SPEAKING MATHEMATICALLY

Braullo D. Peñalosa

Central Mindanao University

[email protected]

September 10, 2018

Braullo D. Peñalosa (CMU) Problem solving September 10, 2018 1 / 40

Objectives

The following are the objectives:

1 Variables

a. Writing sentences using variables.

Braullo D. Peñalosa (CMU) Problem solving September 10, 2018 2 / 40

Objectives

The following are the objectives:

1 Variables

a. Writing sentences using variables.

b. Rewriting a universal conditional statement.

Braullo D. Peñalosa (CMU) Problem solving September 10, 2018 2 / 40

Objectives

The following are the objectives:

1 Variables

a. Writing sentences using variables.

b. Rewriting a universal conditional statement.
c. Rewriting a universal existential statement.

Braullo D. Peñalosa (CMU) Problem solving September 10, 2018 2 / 40

Objectives

The following are the objectives:

1 Variables

a. Writing sentences using variables.

b. Rewriting a universal conditional statement.
c. Rewriting a universal existential statement.
d. Rewriting an existential universal statement.
2 The Language of Sets

Braullo D. Peñalosa (CMU) Problem solving September 10, 2018 2 / 40

Objectives

The following are the objectives:

1 Variables

a. Writing sentences using variables.

b. Rewriting a universal conditional statement.
c. Rewriting a universal existential statement.
d. Rewriting an existential universal statement.
2 The Language of Sets
3 The Language of Relations and Functions
4 Elementary Logic

Braullo D. Peñalosa (CMU) Problem solving September 10, 2018 2 / 40

Variables

Definition of a variable and a constant

A variable is a symbol or a letter that is used to represent any element of
a given set. The given set is called the domain of the variable. We
define a constant as a symbol whose domain contains only one element.
If the domain of a variable is a subset of the set R of real numbers, then
the variable represents a real number. In the expression 2x + 5, x is a
variable while 2 and 5 are constants. We can also use letters like a, b, and
c to denote constants, as in the expression ax 2 + bx + c.

Braullo D. Peñalosa (CMU) Problem solving September 10, 2018 3 / 40

Variables

Definition of a variable and a constant

A variable is a symbol or a letter that is used to represent any element of
a given set. The given set is called the domain of the variable. We
define a constant as a symbol whose domain contains only one element.
If the domain of a variable is a subset of the set R of real numbers, then
the variable represents a real number. In the expression 2x + 5, x is a
variable while 2 and 5 are constants. We can also use letters like a, b, and
c to denote constants, as in the expression ax 2 + bx + c.

A variable is sometimes thought of as a placeholder of something you want

to talk about. It is either
1 you imagine that it has one or more values but you don’t know what

they are, or
2 you want whatever you say about it to be equally true for all elements

in a given set, and so you don’t want to be restricted to considering

only a particular, concrete value for it.
Braullo D. Peñalosa (CMU) Problem solving September 10, 2018 3 / 40
Variables
Illustration
1 To illustrate the first use, consider the situation below.
Is there a number with the following property: doubling it and adding
3 gives the same result as squaring it?
2 To illustrate the second use, consider the situation below.
No matter what number might be chosen, if it is greater than 2, then
its square is greater than 4?

Solution.
In the first use, one can introduce a variable to replace the potentially
ambiguous word “it”.
Is there a number x with the property that 2x + 3 = x 2 ?
Note: To emphasize the role of a variable as a placeholder, one might
write the following:
Is there a number  with the property that 2 ·  + 3 = 2 ?
Braullo D. Peñalosa (CMU) Problem solving September 10, 2018 4 / 40
Variables

Solution.
In the second use, introducing a variable to give a temporary name to the
(arbitrary) number one might choose enables you to maintain the
generality of the statement, and replacing all instances of the word “it” by
the name of the variable ensures that possible ambiguity is avoided:

No matter what number n might be chosen, if n is greater than 2, then n2

is greater than 4?

Braullo D. Peñalosa (CMU) Problem solving September 10, 2018 5 / 40

Variables

Solution.
In the second use, introducing a variable to give a temporary name to the
(arbitrary) number one might choose enables you to maintain the
generality of the statement, and replacing all instances of the word “it” by
the name of the variable ensures that possible ambiguity is avoided:

No matter what number n might be chosen, if n is greater than 2, then n2

is greater than 4?

Example 1: Writing sentences using variables

Use variables to rewrite the following senetences more formally.
a. Are there numbers with the property that the sum of their squares
equals the square of their sum?
b. Given any real number, its square is nonnegative?

Braullo D. Peñalosa (CMU) Problem solving September 10, 2018 5 / 40

Variables

Some Important Kinds of Mathematical Statements

Three of the most important kinds of senetences in mathematics are
universal statements, conditional statements, and existential statements:
1 A universal statement says that a certain property is true for all
elements in a set. (For example: All positive numbers are greater
than zero.)
2 A conditional statement says that if one thing is true then some
other thing also has to be true. (For example: If 378 is divisible by
18, then 378 is divisible by 6.)
3 An existential statement says that a given property may or may not
be true. In other words, there is at least one thing for which the
property is true. (For example: There is a prime number that is even.)

Braullo D. Peñalosa (CMU) Problem solving September 10, 2018 6 / 40

Different combinations of statements

Universal Conditional Statements

Universal statements contain some variation of the words “for all” and
conditional statements contain versions of the words “if-then”. A
universal conditional statement is a statement that is both universal
and conditional. (For example: For all animals a, if a is a dog, then a is a
mammal.)

Braullo D. Peñalosa (CMU) Problem solving September 10, 2018 7 / 40

Different combinations of statements

Universal Conditional Statements

Universal statements contain some variation of the words “for all” and
conditional statements contain versions of the words “if-then”. A
universal conditional statement is a statement that is both universal
and conditional. (For example: For all animals a, if a is a dog, then a is a
mammal.)

