Methods/Approaches

of Teaching ESOL:
chapter
13
A Historical Overview
Key Issues ❖ Historical overview of methods and approaches to teaching
English as a foreign/second language
❖ The Grammar-Translation Method
❖ The Direct Method
❖ The Audio-Lingual Method
❖ Suggestopedia
❖ The Silent Way
❖ Total Physical Response
❖ The Natural Approach
❖ The Communicative Approach

For centuries, people have used formal education as a way to learn new languages. Over time, the methods and
approaches have evolved to theories of language acquisition and educational theory. In addition to adjustments to
the theories, changes to the populations of students and their objectives for learning new languages have also
changed. More and more the students in mainstream classes are speakers of other languages. Language acquisi-
tion methods and strategies are no longer limited to the language-learning classroom. These techniques can be
used in a variety of settings depending on the needs of the students.

91
The Grammar-Translation Method of studying, the students were unable to speak the
language. It became clear that using the grammar-
The grammar-translation method (also known as the translation method by itself is ineffective. The stu-
classical method) is a method of language teaching dents needed to play a more active role in their lan-
that emphasizes grammar rules and one-to-one vo- guage acquisition in order to actually use the
cabulary translation. Grammar rules are taught language for communication purposes.
through presentation and explicit instruction. In- Although this method is unsuccessful when used
struction in this style of language teaching is in the in isolation, there are some opportunities to use
students’ native language. Student practice the gram- pieces of the grammar-translation method with lan-
matical rules through translation exercises between guage learners in the mainstream classroom today.
the native and target language. Vocabulary lists, Often language learners develop a fossilization of
dictionary definitions, and memorization strate- errors when learning in an immersion setting. When
gies—which are frowned upon in other language chatting with their peers, students’ errors often go
teaching methods—are the main focus of this style uncorrected. Using the grammar-translation method,
of language teaching. teachers can encourage the students to practice spe-
Grammar-translation first began based on a be- cific grammatical points that they have trouble with.
lief that different kinds of knowledge were stored in
separate sections of the brain. Mathematic knowl-
edge, for example, was thought to be located in one Mainstream Classroom Use
area, art in another, language in another, and so on. Emilio is having trouble understanding present
It was believed that studying different subjects was participle verbs. He confuses his tenses, misuses
a good way of exercising the brain. Thus, learning the participles, and has trouble understanding this
another language provided the necessary mental grammatical concept when he hears it or reads it.
exercise to develop the part of the brain believed to Since Emilio’s teacher has some knowledge of his
be reserved for languages. home language, Spanish, she is able to share com-
At this time, the main goal for learning a lan- parisons between the two languages to help him to
guage was not for speaking and/or communication. positively transfer this prior knowledge to his work
The driving force was to exercise the mind and at in English.
the same time to be able to read in that language. Exercise: Translate the following sentences
The languages taught in those early days were Latin from Spanish to English.
and Greek, so another reason for studying foreign
languages was to appreciate the classics in their ❖ Mi abuela ha corrido tres maratones.—
original language. Translation: My grandmother has run three
When educators first started using this method, marathons.
communicating in the language was not a goal. ❖ Pedro ha comido cinco rebanadas de pizza.—
Therefore, classes were taught primarily in the stu- Translation: Pedro has eaten five slices of
dents’ native language and the teacher made no ef- pizza.
fort to emphasize correct pronunciation of the lan- ❖ Ruth ha vivido en México seis años.—
guage. Grammar study was the focus of the lessons, Translation: Ruth has lived in Mexico for six
with much rote memorization of grammatical as- years.
pects such as verb conjugations and recitation of
rules that described language functions. Educators This adaptation of the grammar-translation
soon began to notice that because the primary em- method can help to distinguish what elements posi-
phasis was on reading and translating passages, the tively or negatively transfer between Emilio’s lan-
conjugation of verbs, and explanation and memori- guages. While this method is not recommended as
zation of grammatical rules their students were not the sole approach for a language teacher, it is possi-
learning to use the language. Even after many years ble to use adapted versions of the grammar-transla-

