ANALOGUE TO DIGITAL CONVERSION

(ADC)
 ADC Process

• Sampling and Holding (S/H)

• Quantizing and Encoding (Q/E)
Sampling
Sampling converts analog signal (continuous in time and magnitude)
into discrete time signal (discrete in time but can have any magnitude)

The intervals, Ts, must be carefully chosen to ensure an accurate

representation of the original analogue signal. To discuss the problem
of losing information in the sampling process, it is necessary to recall
Nyquist’s criteria.

The Nyquist criterion is as follows.

• If fs < 2fm, than a phenomenon called aliasing will occur.
Aliasing
If a signal with frequency fm is sampled at a frequency fs > 2fm then we
will get the following spectrum and it is possible to remove the other
signals of the frequency f > fm with a filter.

Figure : (a) Frequency spectrum before sampling

(b) and its replication after sampling
If fs < 2fm, the replicated signal bands interfere mutually and a
distorted signals appear at the output. This effect is called aliasing.

• To eliminate this aliasing effect special anti-aliasing low pass filter

can be used before performing the sampling operation. The cut-off
frequency of this filter is chosen to be the Nyquist frequency which
is fc = fN = fs /2
Note that filtering the original signal cause, of course, losing some
data from the original signal, but it ensures good reconstruction of
the filtered signal.
Quantization
Quantization is breaking down the values of the sampled signal
into a set of finite number of quantized values/states.

Example:
We have an analog signal
varying in the range from 0-10V.
This range is separated into 8
discrete quantized states
with 1.25V increments.
(How did we get 1.25V?)
The number of output states (M) that the quantizer
can have:
M = 2N
where N is the number of bits in the A/D converter
• Example: For a 3 bit A/D converter, M = 23 = 8.

Analog quantization size:

q = (Vmax - Vmin) / M
= (10V – 0V)/8 = 1.25V

This smallest analog change between each quantization

state is called resolution.
Encoding
Here, a unique digital number/word is assigned to each
of the quantized states
 Sample and Hold Circuits
• In most ADC, the input analog sample is required to be hold for
sometime before its digital output is produced.
• This is achieved by sample and hold circuit.
• By using this it is ensured that the result of conversion will not be
affected by a change in the analog signal during the conversion
process.

Fig: Basic structure of a sample and hold circuit

When S is closed Vc follows or tracks the applied voltage Vin. When S is
opened capacitor retains the analog voltage applied at that instant of time.
 Q is a p-channel MOSFET
Fig: A practical sample and hold circuit

Fig: Response parameters of sample and hold circuit

Response Parameters
• Aperture time: time required for the switch to open. This is also
called aperture uncertainty
• Acquisition time: This is the time the output of the sample and
hold circuit takes to track the input signal within specified accuracy
• Droop rate: the rate of change of the output voltage when the
circuit is in the ‘hold’ mode, and is a function of the leakage of
droop current, id and the capacitance, C.
𝑑𝑉𝐶 𝑖𝑑
=
𝑑𝑡 𝐶
Considerations for choosing C
• C should be large enough to minimize the ‘droop’ caused by leakage
currents in Q and IC2
• C should be small enough to track the input signal fast, since
charging time constant should be as small as possible. [charging
time constant = (ON resistance of Q) * C ]
 Types of ADC
• Flash A/D Converter
• Successive Approximation A/D Converter
• Dual Slope A/D Converter
• Delta-Sigma A/D Converter
 Flash A/D Converter

• Uses the 2N resistors to form a ladder voltage

divider, which divides the reference voltage
into 2N equal intervals.
• Consists of a series of comparators, each one
comparing the input signal to a unique
reference voltage.
• The comparator outputs connect to the inputs
of a priority encoder circuit, which produces a
binary output
3-bit Flash A/D Converter
Comparator

If Output
VIN
+ VOUT
VREF
VIN > VREF High
-

VIN < VREF Low

Truth Table of Priority Encoder
Flash ADC operation

• As the analog input voltage exceeds the reference

voltage at each comparator, the comparator outputs
will sequentially saturate to a high state.

• The priority encoder generates a binary number

based on the highest-order, ignoring all other active
inputs.
Advantages and Disadvantages

Advantages:
• Very Fast .
• Very simple operational theory .
• Speed is only limited by gate and comparator
propagation delay .