Consequence: One of the most important facts about universal conditional

statement is that they can be rewritten in ways that make them appear to
be purely universal or purely conditional. (For example, the previous
statement can be rewritten in a way that makes its conditional nature
explicit but its universal nature implicit: If a is a dog, then a is a mammal.
or If an animal is a dog, then the animal is a mammal.)

Braullo D. Peñalosa (CMU) Problem solving September 10, 2018 7 / 40

Different combinations of statements
The statement can also be expressed so as to make its universal nature
explicit and its conditional nature explicit:

Braullo D. Peñalosa (CMU) Problem solving September 10, 2018 8 / 40

Different combinations of statements
The statement can also be expressed so as to make its universal nature
explicit and its conditional nature explicit:

For all dogs a, a is a mammal.

or
All dogs are mammals.

Braullo D. Peñalosa (CMU) Problem solving September 10, 2018 8 / 40

Different combinations of statements
The statement can also be expressed so as to make its universal nature
explicit and its conditional nature explicit:

For all dogs a, a is a mammal.

or
All dogs are mammals.

Example 2 (Rewriting a Universal Conditional Statement)

Fill in the blanks to rewrite the following statement:

For all real numbers x, if x is nonzero then x 2 is positive.

a. If a real number is nonzero, then its square .

Braullo D. Peñalosa (CMU) Problem solving September 10, 2018 8 / 40

Different combinations of statements
The statement can also be expressed so as to make its universal nature
explicit and its conditional nature explicit:

For all dogs a, a is a mammal.

or
All dogs are mammals.

Example 2 (Rewriting a Universal Conditional Statement)

Fill in the blanks to rewrite the following statement:

For all real numbers x, if x is nonzero then x 2 is positive.

a. If a real number is nonzero, then its square .

b. For all nonzero real numbers x, .

Braullo D. Peñalosa (CMU) Problem solving September 10, 2018 8 / 40

Different combinations of statements
The statement can also be expressed so as to make its universal nature
explicit and its conditional nature explicit:

For all dogs a, a is a mammal.

or
All dogs are mammals.

Example 2 (Rewriting a Universal Conditional Statement)

Fill in the blanks to rewrite the following statement:

For all real numbers x, if x is nonzero then x 2 is positive.

a. If a real number is nonzero, then its square .

b. For all nonzero real numbers x, .
c. If x , then .
Braullo D. Peñalosa (CMU) Problem solving September 10, 2018 8 / 40
Different combinations of statements

Example 2 (Rewriting a Universal Conditional Statement) cont...

Fill in the blanks to rewrite the following statement:

For all real numbers x, if x is nonzero then x 2 is positive.

d. The square of any nonzero real number is .

Braullo D. Peñalosa (CMU) Problem solving September 10, 2018 9 / 40

Different combinations of statements

Example 2 (Rewriting a Universal Conditional Statement) cont...

Fill in the blanks to rewrite the following statement:

For all real numbers x, if x is nonzero then x 2 is positive.

d. The square of any nonzero real number is .

e. All nonzero real numbers have .

Braullo D. Peñalosa (CMU) Problem solving September 10, 2018 9 / 40

Different combinations of statements

Example 2 (Rewriting a Universal Conditional Statement) cont...

Fill in the blanks to rewrite the following statement:

For all real numbers x, if x is nonzero then x 2 is positive.

d. The square of any nonzero real number is .

e. All nonzero real numbers have .

Universal Existential Statement

A universal existential statement is a statement that is universal
because its first part says that a certain property is true for all objects of a
given type, and it is existential because its second part asserts the
existence of something. For example:

Every real number has an additive inverse.

Braullo D. Peñalosa (CMU) Problem solving September 10, 2018 9 / 40

Different combinations of statements

In this statement the property “has an additive inverse” applies universally

to all real numbers. “Has an additive inverse” asserts the existence of
something - an additive inverse - for each real number.
However, the nature of the additive inverse depends on the real number;
different real numbers have different additive inverses. Knowing that
additive inverse is a real number, you can rewrite this statement in several
ways, some less formal and some more formal:

Braullo D. Peñalosa (CMU) Problem solving September 10, 2018 10 / 40

Different combinations of statements

In this statement the property “has an additive inverse” applies universally

to all real numbers. “Has an additive inverse” asserts the existence of
something - an additive inverse - for each real number.
However, the nature of the additive inverse depends on the real number;
different real numbers have different additive inverses. Knowing that
additive inverse is a real number, you can rewrite this statement in several
ways, some less formal and some more formal:

All real numbers have additive inverses.

or: For all real numbers r , there is an additive inverse for r .

or: For all real numbers r , there is a real number s such that s is an
additive inverse for r .

Braullo D. Peñalosa (CMU) Problem solving September 10, 2018 10 / 40

Different combinations of statements

Example 3 (Rewriting a Universal Existential Statement)

Fill in the blanks to rewrite the following statement:Every pot has a lid.
a. All pots .

Braullo D. Peñalosa (CMU) Problem solving September 10, 2018 11 / 40

Different combinations of statements

Example 3 (Rewriting a Universal Existential Statement)

Fill in the blanks to rewrite the following statement:Every pot has a lid.
a. All pots .
b. For all pots P, there is .

Braullo D. Peñalosa (CMU) Problem solving September 10, 2018 11 / 40

Different combinations of statements

Example 3 (Rewriting a Universal Existential Statement)

Fill in the blanks to rewrite the following statement:Every pot has a lid.
a. All pots .
b. For all pots P, there is .
c. For all pots P, there is a lid L such that .

Braullo D. Peñalosa (CMU) Problem solving September 10, 2018 11 / 40

Different combinations of statements

Example 3 (Rewriting a Universal Existential Statement)

Fill in the blanks to rewrite the following statement:Every pot has a lid.
a. All pots .
b. For all pots P, there is .
c. For all pots P, there is a lid L such that .

