AN1660

A Complete Low-Cost Design and Analysis for Single and Multi-Phase AC

Induction Motors Using an 8-Bit PIC16 Microcontroller

Here is a short summary of the inverter board benefits

Author: Justin Bauer when used to drive a single-phase motor:
Microchip Technology Inc.
• Elimination of relay and run capacitor – a potential
reliability improvement
INTRODUCTION • Speed/torque control
• No heat sink for up to ½ HP
This document provides a detailed analysis of driving a
• Same inverter supports single-phase and
single and multi-phase AC induction motor (ACIM)
three-phase with one line of code change
using the PIC16F1509 microcontroller. Laboratory data
is presented alongside the simulated data in an • Isolated user interface
extensive reasoning of the entire design. The purpose • Independent winding drive (load balancing)
of this application note is to show how to add speed The theory on how induction motors work and their
control and soft-start to a single and multi-phase AC construction will not be covered here. For further
induction motor by using a three-phase inverter circuit. information on this topic, please refer to AN887 in
A low-cost solution is delivered, complete with a bill of Reference 2. For a complete listing of Microchip AC
materials (BOM), schematic, code and PCB artwork induction motor application notes, please visit
files. After analyzing this document, the reader can www.microchip.com/motorcontrol/.
easily integrate the reference design and associated
materials into a competitive product. The design does The last chapter of this document contains a list of
not include power factor correction because of the recommendations that the reader may want to further
low-cost initiative. investigate.

The target application of this design is a garage door

FIGURE 1: AC INDUCTION MOTOR
opener with a motor size of less than 1 Horsepower
WITH THREE-PHASE
(HP). Motors that are larger than this may require
significant changes to the existing BOM and circuit INVERTER BOARD
layout on the high-voltage side. Hardware
optimizations for different types of motors and input
voltages are detailed.
Laboratory results from running a ¼ HP permanent
split capacitor (PSC) motor directly from the mains at
120V 60 Hz with a run capacitor are directly compared
to the identical motor being driven via a multi-phase
inverter board. A dynamometer and a power analyzer
are used to characterize the reference design. The rest
of this document will analyze these findings along with
other supplementary inverter features such as isolated
I/O, variable frequency (V/f) control, feedback and
voltage regulation. The entire procedure and materials
described in this document will provide the reader with
enough material to design a repeatable experiment.
Three-phase applications can also utilize this board
with minimal software changes; however, this
document does not provide a detailed analysis on the
results. Instructions on the setup and testing procedure
of a three-phase motor are covered in this application
note.

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TRADITIONAL SINGLE-PHASE AC Losses
INDUCTION MOTOR TOPOLOGY A practical capacitor has resistance and radiates heat
The PSC single-phase induction motor is often the as it consumes the RMS AC ripple current within its
simplest and most widely used motor of this type (see equivalent series resistance.
Section “References”). It has low starting torque and The permanently installed capacitor trades off starting
current; however, it incurs inefficiencies from the torque capability at standstill with ripple torque
expensive, non-polarized run capacitor. This capacitor reduction at running speed. Because of the high VA
commonly fails before the rest of the motor, so there is rating of the capacitor, capacitors are often selected to
a concern for maintenance because of this meet the minimum starting performance requirements,
dependency. resulting in poor running efficiency.
For motors that do not have identical windings, it is
Topology necessary to feed the two phases with different
voltages. This asymmetry is due to the presence of the
A PSC single-phase induction motor is also less
capacitor, which forms a resonant circuit with the
commonly referred to as a two-phase motor since it is
motor’s inductance. Consequently, this raises the
unable to turn without sufficient phase shift between
voltage across one of the windings and causes uneven
the two windings. A capacitor can be placed
current flow.
in-between the input signal and the windings in order to
produce an approximate 90-degree phase shift.

FIGURE 2: TRADITIONAL
SINGLE-PHASE AC
INDUCTION MOTOR
TOPOLOGY

Note: The capacitor provides the necessary

phase shift to produce a rotating magnetic
field.

The switch is often replaced with a relay that can

control the direction by swapping which phase leads or
lags the other. The value of the capacitor is typically
specified by the motor manufacturer and is sometimes
in the range of 5-50 uF for motors that are less than
1 HP. The capacitor is carefully chosen in an attempt to
correct the power factor for maximum power efficiency.
The voltage rating is typically high at around 220-450V,
depending on the input voltage. The capacitor must not
be polarized, since it is across an alternating voltage. If
this capacitor fails, the motor will cease to turn. The
importance of selecting the correct capacitor is
therefore critical.

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INVERTER BRIDGE SINGLE-PHASE
AC INDUCTION MOTOR TOPOLOGY

Topology
A three-phase inverter can be used as a substitute to
the permanent capacitor as seen in Figure 3.

FIGURE 3: SINGLE-PHASE INVERTER WITH THREE HALF-BRIDGES

Note: Six PWM signals are used to drive the connected squirrel cage PSC motor.