Disadvantages:
• Expensive.
• Each additional bit of resolution requires twice the
comparators.
 Successive Approximation ADC
• It consists of a successive
approximation register (SAR), DAC
and comparator.
• The output of SAR is given to n-bit
DAC.
• The equivalent analog output
voltage of DAC, VDA is applied to
the inverting input of the
comparator.
• The second input to the
comparator is the unknown
analog input voltage VIN.
Figure: Block diagram of N-bit
• The output of the comparator is Successive Approximation ADC
used to activate the successive
approximation logic of SAR.
• A/D conversion begins by setting the MSB = 1 and keeping
rest of the bits = 0
• DAC converts the digital output of the SAR to analog signal,
VDA which is compared with VIN
• If VIN > VDA; then MSB of SAR is kept at 1 and next lower
significant bit is set to 1
• If VIN < VDA; then MSB of SAR is cleared to 0 and next lower
significant bit is set to 1
• Again, DAC converts the digital output of the SAR and
comparing VDA with VIN , the respective bit is either kept at 1
or it is cleared to 0
• This process is repeated till all the bits have been checked
• A/D conversion is then completed and the contents of SAR are
the Digital representation of VIN
 3-bit Successive Approximation ADC (Example)
Let, VREF = 10V

D2 D1 D0 VDA
0 0 0 0.00
0 0 1 1.25
0 1 0 2.50
0 1 1 3.75
1 0 0 5.00
1 0 1 6.25
1 1 0 7.50
1 1 1 8.75
Figure: Block diagram of 3-bit
Table 1: Input bit pattern and o/p
Successive Approximation ADC
analog voltage range of 3-bit DAC
Let, VIN = 3.2 V
A/D conversion takes place
according to the following 3
cycles:
• MSB (D2) = 1 , D1 =0 , D0 = 0.
Input to DAC is ‘1 0 0’
According to Table 1
VDA = 5 V
As, VIN < VDA ; D2 is cleared to
0
Resulting bit pattern at this
stage:
0 0 0
• Next, D1 is set to 1.
Input to DAC is ‘0 1 0’
According to Table 1
VDA = 2.5 V
As, VIN > VDA ; D1 is unchanged

Updated bit pattern at this

stage:
0 1 0
• Next, D0 is set to 1.
Input to DAC is ‘0 1 1’
According to Table 1
VDA = 3.75 V
As, VIN < VDA ; D0 is cleared to
0
Updated bit pattern at this
stage:
0 1 0

• A/D conversion is completed

and the digital representation
of VIN = 3.2V is ‘0 1 0’
Figure: Conversion sequence of 3-bit successive
approximation ADC
 Alternative Approach
In the previous example, VREF = 10V
So, voltage contribution from each bit of DAC is:
Table 2
Bit D2 D1 D0
Voltage Contributed 5V 2.5 V 1.25 V

The 3 cycles of A/D conversion:

• MSB (D2) = 1 , D1 =0 , D0 = 0.
Input to DAC is ‘1 0 0’
According to Table 2
VDA = (5 + 0 + 0) V
As, VIN < VDA ; D2 is cleared to 0

Resulting bit pattern at this stage: 0 0 0

• Next, D1 is set to 1. • Next, D0 is set to 1.
Input to DAC is ‘0 1 0’ Input to DAC is ‘0 1 1’
According to Table 2 According to Table 1
VDA = (0 + 2.5 + 0) V VDA = 3.75 V
As, VIN > VDA ; D1 is unchanged As, VIN < VDA ; D0 is cleared to
0
Updated bit pattern at this Updated bit pattern at this
stage: stage:
0 1 0 0 1 0

A/D conversion is completed and the digital

representation of VIN = 3.2V is ‘0 1 0’
 Advantages and Disadvantages SA ADC

Advantages :
• Capable of high speed and reliable .
• Medium accuracy compared to other ADC types.
• Good tradeoff between speed and cost.

Disadvantages :
• Higher resolution successive approximation ADC’s
will be slower
DIGITAL TO ANALOGUE CONVERSION
(DAC)
 Weighted-Resistor D/A Converter
• Can be designed using an operational amplifier
and appropriate combination of resistors
• Resistors connected to data bits are in binary
weighted proportion, and each is twice the value
of the previous one.
• Each input signal can be connected to the op amp
by turning on its switch to the reference voltage
that represents logic 1.
• If the switch is off, the input signal is logic 0.
 Weighted-Resistor D/A Converter

Total Current :

Output Voltage :
Disadvantages of Binary Weighted DAC
• One disadvantage of this DAC is that N inputs require N
binary-weighted resistor values.
• Another is that the circuit require very accurate resistors, as
the DAC would require that the error in each resistor be less
than the smallest resistor value. This type requires large range
of resistors with necessary high precision for low resistors.
• Requires low switch resistances in transistors.
• Can be expensive. Hence resolution is limited to 8-bit size.
 R-2R Ladder D/A Converter

• A resistive ladder network is a special type of series-parallel

circuit.
• One form of ladder network is commonly used to scale down
voltages to certain weighted values for digital-to-analog
conversion
– Called R/2R Ladder Network
• To find total resistance of a ladder network, start at the point
farthest from the source and reduce the resistance in steps.
Figure: Thevenin equivalent to the left of point A
 Figure: Thevenin equivalent to the left of point B

Thevenin’s equivalent voltage can be determined using

superposition theorem
Figure: Thevenin equivalent to the left of point D
Advantages and Disadvantages

Advantages:
• Only two resistor values are used in R-2R ladder type.
• It does not need as precision resistors as Binary weighted
DACs.
• It is cheap and easy to manufacture.

Disadvantages:
• It has slower conversion rate.