Braullo D. Peñalosa (CMU) Problem solving September 10, 2018 11 / 40

Different combinations of statements

Example 3 (Rewriting a Universal Existential Statement)

Fill in the blanks to rewrite the following statement:Every pot has a lid.
a. All pots .
b. For all pots P, there is .
c. For all pots P, there is a lid L such that .

Existential Universal Statements

An existential universal statement is a statement that is existential
because its first part asserts that a certain object exist and is universal
because its second part says that the object satisfies a certain property for
all things of a certain kind. For example:

There is a positive integer that is less than or equal to every positive

integer.

Braullo D. Peñalosa (CMU) Problem solving September 10, 2018 11 / 40

Different combinations of statements

Example 3 (Rewriting a Universal Existential Statement)

Fill in the blanks to rewrite the following statement:Every pot has a lid.
a. All pots .
b. For all pots P, there is .
c. For all pots P, there is a lid L such that .

Existential Universal Statements

An existential universal statement is a statement that is existential
because its first part asserts that a certain object exist and is universal
because its second part says that the object satisfies a certain property for
all things of a certain kind. For example:

There is a positive integer that is less than or equal to every positive

integer.

This statement is true because the number one is a positive integer, and it
Braullo D. Peñalosa (CMU) Problem solving September 10, 2018 11 / 40
Different combinations of statements

satisfies the property of being less than or equal to every positive integer.
We can rewrite the statement in several ways, some less formal and some
more formal:

Some positive integer is less than or equal to every positive integer.

Braullo D. Peñalosa (CMU) Problem solving September 10, 2018 12 / 40

Different combinations of statements

satisfies the property of being less than or equal to every positive integer.
We can rewrite the statement in several ways, some less formal and some
more formal:

Some positive integer is less than or equal to every positive integer.

or: There is a positive integer m that is less than or equal to every positive
integer.

Braullo D. Peñalosa (CMU) Problem solving September 10, 2018 12 / 40

Different combinations of statements

satisfies the property of being less than or equal to every positive integer.
We can rewrite the statement in several ways, some less formal and some
more formal:

Some positive integer is less than or equal to every positive integer.

or: There is a positive integer m that is less than or equal to every positive
integer.

or: There is a positive integer m such that every positive integer is greater
than or equal to m.

Braullo D. Peñalosa (CMU) Problem solving September 10, 2018 12 / 40

Different combinations of statements

satisfies the property of being less than or equal to every positive integer.
We can rewrite the statement in several ways, some less formal and some
more formal:

Some positive integer is less than or equal to every positive integer.

or: There is a positive integer m that is less than or equal to every positive
integer.

or: There is a positive integer m such that every positive integer is greater
than or equal to m.

or: There is a positive integer m with the property that for all positive
integers n, m ≤ n.

Braullo D. Peñalosa (CMU) Problem solving September 10, 2018 12 / 40

Different combinations of statements

Example 4 (Rewriting an Existential Universal Statement)

Fill in the blanks to rewrite the following statement in three different
ways:There is a person in my class who is at least as old as every person in
my class.
a. Some is at least as old as .

Braullo D. Peñalosa (CMU) Problem solving September 10, 2018 13 / 40

Different combinations of statements

Example 4 (Rewriting an Existential Universal Statement)

Fill in the blanks to rewrite the following statement in three different
ways:There is a person in my class who is at least as old as every person in
my class.
a. Some is at least as old as .
b. There is a person p in my class such that p is .

Braullo D. Peñalosa (CMU) Problem solving September 10, 2018 13 / 40

Different combinations of statements

Example 4 (Rewriting an Existential Universal Statement)

Fill in the blanks to rewrite the following statement in three different
ways:There is a person in my class who is at least as old as every person in
my class.
a. Some is at least as old as .
b. There is a person p in my class such that p is .
c. There is a person p in my class with the property that for every
person q in my class, p is .

Braullo D. Peñalosa (CMU) Problem solving September 10, 2018 13 / 40

Different combinations of statements

Example 4 (Rewriting an Existential Universal Statement)

Fill in the blanks to rewrite the following statement in three different
ways:There is a person in my class who is at least as old as every person in
my class.
a. Some is at least as old as .
b. There is a person p in my class such that p is .
c. There is a person p in my class with the property that for every
person q in my class, p is .

Solution.
a. person in my class; every person in my class

Braullo D. Peñalosa (CMU) Problem solving September 10, 2018 13 / 40

Different combinations of statements

Example 4 (Rewriting an Existential Universal Statement)

Fill in the blanks to rewrite the following statement in three different
ways:There is a person in my class who is at least as old as every person in
my class.
a. Some is at least as old as .
b. There is a person p in my class such that p is .
c. There is a person p in my class with the property that for every
person q in my class, p is .

Solution.
a. person in my class; every person in my class
b. at least as old as every person in my class.

Braullo D. Peñalosa (CMU) Problem solving September 10, 2018 13 / 40

Different combinations of statements

Example 4 (Rewriting an Existential Universal Statement)

Fill in the blanks to rewrite the following statement in three different
ways:There is a person in my class who is at least as old as every person in
my class.
a. Some is at least as old as .
b. There is a person p in my class such that p is .
c. There is a person p in my class with the property that for every
person q in my class, p is .

Solution.
a. person in my class; every person in my class
b. at least as old as every person in my class.
c. at least as old as q

Braullo D. Peñalosa (CMU) Problem solving September 10, 2018 13 / 40

The Language of Sets/ Basic Concepts of Set Theory

Concept of a set
A set is a collection of well-defined objects.

Braullo D. Peñalosa (CMU) Problem solving September 10, 2018 14 / 40

The Language of Sets/ Basic Concepts of Set Theory

Concept of a set
A set is a collection of well-defined objects.