This topology has the benefit of being able to adjust the

speed of the motor and apply the appropriate amount
of voltage on each winding so that the weaker winding
is not overdriven. VDC is created after rectifying the AC
input. See Figure 31 for the entire system overview.
Variable Frequency Drive (VFD) is the control algorithm
used to ramp up and down the motor. For more
information on V/f control, please see Reference 3.

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Phase Derivation EQUATION 3: INDIVIDUAL PHASE
EXPRESSIONS
The motor will still spin without the capacitor if the coils
are driven out of phase from one another. This can be V DC  V DC
V U = ------------- SIN  --------- T + -------------
achieved by creating three phases in software. These 2  180  2
three-phase voltages can then be referenced from one
another to create two resultant waveforms across the V
 
V
= ------------- SIN  --------- T – --- + -------------
DC DC
two motor windings. Equation 1 shows how one of the V
V 2  180 2 2
phases (Vv) is taken as the reference (neutral) to
create two waveforms. The following equations are V DC V DC

explained in more detail in Equations 4 through 6 in V = ------------- SIN  --------- T –  + -------------
W 2  180  2
AN967 (see Reference 6), which outline each of the
three phases in the time domain.
The phase amplitude is equal to the rectified DC
EQUATION 1: MOTOR WINDINGS voltage. There is a DC offset of VDC/2 since the sine
EQUATION wave must swing an equal proportion in both the
positive and negative direction. The PI/2 term indicates
V MAIN = V U – V V a phase shift of 90 degrees, as seen in Figure 4.

V AUX = V W – VV FIGURE 4: THREE PHASES FROM THE

OUTPUT OF INVERTER

Note: The phasors for each phase are explained

in more detail in Figure 11 in AN967 (see
Reference 6).
VU, VV and VW are the three phases that are created in
software utilizing the PWM technique. Equation 2
shows a general time domain expression of a
sinusoidal wave that will be used to graph and analyze
the voltages on the motor.

EQUATION 2: GENERALIZED SINUSOIDAL

EXPRESSION
A = A SIN   T    + V
T M DC

Symbol Description
At Time-Varying Waveform
Am Waveform Magnitude
Note: VU and VW are each 90 degrees out of
VDC Direct Current (DC) Offset
phase from the middle winding, VV.

Equation 3 shows the individual inverter phases after Phase VV is considered the neutral one. Each winding
applying the general representation of a time varying has VV as its reference.
sine wave.

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Figure 5 shows the two resultant waveforms that are FIGURE 6: ALL-PHASE VOLTAGES
realized across the two windings of equal magnitude.
FIGURE 5: VOLTAGES SEEN ACROSS
THE TWO MOTOR
WINDINGS

Note: Please note how the maximum peak

voltage on VMAIN and VSTART never reach
the full potential of the DC bus voltage.

As Figure 5 shows, the peak voltage is much lower The resultant waveform across the motor does not
than the original 311V. After substituting values into utilize 100% of the input DC bus voltage.
Equation 1 from Equation 3 and locating where the Space vector PWM is therefore used to recover this
maximum voltage occurs in the auxiliary and main missing percentage of voltage; however, this strategy
waveforms, the peak voltage evaluates to  ------
1  V DC, or

only works for three-phase motors that have each of
2
70% less than that of connecting the motor directly to a their windings 120 degrees out of phase from one
another. Another strategy that can be used is to add the
220 VRMS source with capacitor. The two resultant AC
third harmonic to the sine wave so that close to 100%
waveforms across the motor’s stator are only utilizing of the DC voltage can be utilized. Please see AN955 for
70% of the available DC supply. Figure 6 shows the more details on sine PWM generated phases with 120
three phases from Equation 3 alongside the two-motor degree phase shift. The software included with this
waveforms from Equation 1. inverter board contains a look-up table with the modi-
fied values.
Figure 7 shows the current through the windings.

FIGURE 7: CURRENT THROUGH COILS

USING A CURRENT PROBE

The two current phases in Figure 7 are approximately

90 degrees out of phase from one another.

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PSC AND INVERTER COMPARISON
FOR SINGLE-PHASE MOTORS

Introduction
This section explains the scientific comparison
between the PSC run method versus the inverter
method with no run capacitor. Table 1 shows a
summary of the tests conducted.
TABLE 1: SUMMARY OF TESTS
Test Purpose
Torque To characterize the effects of Variable Frequency Drive on the motor’s torque.
Acceleration and Speed To identify which method turns the motor shaft the fastest and how quickly the load will
accelerate.
Efficiency To compare the real component of the output power to the input power and to measure the
power factor and other inefficiencies.
These three tests cover the largest design
considerations in motor control. None of the tests
require a special setup from the other tests. Each
analysis in the three separate tests uses the same
subset of data.