92    Part Two: Principles and Practices in Language Teaching

tion method as a supplement for specific skills that In addition, cultural aspects of the countries
need further practice. where the target language is spoken are also in-
cluded in the lessons. For example, when studying
Spanish, students would discuss the sports that are
The Direct Method widely practiced in Spain or Latin America. This
The direct method began as a complete departure also allows for discussions regarding geography,
from the grammar-translation method. Instead of climate, cultural traditions, and other elements that
focusing on reading and writing, this method fo- foster a richer conversation in the target language.
cused on speaking and listening. Students recognize their new language as a tool with
The emphasis is on the direct associations the which they can communicate. Reading and writing
student makes between objects and concepts and the are also taught from the beginning.
corresponding words in the target language. The use The most widely known application of the direct
of the native language is avoided; the use of the tar- method is practiced at the Berlitz language schools
get language is emphasized at all times. In this located throughout the world. Berlitz classes are
method, the primary goals are for students to think generally for highly motivated adults who need to
and speak the language; thus, no use of the native speak a foreign language for business purposes. Al-
language is allowed. Teachers use objects, visuals, though many of the techniques developed for the
and realia to provide the comprehensible input. In- direct method have also been used in other methods,
struction revolves around specific topics. Aspects of applying the direct method in noncommercial
grammar are taught inductively through the handling schools fell out of favor as early as 1920 (Richards
of the topic. The basic focus of this method of lan- & Rodgers, 1986). The grammar-translation method
guage instruction is that students learn their second dominated public school and university language
language in a similar way to their first language. teaching in the United States until World War II.
This method aims to prove that there is no need for
a deep analysis of grammatical rules or spelling pat-
terns. Instead, the students are taught that the sole
Audio-Lingual Method
purpose of language is communication. The United States involvement in World War II
The direct method uses a lot of repetition to en- brought a significant change in the teaching of lan-
courage students to learn new vocabulary and lan- guages in U.S. schools. It quickly became apparent
guage patterns. It follows a five-step process: Show, that the grammar-translation method had not pro-
Say, Try, Mold, Repeat. Using real life objects, pic- duced people who were able to speak the foreign
tures, or flash cards, the teacher will present a vo- languages they had studied. The U.S. government
cabulary word or grammatical structure. For exam- asked the universities to develop foreign language
ple, using pictures of a child doing different actions programs that produced students who could com-
the teacher can present the present progressive struc- municate effectively in those languages.
ture. This use of cards can be modified for different Changes in the beliefs about how people learn
verb tenses and different pronouns that will encour- impacted the teaching methodologies being devel-
age the same vocabulary while slowly introducing oped. Based on theories of behaviorist psychology
more grammatical structures. The practiced structure (refer to Chapter 1), the audio-lingual method
could be “The boy is running.” By switching the (ALM) was developed.
flash cards, the students can practice “The boy is In ALM, the emphasis was on the memorization
sleeping,” “The boy is eating,” “The boy is danc- of a series of dialogues and the rote practice of lan-
ing,” “The boy is smiling.” This can be practiced in guage structures. This method was based on the idea
a question/answer structure by demonstrating and that language is speech, not writing, and language is
asking: “The boy is sleeping. What are you doing?”, a set of habits. It was believed that extended practice
“The boy is eating. What is Brooke doing?” of the dialogues would develop oral language profi-
ciency. The use of the native language was avoided.