Sets are usually denoted by capital letters of the English alphabet. The
objects in a set are called its elements and are usually denoted by small
letters of the English alphabet. We use the symbol ∈ to mean is an
element of, is a member of, or belongs to. If an object y belongs to a set
A, we write y ∈ A. If y does not belong to A, or y is not an element of A,
we write y ∈ / A.

Braullo D. Peñalosa (CMU) Problem solving September 10, 2018 14 / 40

The Language of Sets/ Basic Concepts of Set Theory

Concept of a set
A set is a collection of well-defined objects.

Sets are usually denoted by capital letters of the English alphabet. The
objects in a set are called its elements and are usually denoted by small
letters of the English alphabet. We use the symbol ∈ to mean is an
element of, is a member of, or belongs to. If an object y belongs to a set
A, we write y ∈ A. If y does not belong to A, or y is not an element of A,
we write y ∈ / A.
Example 1
Consider the following sets.
• A = The set of all counting numbers;

Braullo D. Peñalosa (CMU) Problem solving September 10, 2018 14 / 40

The Language of Sets/ Basic Concepts of Set Theory

Concept of a set
A set is a collection of well-defined objects.

Sets are usually denoted by capital letters of the English alphabet. The
objects in a set are called its elements and are usually denoted by small
letters of the English alphabet. We use the symbol ∈ to mean is an
element of, is a member of, or belongs to. If an object y belongs to a set
A, we write y ∈ A. If y does not belong to A, or y is not an element of A,
we write y ∈ / A.
Example 1
Consider the following sets.
• A = The set of all counting numbers;
• B = The set of all cities in Mindanao;

Braullo D. Peñalosa (CMU) Problem solving September 10, 2018 14 / 40

The Language of Sets/ Basic Concepts of Set Theory

Concept of a set
A set is a collection of well-defined objects.

Sets are usually denoted by capital letters of the English alphabet. The
objects in a set are called its elements and are usually denoted by small
letters of the English alphabet. We use the symbol ∈ to mean is an
element of, is a member of, or belongs to. If an object y belongs to a set
A, we write y ∈ A. If y does not belong to A, or y is not an element of A,
we write y ∈ / A.
Example 1
Consider the following sets.
• A = The set of all counting numbers;
• B = The set of all cities in Mindanao;
• C = The set of all distinct letters in the word luzviminda;

Braullo D. Peñalosa (CMU) Problem solving September 10, 2018 14 / 40

Basic concepts of Set Theory

Example 1 (continuation...)
• D = The set of all letters of the English alphabet;

Braullo D. Peñalosa (CMU) Problem solving September 10, 2018 15 / 40

Basic concepts of Set Theory

Example 1 (continuation...)
• D = The set of all letters of the English alphabet;
• E = The set of all odd counting numbers less than 10;

Braullo D. Peñalosa (CMU) Problem solving September 10, 2018 15 / 40

Basic concepts of Set Theory

Example 1 (continuation...)
• D = The set of all letters of the English alphabet;
• E = The set of all odd counting numbers less than 10;
• F = The set of all carabaos with two feet.

Braullo D. Peñalosa (CMU) Problem solving September 10, 2018 15 / 40

Basic concepts of Set Theory

Example 1 (continuation...)
• D = The set of all letters of the English alphabet;
• E = The set of all odd counting numbers less than 10;
• F = The set of all carabaos with two feet.
Accordingly, m ∈ C , 11 ∈
/ E , and Iligan City ∈ B. Set F has no elements.
Set D has 26 elements, whereas set A has (infinitely) many elements.

Braullo D. Peñalosa (CMU) Problem solving September 10, 2018 15 / 40

Basic concepts of Set Theory

Example 1 (continuation...)
• D = The set of all letters of the English alphabet;
• E = The set of all odd counting numbers less than 10;
• F = The set of all carabaos with two feet.
Accordingly, m ∈ C , 11 ∈
/ E , and Iligan City ∈ B. Set F has no elements.
Set D has 26 elements, whereas set A has (infinitely) many elements.

Two common methods of describing a set

These are
a. the roster method (tabulation or enumeration method)

Braullo D. Peñalosa (CMU) Problem solving September 10, 2018 15 / 40

Basic concepts of Set Theory

Example 1 (continuation...)
• D = The set of all letters of the English alphabet;
• E = The set of all odd counting numbers less than 10;
• F = The set of all carabaos with two feet.
Accordingly, m ∈ C , 11 ∈
/ E , and Iligan City ∈ B. Set F has no elements.
Set D has 26 elements, whereas set A has (infinitely) many elements.

Two common methods of describing a set

These are
a. the roster method (tabulation or enumeration method)
b. the rule method (or the method using set descriptive notation).

Braullo D. Peñalosa (CMU) Problem solving September 10, 2018 15 / 40

Basic concepts of Set Theory
In the roster method, we list or enumerate the elements of a set. Two
distinct elements of a set are separated by a comma, and the elements are
enclosed by a pair of set braces { }. In the rule method, we use a phrase
to describe the elements of a set agreeing that only those objects having
the property described are elements of the set. The description is also
enclosed by a pair of set braces.