Equipment
Table 2 lists the equipment used during the tests.
TABLE 2: CURRENT THROUGH COILS USING A CURRENT PROBE
Purpose Model
Three-Phase Power Analyzer Yokagawa WT1806
Braking Source (Dynamometer) Magtrol Hystersis 715-D
Programmable Controller (Dynamometer) Magtrol DSP6001
PC Control Testing Software (Dynamometer) Magtrol M-TEST7
1800w AC Power Supply California Instruments 2001RP
A single motor from WEG was used during the
experiment. Its nameplate readings can be seen in
Table 3.
TABLE 3: MOTOR NAMEPLATE READINGS
Property Value
Size 1/4 HP
Type One-phase ACIM
Poles 4
Frequency 60 Hz
Voltage 220V
Current 1.2A
Run Capacitor 12 uF
Speed 1645 RPM
Main-Winding Resistance 13
Auxiliary-Winding Resistance 13

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This particular motor has a balanced winding
configuration. Both windings are identical in terms of
resistance and inductance. The results shown in this
document will differ from other motors constructed in
other various ways.

Test Setup
The entire test setup can be seen in Figure 8.

FIGURE 8: TEST SETUP ON THE DYNAMOMETER

Power
Analyzer
Programmable
Controller Power Supply Motor Board

Data Logging
HD Hysteresis Dynamometer
Note: A Hall effect sensor measures the shaft speed. The programmable controller
applies the test setup from the M-TEST 7 software to the dynamometer and
reads the applied torque. All other readings are performed by the power
analyzer and logged.

The input to the system is single-phase, two-wire All tests lasted under 60 seconds because of the risk of
(1P2W) voltage at 220V, 60 Hz. The power analyzer is damaging the insulation of the motor as a result of large
also configured for 1P2W on its single element input. prolonged currents in the stator.
The output from the power analyzer is fed into the two
Note: Please refer to the motor manufacturer’s
terminals on the inverter. The inverter has an optional
recommendations on the subject of
voltage doubler that is not used during the tests since
prolonged stress testing (locked rotor).
the input voltage is greater than 115V. Three wires are
then connected to the motor windings as seen in The inverter board’s properties for the entire test
Figure 3. duration are listed in Table 4.
The PC interface runs the M-TEST software which TABLE 4: INVERTER BOARD
configures the programmable controller and hence, the MODULATION PROPERTIES
dynamometer. When a test is running, the
Property Value
programmable controller adjusts the dynamometer to
apply a specific braking force. Before initiating a test, Switching Frequency 7.82 kHz
the motor is brought up to its maximum free running Sine Table Look-up Values 64
speed. When the maximum speed for a specific
Dead Band 420 ns max.
frequency is reached, the test begins. The duration of
the test depends on the starting speed of the motor. When the test is complete, the power analyzer and
The M-TEST software runs a dynamic ramp test with motor feedback readings are consolidated into a
inertia cancellation on the motor. A ramp test spreadsheet and plotted with MATLAB®.
decrements the motor speed in steps of 50 RPM until it
reaches a minimum of 150 RPM. A single locked rotor
reading is extrapolated using 20 data points.

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Results
This section presents the quantitative data taken from
the power analyzer. Table 5 shows a summary of the
tests performed.
TABLE 5: SUMMARY OF TESTS
Test Purpose
Torque To characterize the effects of Variable Frequency Drive on the motor’s torque.
Acceleration and Speed To identify which method turns the motor shaft the fastest and how quickly the load will
accelerate.
Efficiency To compare the real component of the output power to the input power and to measure the
power factor and other inefficiencies.
These three categories of tests use the same data
points but present different pieces of it.
The main advantage of using an inverter board over the
traditional PSC method is that the user can control the
voltage and drive frequency. Multiple modulation
frequencies are tested on the inverter board to
characterize the effects on the motor, such as
maximum torque, speed and efficiency.
The voltage and frequency can be adjusted with the
inverter board. A 1:1 voltage-to-frequency ratio means
that the voltage scales with the frequency in an exact
linear fashion. The inverter board can control these two
parameters independently of one another to create
unique results. A maximum voltage-to-frequency ratio
implies that the voltage is kept at its maximum whilst
the frequency is adjusted.
Table 6 shows what frequencies are tested and their
maximum torque results when both a linear 1:1
voltage-to-frequency and maximum voltage-to-
frequency control algorithms are used for frequencies
lower than 60Hz.
TABLE 6: INVERTER BOARD TESTS WITH 1:1 AND MAX V/f CURVE
Frequency Starting Torque Max. Torque Max. Speed Max. Efficiency Max. Output
Notes
(Hz) (Nm) (Nm) (RPM) (%) Power (W)
30 0.472 0.472 819 30.0 29 1:1 V/f
40 0.664 0.664 1170 29.5 42 1:1 V/f
50 0.765 0.777 1430 34.8 66 1:1 V/f
60 0.742 0.788 1770 37.7 87 Inverter
60 0.830 1.63 1760 47.1 227 PSC method
70 0.670 0.724 2020 39.2 94 —
80 0.53 0.576 2310 37.8 87 —
90 0.375 0.436 2530 33.3 77 —
120 0.195 0.218 3340 28.6 56.6 —
30 2.12 2.49 905 29.6 106 Max. V/f
40 1.61 1.62 1170 35.8 109 Max. V/f
50 1.16 1.16 1490 38.7 105 Max. V/f
In short, the inverter is capable of lifting a larger size this section will cover a more detailed analysis of the
load at start-up; however, its rate of work is much data in Table 6.
slower than that of the one-capacitor motor. The rest of