Chapter 13: Methods/Approaches of Teaching ESOL: A Historical Overview    93

 The method became very popular in the 1960s. speaker of another language, seeing the instructions
Language laboratories began to surge, and students while hearing the instructions will help to emphasize
were required to listen to audiotapes and repeat dia- the language being used. One way to help students
logues that captured aspects of daily living. In addi- to learn commands and steps in routines is to pro-
tion, specific structural patterns of the language vide a smaller version of the same instructions that
studied were embedded in those dialogues. Students they can use to follow along and to review during
were required to participate in a number of practice their own time. The common phrases used in the
drills designed to help them memorize the structures classroom will vary between different grade levels,
and be able to plug other words into the structure. but some of these may include:
For example, in a substitution drill, the structure
May I go to the restroom?
might have been:
May I go to the nurse?
I am going to the post office. Could you repeat the instructions?
Please take out your notebooks.
Students were then required to substitute the
Turn and talk to your partner about . . .
word post office for other words, such as supermar-
Raise your hand when you are ready.
ket, park, beach, or drugstore.
The belief was that students, through much This type of exercise does not require extensive
practice, would form a “habit” and be able to speak planning or preparation by the classroom teacher.
the language when needed. Although the intent was Instead, this exercise can be written quickly onto an
to develop fluent and proficient speakers by provid- index card that the student can keep on or in their
ing much oral practice of the dialogues and the use desk. This type of exercise not only will be helpful
of numerous drills to help in this endeavor, the real- for the student, but will also serve as a reminder to
ity was that language proficiency was not the out- teachers to be mindful of our language when provid-
come. Years later, students who studied with the ing instructions to speakers of other languages.
audiolingual method still remembered the dialogues
but could not spontaneously speak the foreign lan-
guage they had studied. Thus, the method was not Suggestopedia
successful at accomplishing the main goal. It was Suggestopedia was developed by Bulgarian psychia-
too prescriptive; there was no opportunity provided trist–educator Georgi Lozanov (1982), who wanted
for true communication to take place in the ALM to eliminate the psychological barriers that people
classroom. Students had been taught a script which have to learning. This method uses drama, art, phys-
is not the manner in which natural speech is ical exercise, and desuggestive–suggestive commu-
produced. nicative psychotherapy as well as the traditional
modes of listening, speaking, reading, and writing to
Mainstream Classroom Use teach a second language. The influence of the sci-
ence of suggestology is clear in this method that
Using scripts as the sole language exposure is not
calls class meetings “sessions” (Freeman & Free-
recommended, as described above, but there are op-
man, 1998).
portunities to use this style of language instruction
In suggestopedia, the classroom atmosphere is
in the mainstream classroom with newcomers.
crucial. Creating a relaxed, nonthreatening learning
A daily routine in a classroom often has com-
environment is essential for its success. The goal is
mon instructions that are repeated frequently. In-
that students will assimilate the content of the les-
structions in a typical classroom are given orally. In
sons without feeling any type of stress or fatigue.
addition to verbally giving instructions, teachers
Classrooms are equipped with comfortable seat-
with newcomers may choose to also write the in-
ing arrangements and dim lighting in an effort to
structions on the board and point to each step in the
provide an inviting and appealing environment.
process while describing it. For a student who is a
Soothing music is employed to invite relaxation and