Braullo D. Peñalosa (CMU) Problem solving September 10, 2018 16 / 40

Basic concepts of Set Theory
In the roster method, we list or enumerate the elements of a set. Two
distinct elements of a set are separated by a comma, and the elements are
enclosed by a pair of set braces { }. In the rule method, we use a phrase
to describe the elements of a set agreeing that only those objects having
the property described are elements of the set. The description is also
enclosed by a pair of set braces.
Example 2
Write sets A, C , D, E , and F in Example 1 using the roster method.
Solution.
• A = {1, 2, 3, 4, . . .}

Braullo D. Peñalosa (CMU) Problem solving September 10, 2018 16 / 40

Basic concepts of Set Theory
In the roster method, we list or enumerate the elements of a set. Two
distinct elements of a set are separated by a comma, and the elements are
enclosed by a pair of set braces { }. In the rule method, we use a phrase
to describe the elements of a set agreeing that only those objects having
the property described are elements of the set. The description is also
enclosed by a pair of set braces.
Example 2
Write sets A, C , D, E , and F in Example 1 using the roster method.
Solution.
• A = {1, 2, 3, 4, . . .}
• C = {l, u, z, v , i, m, n, d, a}

Braullo D. Peñalosa (CMU) Problem solving September 10, 2018 16 / 40

Basic concepts of Set Theory
In the roster method, we list or enumerate the elements of a set. Two
distinct elements of a set are separated by a comma, and the elements are
enclosed by a pair of set braces { }. In the rule method, we use a phrase
to describe the elements of a set agreeing that only those objects having
the property described are elements of the set. The description is also
enclosed by a pair of set braces.
Example 2
Write sets A, C , D, E , and F in Example 1 using the roster method.
Solution.
• A = {1, 2, 3, 4, . . .}
• C = {l, u, z, v , i, m, n, d, a}
• D = {a, b, c, d, . . . , x, y , z}

Braullo D. Peñalosa (CMU) Problem solving September 10, 2018 16 / 40

Basic concepts of Set Theory
In the roster method, we list or enumerate the elements of a set. Two
distinct elements of a set are separated by a comma, and the elements are
enclosed by a pair of set braces { }. In the rule method, we use a phrase
to describe the elements of a set agreeing that only those objects having
the property described are elements of the set. The description is also
enclosed by a pair of set braces.
Example 2
Write sets A, C , D, E , and F in Example 1 using the roster method.
Solution.
• A = {1, 2, 3, 4, . . .}
• C = {l, u, z, v , i, m, n, d, a}
• D = {a, b, c, d, . . . , x, y , z}
• E = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9}

Braullo D. Peñalosa (CMU) Problem solving September 10, 2018 16 / 40

Basic concepts of Set Theory
In the roster method, we list or enumerate the elements of a set. Two
distinct elements of a set are separated by a comma, and the elements are
enclosed by a pair of set braces { }. In the rule method, we use a phrase
to describe the elements of a set agreeing that only those objects having
the property described are elements of the set. The description is also
enclosed by a pair of set braces.
Example 2
Write sets A, C , D, E , and F in Example 1 using the roster method.
Solution.
• A = {1, 2, 3, 4, . . .}
• C = {l, u, z, v , i, m, n, d, a}
• D = {a, b, c, d, . . . , x, y , z}
• E = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9}
• F = {}

Braullo D. Peñalosa (CMU) Problem solving September 10, 2018 16 / 40

Basic concepts of Set Theory

Note that the order of listing the elements of a set does not affect the set
itself. For example, set E above can also be written as E = {7, 5, 3, 9, 1}.

Braullo D. Peñalosa (CMU) Problem solving September 10, 2018 17 / 40

Basic concepts of Set Theory

Note that the order of listing the elements of a set does not affect the set
itself. For example, set E above can also be written as E = {7, 5, 3, 9, 1}.
The three dots ( . . . ) in sets A and D are called ellipsis. They tell us that
something is missing in a list. In the set A, there are other counting
numbers after 4 that also belong to A. Similarly, there are other letters
between d and x belonging to the set D.

Braullo D. Peñalosa (CMU) Problem solving September 10, 2018 17 / 40

Basic concepts of Set Theory

Note that the order of listing the elements of a set does not affect the set
itself. For example, set E above can also be written as E = {7, 5, 3, 9, 1}.
The three dots ( . . . ) in sets A and D are called ellipsis. They tell us that
something is missing in a list. In the set A, there are other counting
numbers after 4 that also belong to A. Similarly, there are other letters
between d and x belonging to the set D.
Empty and universal sets
An empty set or null set, denoted by ∅ or {}, is a set that does not
contain any element. The set F in Example 1 is a null set, so we can also
write F = ∅ or F = {}.
A universal set, denoted by U, is a set containing all elements included in
a single discussion. It is the set from which all other sets are derived. In
Example 2, set D is a universal set of set C .

Braullo D. Peñalosa (CMU) Problem solving September 10, 2018 17 / 40

Basic concepts of Set Theory
Example 3
Write sets A, B, D, E , F in Example 1 using the rule method.
Solution.
• A = {x : x is a counting number} = {x | x is a counting number}
• B = {x : x is a city in Mindanao}
• D = {x : x is a letter of the English alphabet}
• E = {x : x is an odd counting number less than 10}
• F = {x : x is a carabao having two feet}

The symbols “:” and “|” both mean such that. The set A in Example 3 is
described as the set of all elements x such that x is a counting number.
The letter x is called a variable and is used to represent any element of A.
In set B, the variable x represents Iligan City, Cagayan de Oro City, or any
city in Mindanao. In set E , x represents 1, 3, 5, 7, or 9. There is nothing
special about x; any other letter such as a, b, w , y , or z may be used
instead of x as a variable.
Braullo D. Peñalosa (CMU) Problem solving September 10, 2018 18 / 40
Basic concepts of Set Theory

Subsets
Set A is a subset of set B, if every element of A is also an element of B.
In this case we write A ⊆ B. If there is at least one element of A that is
not an element of B, then A is not a subset of B, and we write A 6⊆ B.

Braullo D. Peñalosa (CMU) Problem solving September 10, 2018 19 / 40

Basic concepts of Set Theory

Subsets
Set A is a subset of set B, if every element of A is also an element of B.
In this case we write A ⊆ B. If there is at least one element of A that is
not an element of B, then A is not a subset of B, and we write A 6⊆ B.