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TORQUE VARIABLE FREQUENCY DRIVE
The starting torque is one of the most important The torque developed by the induction motor follows
characteristics in a motor application. If the motor is Equation 4 below.
unable to lift the load at 0 RPM (locked rotor), then
none of the other properties matter, since the load will EQUATION 4:
not move.
T = K  I
Figure 9 shows the torque curves plotted against the 1 M 2
speed of the motor’s shaft. Neglecting the voltage drop caused by the stator
impedance, the magnetizing flux is found to be:
FIGURE 9: TORQUE CURVES FOR
LINEAR 1:1 V/f V1
 M = K 2 -------
F
1
Where:

Symbol Description Units

T Torque available on the motor Nm
shaft
m Magnetizing Flux (Wb) Wb
I2 Rotor Current (A) ~ A
proportional to Load
V1 Stator Voltage V
K1K2 Constants ~ proportional to —
Motor Design

From the curves, it is apparent that the motor has the

highest starting torque of around 0.75 Nm between Given a constant torque load, then, proportionally
50-60 Hz in line with the motor design. Frequencies varying voltage amplitude and frequency will result in
above and below 60 Hz have lower torque profiles. The constant flux and, therefore, constant torque while the
V/f slope determines this profile for frequencies below current remains unchanged. For more information,
the rated frequency of 60 Hz. Ideally, a 1:1 ratio please refer to the WEG technical guide listed under
between the voltage and frequency should yield a Reference 8.
constant torque as seen in Figure 10. In a real application, the actual voltage/frequency ratio
is usually restricted to a certain range and is not a
FIGURE 10: V/f RELATIONSHIP TO perfect 1:1 ratio. One such restriction is the motor
TORQUE voltage. Overvoltage will damage the insulation of the
stator and cause premature malfunctioning of the
motor.
From the rated frequency upwards, the voltage is kept
constant while the frequency is increased. This causes
the flux to decrease and the motor torque starts to
decrease gradually. For more information please refer
to the WEG technical guide under Reference 8.
Frequencies lower than 60 Hz require a fine tuning of
the voltage-frequency ratio because of losses in the
motor and inaccuracies in the motor drive. The plots in
Figure 9, which do not show a constant torque profile,
are created using a 1:1 ratio. Figure 11 shows the V/f
However, the low frequency plots in Figure 9 do not profile with a slope close to zero by keeping the voltage
show a constant torque curve. To understand this at its maximum while adjusting the frequency.
phenomenon, the theory on Variable Frequency Drive Frequencies below the optimal 60 Hz are kept at
must first be discussed. maximum voltage.

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FIGURE 11: MAXIMUM V/f CONTROL If maximum torque is desired, the rate of frequency
TORQUE CURVES increase should be adjusted to jump curves so as to
take advantage of the breakdown torque, as shown in
Figure 13.

FIGURE 13: CONSTANT TORQUE

PROFILE

It should be apparent from Figure 11 that, when the V/f

slope is lowered from 1:1 to close to 0:1, the torque
rises dramatically as the frequency is decreased. A low
frequency causes a decrease in an inductor’s
impedance. The high voltage applied to this lowered
impedance raises the current in the stator which The red line shows how the software should control the
produces higher torque. frequency and voltage in order to ride along the tops of
In order to get a linear torque curve with this specific each torque curve. This will maximize the delivered
motor and inverter board, the V/f profile should be torque at a constant rate.
fine-tuned in code until all frequencies below the Figure 14 shows the torque curve for the traditional
optimal frequency share the same shifted torque PSC method at 60 Hz compared to the 60 Hz inverter
profile. Figure 12 shows a typical plot of torque curves method.
for a typical NEMA type A motor.
FIGURE 14: TORQUE CURVES OF THE
FIGURE 12: TYPICAL VARIABLE CAPACITOR RUN VERSUS
FREQUENCY TORQUE INVERTER RUN
CURVES

Note: Curves below the optimal 60 Hz have

greater starting torque.

