vegetated areas

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