In Example 1.2, C ⊆ D, E ⊆ A, but A 6⊆ C . The empty set ∅ is

considered a subset of all sets, including itself. Thus F ⊆ A.

Braullo D. Peñalosa (CMU) Problem solving September 10, 2018 19 / 40

Basic concepts of Set Theory

Subsets
Set A is a subset of set B, if every element of A is also an element of B.
In this case we write A ⊆ B. If there is at least one element of A that is
not an element of B, then A is not a subset of B, and we write A 6⊆ B.

In Example 1.2, C ⊆ D, E ⊆ A, but A 6⊆ C . The empty set ∅ is

considered a subset of all sets, including itself. Thus F ⊆ A.
Equality
Two sets A and B are said to be equal, denoted by A = B, if A ⊆ B and
B ⊆ A. When A = B, they have exactly the same elements. For example,
{a, c, x} = {c, x, a}, while {a, 2, x} =
6 {a, c, x}.

Braullo D. Peñalosa (CMU) Problem solving September 10, 2018 19 / 40

Basic concepts of Set Theory

Subsets
Set A is a subset of set B, if every element of A is also an element of B.
In this case we write A ⊆ B. If there is at least one element of A that is
not an element of B, then A is not a subset of B, and we write A 6⊆ B.

In Example 1.2, C ⊆ D, E ⊆ A, but A 6⊆ C . The empty set ∅ is

considered a subset of all sets, including itself. Thus F ⊆ A.
Equality
Two sets A and B are said to be equal, denoted by A = B, if A ⊆ B and
B ⊆ A. When A = B, they have exactly the same elements. For example,
{a, c, x} = {c, x, a}, while {a, 2, x} =
6 {a, c, x}.

The notation A ⊆ B means A is a subset of B or A = B, while A ⊂ B

means A is a subset of B but A 6= B. A ⊆ B can also mean A is contained
in B or B contains A. The notation B ⊇ A means the same thing as
A ⊆ B.
Braullo D. Peñalosa (CMU) Problem solving September 10, 2018 19 / 40
Basic concepts of Set Theory

1-1 correspondence
Two sets A and B are said to be in one-to-one (or 1-1) correspondence
if there is an equal pairing of elements between A and B. That is, each
element of A is paired with exactly one element of B and each element of
B is paired with exactly one element of A. For example, there is a 1-1
correspondence between sets {a, 2, x} and {x, y , z}, but none between
{a, 2, x} and {a, 2c}.

Braullo D. Peñalosa (CMU) Problem solving September 10, 2018 20 / 40

Basic concepts of Set Theory

1-1 correspondence
Two sets A and B are said to be in one-to-one (or 1-1) correspondence
if there is an equal pairing of elements between A and B. That is, each
element of A is paired with exactly one element of B and each element of
B is paired with exactly one element of A. For example, there is a 1-1
correspondence between sets {a, 2, x} and {x, y , z}, but none between
{a, 2, x} and {a, 2c}.

Equivalent sets
Sets A and B are said to be equivalent if there is a 1-1 correspondence
between them. This is denoted by A ∼ B. If A and B are not equivalent,
we write A 6∼ B. For example, {a, 2, x} ∼ {x, y , z}, but {a, 2, x} 6∼ {a, 2c}.
Clearly, if A and B have the same number of elements, then A ∼ B.

Braullo D. Peñalosa (CMU) Problem solving September 10, 2018 20 / 40

Basic concepts of Set Theory

Finite sets
A nonempty set is said to be finite if, for some fixed counting number n, it
is equivalent to the set {1, 2, . . . , n}. This means that a set is finite if it is
possible to write down a complete list of all its elements. For example, the
set of all letters of the English alphabet is a finite set since it is equivalent
to the set {1, 2, 3, . . . , 26}.

Braullo D. Peñalosa (CMU) Problem solving September 10, 2018 21 / 40

Basic concepts of Set Theory

Finite sets
A nonempty set is said to be finite if, for some fixed counting number n, it
is equivalent to the set {1, 2, . . . , n}. This means that a set is finite if it is
possible to write down a complete list of all its elements. For example, the
set of all letters of the English alphabet is a finite set since it is equivalent
to the set {1, 2, 3, . . . , 26}.

Infinite sets
A nonempty set that is not finite is said to be infinite. For example, the
set of all counting numbers is an infinite set.
The cardinality of a finite set A, denoted by n(A), is the number of
elements of A. Technically it is the unique counting number n such that
the elements of A are in one-to-one correspondence with the elements of
the set {1, 2, . . . , n}. For example, the set A = {a, b, c, xy , z} has 5
elements, so n(A) = 5. The cardinality of an empty set is 0 so n(∅) = 0.

Braullo D. Peñalosa (CMU) Problem solving September 10, 2018 21 / 40

Basic concepts of Set Theory

Venn Diagrams
A diagram showing the relationship among sets and between elements and
sets is called a Venn diagram; it is named after the English logician
James Venn (1834–1883). In a Venn diagram, the universal set U is
usually represented by a rectangle, while the other sets, which are subsets
of U, are usually represented by circles, triangles, and other closed
geometric figures. The Venn diagram in Figure 1 shows the relationships
A ⊆ B, b ∈ B, b ∈ / A for sets A, B, and element b.

Braullo D. Peñalosa (CMU) Problem solving September 10, 2018 22 / 40

Basic concepts of Set Theory

U ' $

'$ B

A qb

&%

& %

Figure: Venn diagram of A ⊆ B and b ∈ B

Braullo D. Peñalosa (CMU) Problem solving September 10, 2018 23 / 40

Basic concepts of Set Theory

The Union of Two sets

The union of two sets A and B, denoted by A ∪ B, is the set of all
elements that belong to either A, or B, or both A and B. In set descriptive
notation, we have

A ∪ B = {x : x ∈ A or x ∈ B}.