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The shapes of the curves between the two methods An important consideration is to determine at what
differ greatly. The capacitor method shows a slightly point to stop incrementing the frequency. If the load
larger starting torque and will accelerate faster than the requires a minimum of 0.4 Nm torque to lift, then the
inverter board at 60 Hz. The inverter board produces a inverter board should be configured to stop its
curve similar to that of a class D design motor, whilst hard-start at around 80 Hz. As described in Section
the PSC run topology produces a similar class A torque “Efficiency”, the full load torque should be matched
curve. An unequal voltage magnitude caused by the with the correct curve, so as to maximize the efficiency
permanent capacitor creates an unequal magnitude of when the motor has been spun up to its running speed.
magnetizing flux within the stator. The inverter board If the frequency is increased too fast, the motor will stall
attempts to create an equal amount of current in each and it is unrecoverable until the V/f curve is reset and
winding, since this particular motor has identical adjusted accordingly.
impedance in each. The shape of the torque curves are Figure 16 shows a soft-start, which lowers the initial
not similar because of these discrepancies in the stress of the motor as it spins up to its running speed.
driving topologies.
FIGURE 16: SOFT-START PROFILE
Looking at the starting torque when the rotor is locked,
the inverter would be unable to lift the same-sized load
as the PSC method if the inverter were programmed to
simply turn the motor at a 60 Hz modulation frequency.
However, the inverter board can use Variable
Frequency Drive to lift an even larger-sized load as
seen in Figure 11. The designer must also take into
consideration the trade-offs of large starting torque
versus efficiency and speed.
Operating the motor above its rated output torque for a
prolonged period of time will reduce the motor’s
lifespan due to larger-than-rated currents in the stator.
Figure 15 shows a hypothetical motor operation where
the load requires a large starting torque to overcome
stresses such as static friction. This is considered a
hard-start.
Note: Lines in red are a hypothetical course.
FIGURE 15: HARD-START PROFILE
Varying the V/f profile should be adjusted according to
each specific application. It may be more practical and
easier to pick one frequency curve and stay on it.

Note: Lines in red are a hypothetical course.

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Summary ACCELERATION AND SPEED
1. Starting Torque The most obvious benefit of V/f control is that the
The inverter board presents the highest amount of designer can control the speed at which the motor shaft
starting torque, which is arguably the most important spins. The faster it spins, the sooner the load can be
design property in applications where the load is fixed pushed or pulled to its destination. Getting the gate up
and requires a large amount of starting torque. The faster than the competition is a critical design win in a
inverter board must configure the V/f slope accordingly garage door or gating system application.
to achieve these large torque values. A drawback of • Angular acceleration  applied torque
this modification is that the stator consumes very large • Accelerating torque  available motor torque –
currents and the maximum speed of the motor will be load torque
slow if the curve is followed to normal run location. The
Large torque will accelerate the motor’s shaft at a faster
designer should be aware of the motor specifications
pace for a given speed. Figure 17 shows the run
before modifying the applied voltage and frequency.
capacitor method at 60 Hz compared to the inverter
2. Nominal Run Speed (60 Hz) board at 80 Hz.
As seen in Figure 14, the PSC method yields greater
starting torque and run-time torque over the motor’s full FIGURE 17: ACCELERATION FROM
range of operation. The PSC method would be a TORQUE PROFILES
cheaper and more powerful alternative in terms of
output torque if the inverter board did not take
advantage of manipulating the voltage and/or
frequency and it just ran the motor at its nominal
frequency.
3. Torque Range
Settings to accommodate motors that only require low
torque can be easily adjusted with the inverter board.
This typically prolongs the motor’s lifespan, it
conserves energy and displaces heat to its
surroundings, such as a garage. The inverter can
change the frequency and voltage, which is not
possible with the limited on and off control of the PSC.
With the permanent capacitor, the motor must be sized
larger than what is needed and may spend its lifetime
not operating at its fully rated load.
The shaded area represents more torque available for
acceleration than the other curve below it. Even though
the 80 Hz curve reaches up to 2300 RPM, the motor will
take longer to reach that speed compared to the
capacitor method. An application where the load must
be moved a large distance would benefit from riding
along the 80 Hz curve since it will be cruising at a
higher speed on average. Short distance applications
may benefit from using the 60 Hz curve with the
capacitor method, since the 80 Hz curve will take a
longer time to ramp up its speed.

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Please note that this particular motor has four poles. At Summary
60 Hz, its synchronous speed can be calculated as in
1. Speed Range
Equation 5.
The inverter board allows the motor to out-pace a
EQUATION 5: replica motor that is driven by the PSC method. The
PSC method can only be driven at one frequency and,
120  F 120  60 hence, it cannot exceed its synchronous speed.
N = ----------------- = -------------------- = 1800 RPM
S P 4
2. Acceleration
Symbol Description Units The difference between the maximum torque at a
NS Synchronous Speed RPM specific speed and what the load actually needs will
determine the rate at which the motor is able to lift the
ƒ Applied Power Frequency Hz
gate. A large delta will get the gate up faster to a certain
P Total Number of Poles — speed.