94    Part Two: Principles and Practices in Language Teaching

allow students to feel comfortable in the language hearing classmates using the target language, stu-
classroom. The use of the native language is also al- dents are exposed to age-appropriate language and
lowed, especially to give directions and to create fluency that helps them to relate and join their peer
that welcoming atmosphere. Based on the belief that groups more successfully.
how students feel about learning will make a differ-
ence in the learning process, suggestopedia takes
into consideration the affective domain. It could be The Silent Way
said that the philosophy of the little engine that Developed by Caleb Gattegno, the silent way re-
could—“I think I can, I think I can, I know I can” quires that the teachers remain silent much of the
(Piper, 1976)—is one of the basic underlying prin- time, thus its name. In this method, students are re-
ciples of suggestopedia. If the students feel they can sponsible for their own learning. Based on the belief
learn, they will. that students are initiators of learning and capable of
The use of drama, songs, and games provides independently acquiring language, the silent way
for much practice, yet in a less threatening and more provides a classroom environment in which this can
enjoyable fashion. As in the ALM, dialogues are take place. The teacher models once, and the stu-
employed, but they are presented in an enhanced dents are then given the opportunity to work to-
fashion through creative dramatics. The rehearsing gether to try to reproduce what has been modeled.
of roles provides the necessary practice, yet there is Beginners are initially taught the sounds of the
a purpose for practicing. When people are preparing new language from color-coded sound charts. Next,
for dramatic roles, they most likely spend much time teachers focus on language structures, sometimes
rehearsing. using colored, plastic rods to visually represent parts
Despite the advancements over the audio-lin- of words or sentences. As students begin to under-
gual method, suggestopedia has not been widely stand more of the language, they are taught stories
adopted in the United States. It is impractical for using the rods as props. At all stages of the method,
large classes. In addition, current textbooks do not the teacher models as little as possible, and students
embrace this methodology, thus making it difficult try to repeat after careful listening with help from
for teachers to apply the principles in regular class- each other. The teacher leads them toward correct
rooms. However, there are some basic principles of responses by nods or negative head shakes (Ibid).
this method that can be adapted for mainstream The silent way is a fairly complex method that
classrooms. requires the teacher to receive extensive training in
the use of the methodology. Students also need to be
Mainstream Classroom Use well versed in the use of the charts and the rods to
participate effectively in the lessons. Because, ac-
A classroom teacher may be able to provide speak-
cording to research, teachers speak from sixty-five
ers of other languages with a comfortable space dur-
percent to ninety-five percent of the time in tradi-
ing the day. Lowering the sense of stress in the
tional classrooms, it is difficult to find teachers who
classroom by providing a less threatening environ-
are comfortable with the required “silence” of the
ment will be helpful to developing a sense of confi-
silent way, thus limiting the number of teachers
dence for the speakers of other languages. Calm,
available to teach employing this method.
soothing music may be played during language arts
lessons where the students are strictly focusing on
language use. Also, using songs and role playing Mainstream Classroom Use
activities with not only encourage the use of the tar- The silent way is a difficult method to use in a main-
get language for the speakers of other languages, but stream classroom. But, one element that teachers
also these activities encourage all speakers of Eng- can adapt for the language learners is to encourage
lish to be language models. In some classrooms the them to trust themselves and their classmates in de-
teachers is seen as the only language model. By veloping language skills. One policy often employed

Chapter 13: Methods/Approaches of Teaching ESOL: A Historical Overview    95

in mainstream classrooms with language learners is Student: Raises picture of sad girl.
the “three then me” policy. The idea behind this Teacher: Stand up if you have a picture of
strategy is that the student must ask three classmates two boys who seem happy.
before asking for help from the teacher. This type of Student with the
policy helps to remove the stereotype that the correct picture: Stands up.
“teacher has all the answers.” Instead, students are Teacher: Place on the board the picture that
encouraged to use the language together in order to shows a woman who seems
find the answer they were seeking. surprised.
Student with Walks up to the board and places
the correct the picture on the magnetic board.
Total Physical Response picture:
The total physical response (TPR) method was de- Commands become more complex as the stu-
veloped by psychologist James Asher (1977). This dents continue to develop listening comprehension
method is based on the principle that people learn and knowledge of subject matter. For example, with
better when they are involved physically as well as the assistance of pictures, students can be asked to
mentally. In TPR, students are required to respond categorize modes of transportation by land, water, or
nonverbally (physically) to a series of commands. air, or they could be asked to rearrange pictures to
As the teacher gives a command and the students show the life cycle of a butterfly.
respond physically, the teacher ascertains students’ Once students are able to respond to a series of
comprehension of the command. Initially, the commands and can give the commands themselves,
teacher begins with simple commands such as: the teacher can introduce the reading and the writing
Teacher: Stand up! (teacher models) aspects of language. However, the emphasis in TPR
Students: Respond by standing up. (physical is on listening comprehension until oral proficiency
response, not verbal) is developed.
Teacher: Walk to the front of the room. TPR is an appropriate method to use with stu-
Students: Respond by walking to the front of the dents who are in the preproduction/silent stage of
room. language development. Students who are not yet
Teacher: Turn around and walk back to your speaking are able to be involved in lessons and re-
seats. spond nonverbally. Thus, these students begin to feel
Students: Respond by turning around and walking a sense of belonging and success as they participate
to their seats. in the lessons. Students benefit from the involve-
Teacher: Sit down. ment in the lessons, and the teachers are able to de-
Students: Respond by sitting down. termine whether or not the students are developing
listening comprehension.
Once the students have practiced a number of TPR is somewhat limited within the confines of
times, the teacher simply gives the command and the a classroom; however, with the use of pictures, and
students respond. Eventually the students will give other types of manipulatives, a resourceful teacher
the commands, thus developing oral proficiency. can bring the outside world into the classroom. For
In TPR, teachers can use pictures, objects, and example, a teacher may prepare a transparency of a
realia for students to manipulate as they respond picture that shows many actions. Each student gets a
nonverbally. For example, the students are studying copy of the picture (black and white is acceptable
a unit on “emotions.” The teacher can pass out pic- for this type of activity). The teacher uses the trans-
tures of people displaying different emotions. Then, parency to demonstrate the actions following the
the teacher can give the following commands: commands given. Students imitate and follow along.
Teacher: Raise the picture of the girl who This is an excellent way to introduce verbs and new
seems sad. vocabulary using TPR.