Braullo D. Peñalosa (CMU) Problem solving September 10, 2018 24 / 40

Basic concepts of Set Theory

The Union of Two sets

The union of two sets A and B, denoted by A ∪ B, is the set of all
elements that belong to either A, or B, or both A and B. In set descriptive
notation, we have

A ∪ B = {x : x ∈ A or x ∈ B}.

The Intersection of Two sets

The intersection of two sets A and B, denoted by A ∩ B, is the set of all
elements that belong to both sets A and B. In set descriptive notation, we
have
A ∩ B = {x : x ∈ A and x ∈ B}.

Braullo D. Peñalosa (CMU) Problem solving September 10, 2018 24 / 40

Basic concepts of Set Theory

The Union of Two sets

The union of two sets A and B, denoted by A ∪ B, is the set of all
elements that belong to either A, or B, or both A and B. In set descriptive
notation, we have

A ∪ B = {x : x ∈ A or x ∈ B}.

The Intersection of Two sets

The intersection of two sets A and B, denoted by A ∩ B, is the set of all
elements that belong to both sets A and B. In set descriptive notation, we
have
A ∩ B = {x : x ∈ A and x ∈ B}.

Note: In this case, A ∩ B = ∅, and we say that A and B are disjoint.

Braullo D. Peñalosa (CMU) Problem solving September 10, 2018 24 / 40

Basic concepts of Set Theory

The complement of a set

The complement of a set A, denoted by A0 , is the set of all elements of
the universal set U that do not belong to set A. In set descriptive
notation, we have
A0 = {x ∈ U : x ∈/ A}.

Braullo D. Peñalosa (CMU) Problem solving September 10, 2018 25 / 40

Basic concepts of Set Theory

The complement of a set

The complement of a set A, denoted by A0 , is the set of all elements of
the universal set U that do not belong to set A. In set descriptive
notation, we have
A0 = {x ∈ U : x ∈/ A}.

The set difference

The set difference A \ B (or the complement of set B relative to set
A) is the set of all elements that are in A and not in B. In set descriptive
notation, we have

A \ B = A ∩ B 0 = {x : x ∈ A and x ∈
/ B}.

Braullo D. Peñalosa (CMU) Problem solving September 10, 2018 25 / 40

Basic concepts of Set Theory

The Cartesian product of two sets

The Cartesian product of two sets A and B, denoted by A × B, is the set
of all ordered pairs (a, b) where a ∈ A and b ∈ B. In set descriptive
notation, we have A × B = {(a, b) : a ∈ A and b ∈ B}.

Braullo D. Peñalosa (CMU) Problem solving September 10, 2018 26 / 40

Basic concepts of Set Theory

The Cartesian product of two sets

The Cartesian product of two sets A and B, denoted by A × B, is the set
of all ordered pairs (a, b) where a ∈ A and b ∈ B. In set descriptive
notation, we have A × B = {(a, b) : a ∈ A and b ∈ B}.

Example 1.5
We shall describe the sets X ∪ W , X ∩ Y , Y ∩ W , W 0 , W \ X , and
X × Y , where
U = {x : x is a counting number from 1 to 10},
X = {x : x is an even counting number < 10 & divisible by 4},
Y = The set of all odd counting numbers less than 7,
W = The set of all counting numbers less than 5.
Also, draw a Venn diagram showing the relationships between the sets
U, X , Y , W .
Braullo D. Peñalosa (CMU) Problem solving September 10, 2018 26 / 40
Basic concepts of Set Theory

Example 1.6
Using the sets U, X , Y , W in Example 1.5, we shall describe the sets
X ∪ Y ∪ W , X ∩ Y ∩ W , W ∪ (Y ∩ X ), (W ∪ Y ) ∩ (W ∪ X ), X 0 ∪ Y 0 ,
(X ∩ Y )0 , and (X ∪ Y ∪ W )0 .

Braullo D. Peñalosa (CMU) Problem solving September 10, 2018 27 / 40

The Language of Relations and Functions

Relations
Let A and B be sets. A relation R from A to B is a subset of A × B
such that every element x of A assigns to at least one element of B. Given
an ordered pair (x, y ) in A × B, x is related to y by R, written x R y , if,
and only if, (x, y ) is in R. The set A is called the domain of R and the set
B is called its co-domain.

Braullo D. Peñalosa (CMU) Problem solving September 10, 2018 28 / 40

The Language of Relations and Functions

Relations
Let A and B be sets. A relation R from A to B is a subset of A × B
such that every element x of A assigns to at least one element of B. Given
an ordered pair (x, y ) in A × B, x is related to y by R, written x R y , if,
and only if, (x, y ) is in R. The set A is called the domain of R and the set
B is called its co-domain.
Caution: The notation x 6 R y means that x is not related to y by R:

x 6R y means that (x, y ) ∈

/ R.

Braullo D. Peñalosa (CMU) Problem solving September 10, 2018 28 / 40

Finding the Domain and Range of Relations

The most common method of describing functions and relations on R is

through the use of equations. For instance, the equation y = x 2 + 3
specifies a rule of correspondence F between elements of R given by
f : x 7→ (x 2 + 3). This describes a relation from R to R. This relation
also happens to be a function. For if a = b, then surely a2 + 3 = b 2 + 3,
so the image of a under f is unique. This relation is also described by

F = {(x, y ) ∈ R × R : y = x 2 + 3}.

Braullo D. Peñalosa (CMU) Problem solving September 10, 2018 29 / 40

Finding the Domain and Range of Relations

The most common method of describing functions and relations on R is

through the use of equations. For instance, the equation y = x 2 + 3
specifies a rule of correspondence F between elements of R given by
f : x 7→ (x 2 + 3). This describes a relation from R to R. This relation
also happens to be a function. For if a = b, then surely a2 + 3 = b 2 + 3,
so the image of a under f is unique. This relation is also described by

F = {(x, y ) ∈ R × R : y = x 2 + 3}.