The synchronous speed of the motor can also be EFFICIENCY

qualitatively identified by looking at Figure 16 and The system efficiency, as defined in Equation 6, is
locating where the torque curve approaches a value of analyzed in this section.
‘0’. After synchronous speed is achieved, the
frequency is increased while keeping the voltage
EQUATION 6:
constant. This lowers the available torque on the motor
shaft, but increases the speed at which it turns. To take  PM 
advantage of the increase in speed, the designer  =  ----------------------------------  100
 V RMS  I RMS
should appropriately size the motor and stepping
speed, so as to reach a suitable ending speed. Recall
Symbol Description Units
that if the soft/hard-start increases too rapidly or follows
a curve that cannot continue to lift the load, the motor η Overall System Efficiency —
will follow the curve back towards (0 RPM) and it will Pm Motor Output W
stall, as shown in Figure 18. Vrms Input RMS Voltage V
Irms Input RMS Current A
FIGURE 18: INCREASING THE
FREQUENCY TOO RAPIDLY
Note that efficiency is governed by the output power of
the motor shaft divided by the real component input
power to the system. The losses of the motor as well as
the inverter board are lumped together in this model.
Future tests may also want to place a one-phase
three-wire (1P3W) measuring element in-between the
inverter board and the motor to further characterize the
losses. Please see Section “Recommendations” for
more information on other suggestions for future tests.

Note: Lines in red are a hypothetical course.

If the maximum load line is crossed because of the

frequency jumping too soon, the motor will stall by
following its current curve back to 0 RPM (i.e.,
insufficient torque available to drive the load).
Please see Section “Software” to learn more about
the available settings to prevent the motor from stalling.

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Figure 19 shows the efficiency of the PSC and inverter Another important characteristic is the input and output
board at 60 Hz. power of the motor. Figure 21 shows the efficiency
along with the input power.
FIGURE 19: EFFICIENCY OF THE PSC
METHOD VERSUS THE FIGURE 21: EFFICIENCY WITH INPUT
INVERTER POWER

Note: The dotted lines represent power curves.

The system running at 60 Hz with the PSC method (see Their axis is on the right.
Figure 19) is approximatively 10% more efficient than
with the inverter method. Further analysis shown in Figure 22 shows that much
of the input power is not consumed and it is rather
Figure 20 shows the efficiency and torque plotted on
wasted as reactive power.
the same graph.

FIGURE 22: POWER FACTOR

FIGURE 20: EFFICIENCY AND TORQUE

Note: The dotted lines represent torque

More than half of the energy is stored in capacitive and
curves. Their axis is on the right.
inductive elements in the inverter board. The PSC
The motor’s peak efficiency is at nearly the same points method has a power factor (PF) close to ‘1’ due to the
in both methods. A typical induction motor will run most close matching of the capacitor in relation to the
efficiently at a few percentage points from its motor’s inductance. There is also no power stage with
synchronous speed. Please note the motor is not the PSC method to support typical circuitry such as a
running at its maximum efficiency when the torque is microprocessor and sensor inputs. The power factor
also at its maximum. comparison is therefore favoring the PSC method due
to its basic, atypical setup.

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 AN1660
The poor power factor can be attributed to the FIGURE 25: MOTOR DRIVEN BY
rectification stage of the inverter board’s power supply, INVERTER
as shown in Figure 23.

FIGURE 23: FULL-WAVE BRIDGE

CURRENT CONSUMPTION

As shown in Figure 24 and Figure 25, under the same

input conditions, the motor driven with the run
capacitor has its stator running warmer compared to
the inverter method. The temperature range on the
bottom indicates an overall increase of the entire
The two large DC capacitors only consume current
picture. The arrow in the box simply indicates the
when the DC voltage lowers below the peak voltage of
warmest part in the box. The designer must take the
the AC input. Therefore, there are large peaks of
current and overall power input/output curves into
current in short bursts when the incoming voltage
consideration before arriving at the conclusion that the
charges the capacitors. The current drawn will have
PSC method produces more losses in the stator. An
significant harmonic content due to the presence of the
induction motor fed by PWM voltage presents a lower
switching elements.
efficiency level than when fed by purely sinusoidal
The motor will also induce reactive power into the input voltage, because of the increased losses caused by
system which reduces the overall efficiency of the harmonics in the PWM.
system. The designer may want to install passive
Additional analysis into the harmonics produced by the
power factor correction to improve the design.
switching elements on the inverter should be
This causes the voltage and current consumption from performed in order to characterize the stator losses.
the power utility company to be inefficient. The power See Section “Recommendations” for further tests
factor correction is not installed because of the low-cost that can improve the data.
nature of the inverter. An improved power factor will
The current in both systems is also analyzed (see
greatly increase the real component of the input power.
Figure 26 through Figure 28).
Infrared imaging was used to compare stator losses in
the motor with the two methods. There is no load FIGURE 26: TOTAL CURRENT
connected to the motor, which is set to run at
CONSUMPTION AT 60 HZ
60 Hz 220V.

FIGURE 24: MOTOR WITH PSC

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AN1660
The amount of current consumed by the overall FIGURE 29: OUTPUT POWER AT 60 Hz
system in both methods is similar, but the inverter has
an approximate 500 mA more when the motor starts.
The current in the inverter would theoretically double if
the voltage doubler was used for 115V systems.
For operation under 60 Hz, the current reduces as
dictated by the V/f slope.