96    Part Two: Principles and Practices in Language Teaching

Mainstream Classroom Use Teacher: 
Good, you’re correct. Today we are going
Mainstream classroom teachers can demonstrate to discuss (point to mouth) three large
new words to language learners using the TPR waterfalls (place image on the board)
method without much extensive planning. here in our community (demonstrate
community).
Teacher: Class, for this activity we need to take out
our science books. Please (demonstrat- The lesson that this teacher is using is not a lan-
ing) take out your science books. guage lesson necessarily. However, the teacher is
Students: Take out science books. aware that this language may be difficult for a
Teacher: Next, please open (demonstrating) to speaker of another language. She does not have to
page 68 (write 68 on board). slow down or provide follow-up exercises for the
Students: Open textbook to page 68. student, but it is important that she is aware of her
Teacher: Who would like to raise their hand (dem- word choices and movements to help demonstrate
onstrating) to share (point to mouth) what new words for the newcomer.
the notice (point to eyes) on page 68. TPR lessons are also fun and exciting for speak-
Teacher:  Thank you, Jimmy, for raising your hand ers of English. Many students will welcome the use
(demonstrating). What did you notice of movement into their typical classroom activities.
(point to eyes)? This type of lesson can easily be integrated into a
Jimmy:  I see a big waterfall with trees all around mainstream classroom without pointing out that this
it. activity is designed to support language learners.

Chapter 13: Methods/Approaches of Teaching ESOL: A Historical Overview    97

Sample 1: Florida Waterbirds

List of Commands:
  1. Look up at the clouds.   8. Wave to the pelican.
  2. Show me the clouds.   9. Squawk like a laughing gull.
  3. Jump in the water. 10. Pet the flamingo.
  4. Swim over to the blue heron. 11. Get out of the water.
  5. Stand like the blue heron. 12. Shake yourself off.
  6. Flap your wings like a bird. 13. Wave “good-bye” to the birds.
  7. Let’s count the birds in the picture

98    Part Two: Principles and Practices in Language Teaching

Sample 2: In the Field

List of Commands:
  1. Walk up to the scarecrow. 12. Pick up one more pear.
  2. Walk around the scarecrow. 13. Bite off a piece from the pear.
  3. Wave “hello” to the scarecrow. 14. Chew the piece of pear.
  4. Touch the scarecrow’s hat. 15. Skip over to the other tree.
  5. Wave “good-bye” to the scarecrow. 16. Get close to the trunk.
  6. Walk up to the ball. 17. Step on and crush the leaves.
  7. Pick up the ball. 18. Look up!
  8. Put down the ball. 19. Wave to the squirrel.
  9. Walk up to the pear tree. 20. Peek in the hole in the trunk.
10. Pick up two pears from the ground. 21. Walk past the scarecrow.
11. Place the pears in the basket. 22. Wave “good-bye” as you leave the field.