What is the domain of F ? In cases where there is no mention of the sets A

and B, we take the domain A of the relation (or the function) to be the
biggest set (in R) of values x for which y is well-defined. This is the set
{x ∈ R : (x 2 + 3) ∈ R}, which simply happens to be R.

Braullo D. Peñalosa (CMU) Problem solving September 10, 2018 29 / 40

Finding the Domain and Range of Relations

To Find the Domain of y = f (x)

1 Solve the equation for y in terms of x;

2 Determine the (biggest) set of values x for which y is well-defined.

To find the range of the relation, we do the same thing, i.e., solve for x in
terms of y , and determine the set of values y for which x is well-defined.

Braullo D. Peñalosa (CMU) Problem solving September 10, 2018 30 / 40

The Language of Relations and Functions

Example 1 A relation as a Subset

Let A = {1, 2} and B = {1, 2, 3}, and define a relation R from A to B as
follows:

x−y
Given any (x, y ) ∈ R means that 2 is an integer.

1 State explicitly which ordered pairs are in A × B and which are in R.

2 Is 1 R 3? Is 2 R 3? Is 2 R 2?
3 What are the domain and co-domain of R?

Braullo D. Peñalosa (CMU) Problem solving September 10, 2018 31 / 40

The Language of Relations and Functions

Example 2 The Circle Relation

Define a relation C from D to R as follows: For any (x, y ) ∈ D × R,

(x, y ) ∈ C means that x 2 + y 2 = 1.

 √ 
1 Is (1, 0) ∈ C ? Is (0, 0) ∈ C ? Is − 12 , 23 ∈ C ? Is −2 C 0? Is
0 C (−1)? Is 1 C 1?
2 What are the domain and co-domain of C ?
3 Draw a graph for C by ploting the points of C in the cartesian plane.

Braullo D. Peñalosa (CMU) Problem solving September 10, 2018 32 / 40

The Language of Relations and Functions

Arrow Diagram of a Relation

Suppose R is a relation from a set A to a set B. The arrow diagram for
R is obtain as follows:
1 Represent the elements of A as points in one region and the elements
of B as points in another region.
2 For each x ∈ A and y ∈ B, draw an arrow from x to y if, and only if,
x is related to y by R.

Braullo D. Peñalosa (CMU) Problem solving September 10, 2018 33 / 40

The Language of Relations and Functions

Arrow Diagram of a Relation

Suppose R is a relation from a set A to a set B. The arrow diagram for
R is obtain as follows:
1 Represent the elements of A as points in one region and the elements
of B as points in another region.
2 For each x ∈ A and y ∈ B, draw an arrow from x to y if, and only if,
x is related to y by R.

Example 3 Arrow Diagrams of Relation

Let A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {1, 3, 5}, and define relations S and T from A
to B as follows: For all (x, y ) ∈ A × B,
• (x, y ) ∈ S means that x is less than y
• T = {(2, 1), (2, 5), (1, 1), (3, 3)}
Draw arrow diagrams for S and T .
Braullo D. Peñalosa (CMU) Problem solving September 10, 2018 33 / 40
The Language of Relations and Functions

Functions
A function F from a set A to a set B is a relation with domain A and
co-domain B that satisfies the following two properties:
1 Every element of A is the first element of an ordered pair of F .
2 No two distinct ordered pairs in F have the same first element.

Braullo D. Peñalosa (CMU) Problem solving September 10, 2018 34 / 40

The Language of Relations and Functions

Functions
A function F from a set A to a set B is a relation with domain A and
co-domain B that satisfies the following two properties:
1 Every element of A is the first element of an ordered pair of F .
2 No two distinct ordered pairs in F have the same first element.

Notation
1 If A and B are sets and F is a function from A to B, then given any
element x ∈ A, the unique element in B that is related to x by F is
denoted by F (x), which is read as “F of x”.
2 f equals g , written f = g , if, and only if, f (x) = g (x) for all x ∈ A.

Braullo D. Peñalosa (CMU) Problem solving September 10, 2018 34 / 40

Example 4 Functions and Relations on Finite Sets

Let A = {2, 4, 6} and

A B B = {1, 3, 5}. Which of the
'$'$
relations R, S, and T defined
2 - 5 below are functions from A to B?

1 R=
{(2, 5), (4, 1), (4, 3), (6, 5)}
2 For all (x, y ) ∈ A × B,
4PP 3 (x, y ) ∈ S means that
PP
PP y = x + 1.
6 P
q
P- 1 3 T is defined by the arrow
&%&% diagram at the left.

Braullo D. Peñalosa (CMU) Problem solving September 10, 2018 35 / 40

The Language of Relations and Functions

A B A B
'$'$'$'$
0 1


- 0 0 - 0
 

1 1


- 1 1 1


- 1
 
 

−1 2 −1 2

2PP 3 2PP 3
PP PP
P P
−2 −2
PP
q
P- 4 PP
q
P- 4

&%&%&%&%
(1) Relation (2) Function

Figure: A relation and a function from A to B

Braullo D. Peñalosa (CMU) Problem solving September 10, 2018 36 / 40

The Language of Relations and Functions

Example 6 Equality of Functions

Define f : R → R and g : R → R by the following formulas:

f (x) = kxk ∀x ∈ R
√
g (x) = x 2 ∀x ∈ R

Does f = g ?

Braullo D. Peñalosa (CMU) Problem solving September 10, 2018 37 / 40

References

Margarete L. Lial, et. al. (2015)

Algebra for College Students

Richard Aufmann, et. al. (2013)

Mathematical Excursions

Braullo D. Peñalosa (CMU) Problem solving September 10, 2018 38 / 40

 The End

Braullo D. Peñalosa (CMU) Problem solving September 10, 2018 39 / 40