FIGURE 27: TOTAL INVERTER CURRENT

CONSUMPTION AT 1:1 V/f

The inverter has reduced output power capability. The

designer should consider this when the inverter is to be
placed in a direct substitution of a PSC application.
This is primarily caused by the 30% VDC utilization loss,
as shown in Figure 6, as well as by harmonic losses
and a low power factor. The output power does not
increase much at maximum voltage in lower
frequencies.

FIGURE 30: OUTPUT POWER OF

However, if the voltage is kept at a constant maximum INVERTER
and the frequency decreases to 30 Hz, the current
increases dramatically, as seen in Figure 28.

FIGURE 28: TOTAL INVERTER CURRENT

CONSUMPTION AT 0:1 V/f

Note that Figure 29 and Figure 30 use the same

Y axis scale.

Because of the inductive load, a decrease in frequency

lowers its impedance and causes a large increase in
current. The limiting factor in the inverter board is the
ripple current in the DC capacitors. Please see
Table 19 for more information regarding design
limitations.
The mechanical output power of the motor is also
compared to that of the PSC run method, as seen in
Figure 29.

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 AN1660
Summary INVERTER BOARD
1. Overall Efficiency
The PSC run motor is approximately 10% more Introduction
efficient, as seen in Equation 6. Losses in the inverter The inverter board is constructed as an
run motor can be attributed to the inverter itself and to application-specific platform rather than a general
the switching elements. purpose demo board. However, it does provide
2. Power Factor numerous inputs and outputs (I/O) for the user to
interact with and modify. The inverter is strictly
The PSC method has an almost unity power factor.
engineered to drive a single-phase or three-phase AC
The inverter board has a reduced power factor and,
induction motor. Most of the parts in the bill of materials
therefore, it wastes energy in the power grid. Power in Appendix A: “Bill of Materials” have been
factor correction may be added to correct this. optimized to drive up to a ½ HP motor, whilst some
3. Output Power parts, such as the IGBTs, are higher-end and give the
The PSC run motor has much greater output power at designer more flexibility. After reading this section, the
around 230W. The motor is a 1/4 HP, so the expected reader should understand the limitations of this
inverter, as well as its optimizations in software and
output power is at least 746/4 = 186W. The inverter
hardware.
board yields slightly under 100W. A drop-in
replacement scenario should note this key difference.
Although the inverter board can lift a heavier gate at
Overview
faster speeds, the rate of work is considerably less Figure 31 shows a top-level overview of the overall
when driving a split-phase motor with no run capacitor. system.

FIGURE 31: SYSTEM OVERVIEW

The input voltage is first doubled if the jumper is DC bus voltage. As the motor spins, the microcontroller
inserted for 115V systems with a 220V motor. monitors the speed and current limit settings, as well as
the feedback current, to ensure overcurrent protection.
Note: Please see Table 20 for configuration
settings. Incorrect jumper settings may
cause the board to malfunction.
It is then rectified to a DC bus voltage. This DC voltage
is then used in a flyback converter to generate two 15V
DC regulated supplies. Each 15V power source is then
down-converted to 5V from a linear regulator. The user
interface uses optocouplers as isolation for safety
issues. The printed circuit board has a clear indicator in
silkscreen that designates what is safe to touch.
PIC16F1509 has six PWM lines driving the
three-phase inverter, which are connected to the motor.
The modulated sine wave is created from the rectified

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AN1660
Quick Start
The board’s operation should first be validated as seen
in Section “Acceptance Test”. After validation
passes, the user can use the inverter board as
described in Table 7.
TABLE 7: QUICK-START INPUTS AND OUTPUTS
Element Purpose
S0 Start/Stop Motor
S1 Start/Stop Motor
POT0 Controls the speed and direction of the motor
POT1 Current Limiter of the motor
W1 Jumper to select between 115V or 230V input. Jumper should be inserted for 220V motors on
115V input (see Table 20)
P3 Input Single-Phase AC Mains Voltage
P4 Motor Output Terminals
P2 Auxiliary Output
P5 Auxiliary Inputs
F1 Motor Fuse
P1 In Circuit Serial Programming™ (ICSP™) Header
The following basic steps show how to get an induction
motor spinning:
1. Note the size and type of motor to be attached
to the board.
2. Program either the single-phase hex file or the
three-phase hex file onto the board by using the
header at P1. 5V must be supplied by the
PICkit™ 2 during programming.
3. Remove the PICkit 2 from the ICSP™ header.
4. Place a fuse into the fuse holder at F1 that can
pass the rated motor current.
5. Connect the three motor wires to terminal P4.
Refer to Figure 3 for single-phase motor
connections.
6. Connect your input voltage of either 115V or
230V to terminal P3. Refer to Table 20 for
jumper settings.
7. The PWR green LED should now be on.
8. Place the wiper in POT1 to its halfway point.
9. Place the wiper in POT0 fully clockwise.
10. Press either S0 and S1 to start the motor.
11. The motor should slowly ramp up to its
maximum speed at 120 Hz modulation.
12. Slowly turn POT0 counterclockwise to slow the
motor to a halt. Turning it fully counterclockwise
will turn the motor in the opposite direction.
13. Adjusting POT1 will trigger an automatic
shutdown if the trip point threshold is met. The
trip LED will illuminate when this happens.
14. The user must press S0 or S1 to start up the
motor again after an emergency shutdown
event.