Chapter 13: Methods/Approaches of Teaching ESOL: A Historical Overview    99

 Another way to use TPR is by the use of logical The Gouin series can be longer or shorter, de-
sequences of actions, also known as Gouin series, pending on how much language the teacher wishes
such as driving a car or taking a picture. to use at one time. Initially, the teacher models the
The following are two examples. actions, and the students pantomime the actions. As
soon as the teacher feels the students can respond
Driving a Car without imitating the actions, the teacher simply
I take my car key in my hand. describes the action, and the students respond by
I walk to the car. demonstrating the actions (Curtain & Dahlberg,
I unlock the car door or I use my remote to unlock 2004).
the door. The following benefits of the Gouin series have
I open the car door. been identified (Knop, in Curtain & Dahlberg,
I get into the car. 2004):
I close the door.
I put on the seat belt. 1. It links language to action and visuals, leading
I place the key in the ignition. to improved comprehension.
I start the car. 2. It teaches appropriate verbal and physical
I take off. behavior, making it especially useful for
teaching cultural behaviors.
3. It is easy to recall because it has multiple
Taking a Picture (Traditional) meaning reinforcers:
I get the camera.
◆ Physical actions
I open the film compartment of the camera.
◆ Visuals and props
I place the film in the camera.
◆ Logical sequence
I close the camera.
◆ Appeal to several senses
I check to see that the camera is ready.
◆ Beginning, middle, and end
I look through the lens of the camera.
I focus. Gouin series are also a way of developing read-
I take the picture. ing and writing skills. Once the students are able to
say the series, the teacher can record the sentences
Taking a Picture (Digital) on sentence strips. Students can then be introduced
I get the camera. to the reading of the sentences. Students can illus-
I check to see that the camera is ready. trate the series and write the actions illustrated. Il-
I take the picture. lustrations can be compiled in book form or can be
I check the picture. displayed sequentially in the classroom.
I save the picture (or I delete the picture). Following is a sample Gouin series that has
I load the picture onto the computer. been illustrated and described in print.
I send the picture to my friend.

100    Part Two: Principles and Practices in Language Teaching

Getting Ready for School

I wake up at 6:00 a.m. I get up and brush my teeth. I get dressed. I comb my hair.

I go to the kitchen. I have breakfast. I get my backpack. I walk to the bus stop.

Other benefits of the Gouin series include: with the opportunity to acquire language rather than
forcing them to learn it. In this method, the key to
1. It elicits students’ interest and active comprehension and oral production is the acquisi-
participation; tion of vocabulary. Thus, much opportunity for lis-
2. It gives an authentic experience using the target tening/speaking is given to students. Class time is
language; and not devoted to grammatical lectures or mechanical
3. It facilitates the natural emergence and exercises. Any explanation and practice of linguistic
development of oral communication (The State forms should be done outside of class for the most
of New Jersey Curriculum Frameworks for part. Outside work is planned carefully and struc-
World Languages, 2006). tured to provide the necessary practice with lan-
guage forms. Although this was Terrell’s position in
his earlier writings, he seemed to amend his position
The Natural Approach in his latest writings (1991). He now suggests that
Tracy Terrell (1977, 1981) developed the natural ap- there might be some benefit to providing form-
proach based on Krashen’s monitor model (dis- focused instruction as a means of establishing form–
cussed in detail in Chapter 10). The main goal of meaning relationships in communicative activities.
this method is to develop immediate communicative Teaching grammar for the sake of grammar instruc-
competency. Therefore, most classroom activities tion is not effective. However, clarifying it in con-
are designed to encourage communication. Terrell text, using advanced organizers to tie it in with com-
(1977) suggested that the entire class period be de- municative activities, does have some value.
voted to communication activities rather than to ex- According to Terrell (1977), error correction is
planation of grammatical aspects of language. The negative in terms of motivation and attitude; thus, he
Natural Approach emphasizes providing the students does not advocate the correction of speech errors in

Chapter 13: Methods/Approaches of Teaching ESOL: A Historical Overview    101

the process of oral language development. This posi- In this example, the teacher has tried a few tech-
tion reflects Krashen’s affective filter hypothesis, niques to help Sebastién understand the instruction.
which says that when students experience an embar- Often as teachers we reuse the same vocabulary over
rassing situation, the affective filter goes up, inter- and over again expecting different results. When
rupting the language acquisition process. Thus, error working with language learners, it is important to
correction would have a negative effect on the share different ways to give the same instruction in
process. order to help them to learn new vocabulary. In this
The natural approach bases language acquisition example, Sebastién’s teacher understood that he
on the natural order of native language development. maybe didn’t understand the modal verb “would” so
Because native language development follows a she tried again using “could.” When that didn’t
progression, during the silent period, students would work, she tried to substitute “shut” with “close.” An
be allowed to respond in their native language. The important follow-up with Sebastién would be to add
emphasis is on listening comprehension, so if stu- “shut-close” to a personal word wall or student dic-
dents respond in their native language, they are tionary to show him that he has learned a new word.
demonstrating comprehension. At the same time, She could also use the instruction again with Sebas-
students can be exposed to a wide variety of topics tién in the future to help reinforce the new word that
and still be comfortable in the communication he learned.
process.
The Communicative Approach
Mainstream Classroom Use
The communicative approach to language teaching
In this method, teachers must provide comprehen-
is based on several theoretical premises.
sible input at all times for their language learners.
The use of visuals (graphs, charts, pictures, objects,
1. The communication principle: Activities that
realia), gestures, demonstrations, and motherese/
involve communication promote the
parentese (slower speech, simpler language repeti-
acquisition of language.
tion, rephrasing, clear enunciation) is required. In
2. The task-principle: Activities that engage
addition, the use of yes/no type questions, either/or
students in the completion of real world tasks
type questions, and questions that require short an-
promote language acquisition.
swers is strongly suggested in the beginning stages
3. The meaningfulness principle: Learners are
of language acquisition. The use of total physical
engaged in activities that promote authentic
response (TPR) is emphasized, particularly during
and meaningful use of language.
the comprehension (silent/preproduction) stage.
Making simple adjustments to our instruction
The main goal in this approach is for the learner
will help classroom teachers in a mainstream setting
to become communicatively competent. The learner
to provide their language learners with comprehen-
develops competency in using the language appro-
sible input and opportunities for language practice.
priately in given social contexts. Emphasis is placed
For example:
on activities that allow the second language learner
Teacher:  Sebastién, would you shut the window to negotiate meaning in activities that require oral
please? communication in the second language.
Sebastién: I don’t understand. In the communicative approach, it is important
Teacher:  Could you shut the window. to create an “information gap” between speakers.
Sebastién: I don’t understand. Thus, the need to communicate is authentic because
Teacher:  It is cold in our classroom (demonstrate). communication must take place to narrow the gap
Please close the window (demonstrate). and accomplish the task (i.e., “I/we have what you
need, and you have what I/we need to complete our

102    Part Two: Principles and Practices in Language Teaching

task”). The task cannot be completed individually; prehensible. This is especially necessary in commu-
partners must work together to successfully com- nicative settings. In cooperative groups, students
plete the assigned task. receive repeated input from the members in the
Classroom activities must be varied and must group, providing the necessary redundancy for lan-
include interactive language games, information- guage learning to move from short-term comprehen-
sharing activities, social interactions, need for im- sion to long-term acquisition.
promptu responses, and the use of authentic materi- When analyzing the communicative approach, it
als, such as the newspaper for oral discussions on could be said that peer output is less accurate than
current events. teacher output. However, Kagan stated that in coop-
Sauvignon (2002) suggests designing the cur- erative groups, frequent output produces language
riculum to include language arts (or language analy- acquisition far more readily than formal input. The
sis activities), language-for-a-purpose (content- same could be said of the communicative approach.
based and immersion) activities, personalized Thus, the use of cooperative groups in a communi-
language use, theatre arts (including simulations, cative approach environment should be strongly
role-plays, and social interaction games), and lan- encouraged.
guage use “beyond the classroom” (including plan-
ning activities that take the learners outside the Mainstream Classroom Use
classroom to engage in real-world encounters).
The communicative approach embraces the Group and partner activities are great ways to allow
principle of “learning by doing,” encouraging the language learners the opportunity to produce lan-
use of English from the beginning of instruction. guage naturally and in a less stressful environment.
Thus, language acquisition takes place as a result of The students will feel less pressure while working
using the second language in meaningful communi- with only a few classmates, than they would if ex-
cation from the onset in the process. pected to volunteer or speak to the whole class. In
Kagan (1995), one of the greatest supporters of addition to the lowered affective filter, the students
cooperative learning in the classroom, has described will also have age appropriate models of language
how this strategy is very effective in ESL class- who exhibit language structures and forms that are
rooms, particularly when using the communicative common for children their age. Participation in
approach. According to Kagan, language acquisition small group or partner projects also encourages rela-
is fostered by input that is comprehensible, develop- tionships with classmates that may not be fostered in
mentally appropriate, redundant, and accurate. In the full class or independent work setting. Group
cooperative groups, students need to be understood, and partner projects promote a comfortable and con-
so they naturally adjust their input to make it com- fident working space for new learners.
❖

Chapter 13: Methods/Approaches of Teaching ESOL: A Historical Overview    103

Points to Remember
❖ In the grammar-translation method (also known as the classical method), the emphasis was on teaching
grammar and employing translation to ascertain comprehension.
❖ The grammar-translation method did not produce speakers of the languages studied.
❖ In the grammar-translation method, much use of the native language was employed because the goal was not
oral proficiency.
❖ In the grammar-translation method, teachers did not necessarily have to be fluent speakers of the target
language because the focus was not on communication.
❖ The grammar-translation method dominated public schools and university language teaching in the United
States until World War II.
❖ Today, unfortunately, there is still some evidence of the use of the grammar-translation method in some
public schools.
❖ The direct method was a complete departure from the grammar-translation method.
❖ The direct method did not allow for the use of the native language in the classroom.
❖ The direct method required the use of visuals to convey meaning in an effort to eliminate translation.
❖ The emphasis in the direct method was on developing proficient thinkers and speakers in the target language.
❖ The direct method takes its name from the emphasis in the “direct” use of the target language.
❖ The most widely known application of the direct method is practiced at the Berlitz language schools.
❖ The audio-lingual method (based on behavioristic psychology) emphasized the use of habit forming as a way
to develop language proficiency.
❖ The main goal of the audio-lingual method was to develop fluent speakers of the languages studied.
❖ In the audio-lingual method, the emphasis was on the rote memorization of dialogues.
❖ In the audio-lingual method, the belief was that much oral practice (dialogue memorization) would result in
communicative competence.
❖ The audio-lingual method was unsuccessful because students could recite the dialogues but could not
“communicate” in the target language.
❖ TPR stands for total physical response.
❖ In TPR, students are actively engaged in the language acquisition process by responding nonverbally
(physically).
❖ TPR is an effective method to employ while second language learners are in the silent (comprehension/
preproduction) period.
❖ The TPR method allows teachers to ascertain comprehension long before second language learners are able
to respond verbally.
❖ TPR is an effective method of including second language learners in lessons while in the silent period.
❖ TPR helps second/new language learners develop a sense of belonging and accomplishment while still in the
silent period.
❖ Pictures, objects, and realia are effective to enhance and expand the use of TPR in the classroom.

104    Part Two: Principles and Practices in Language Teaching

❖ The natural approach is based on Krashen’s monitor model.
❖ The natural approach respects the ELL’s silent period.
❖ Error correction is discouraged in the natural approach.
❖ In the natural approach, the emphasis is on developing oral language proficiency.
❖ In the natural approach, the teaching of grammar/language forms is discouraged.
❖ In the natural approach, TPR is widely employed.
❖ The communicative approach emphasizes meaningful communication in the ESOL classroom.
❖ The communicative approach requires the use of varied activities where authentic communication takes
place.
❖ The communicative approach embraces the principle of “learning by doing.”
❖ Cooperative groups provide a vehicle for language acquisition in the communicative approach.
❖ The communicative approach is based on the need for an “information gap” as a means to encourage
meaningful communication.
❖ Although at times ineffective in isolation or difficult to apply to a classroom setting, mainstream classroom
teachers can use elements of different language acquisition methods to help their language learners to be
successful in their content classes.

Chapter 13: Methods/Approaches of Teaching ESOL: A Historical Overview    105