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 AN1660
Feature Summary
The inverter board was designed with flexibility in mind;
therefore, some of the features listed in Table 8 can be
omitted to optimize performance with cost.
TABLE 8: DESIGN SPECIFICATIONS
Design Specifications
Motor Type Single-phase and three-phase 1/3HP AC induction motors
AC Input Voltage 115 230V, single-phase
Control Method V/f, with soft-start/stop, current feedback;
Space Vector Modulation (SVM) for three-phase motors
Motor Rated Voltage 120V or 220V
PWM Switching Frequency 3.9 kHz  15 kHz
Motor Frequency Range 15 Hz  120 Hz
Heat Sink No
Isolation Yes
Overvoltage Protection Yes
Undervoltage Protection Yes
User Configurable Speed Yes
User Configurable Current Trip Yes
Most of the inputs/ outputs (I/O) are used by the default
code since an optimal microcontroller was selected.
There is still plenty of space for the developer to use
custom modifications. The I2C™ lines are also free to
use for any added slave devices. Table 9 shows how
much code space and how many modules are used to
meet the design specifications.
TABLE 9: RESOURCES USED
Resource Type Used Available to User
Program Memory 2833 (words) 5359 (words – 65.4%)
Data Memory 289 223 (bytes – 43.6%)
CPU Processing (FPWM = 7.8 kHz, FOSC = 16 MHz) 70% 30%
PWM Channels 3 1
CLC Modules 3 1
ADC Channels 2 6
Timers 2 3
Comparators 0 2
I2C™/SPI 0 1
External Interrupts 4 6
I/O Lines 16 1
EEPROM 0 0

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AN1660
Microcontroller
Figure 32 shows the pin designators and their
purposes, with the exception of programming
functionality.

FIGURE 32: PIC16(L)F1508/9 PIN

DESIGNATORS

VDD 1 20 VSS
RA5 2 19 RA0/ ICSPDAT
RA4 3 18 RA1/ICSPCLK
PIC16LF1508/9

MCLR/VPP/RA3 4 17 RA2
PIC16F1508/9

RC5 5 16 RC0
RC4 6 15 RC1
RC3 7 14 RC2
RC6 8 13 RB4
RC7 9 12 RB5
RB7 10 11 RB6

Table 10 shows a complete listing of pin functionality.

TABLE 10: PIN FUNCTIONALITY
Pin Input/ Output Digital/ Analog/ Both Purpose Notes
RA5 OUT Digital PWR LED
RA4 IN Both Push Buttons 2 x Shared In
RA3 IN Digital Dedicated Input Dedicated In
RC5 OUT Digital Motor PWM
RC4 OUT Digital Dedicated Output
RC3 OUT Digital Motor
RC6 IN Analog Current Sense
RC7 OUT Digital Motor LED
RB7 OUT Digital Motor
RB6 OUT Digital I2C™ Clock Unused
RB5 IN Both Auxiliary Inputs 3 x Shared In
2C™
RB4 Both Digital I Data Unused
RC2 IN Analog Motor Speed
RC1 OUT Digital Motor PWM
RC0 OUT Digital Motor PWM
RA2 OUT Digital Motor PWM
RA1 Unused Analog Unused Unused
RA0 IN Analog Motor Current Limit

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 AN1660
User Interface EQUATION 7: S0 IS ACTIVE
The inverter board has numerous inputs and outputs. 10 K
V = 5V  ------------------------------ = 4.8V
Some of these are multiplexed onto a single pin in OUT  10 K + 390 
order to accommodate a larger number of I/O. All of the
user interface requirements are isolated via two
When switch 1 (SW1) is pressed, the output voltage is
four-channel optocouplers and a one-channel
3.3V, as seen in Equation 8.
optocoupler. Table 11 lists the user interface inputs and
outputs.
EQUATION 8: S1 IS ACTIVE
TABLE 11: USER INTERFACE INPUTS AND
OUTPUTS 10 K
V = 5V  -------------------------------- = 3.3V
OUT  10 K + 5.1 K 
Isolated User Interface

Qty. Multiplexed Purpose

The large voltage difference between these two
2 Y Push Buttons voltages enables the ADC to distinguish between
1 N Speed Control which switch is active. The electrical specifications for
the PIC16F1509 and all of the enhanced mid-range
1 N Current Limit Control
devices specify a maximum input low voltage of 0.8V
1 N Dedicated Digital Output and a minimum high voltage of 2.0V, as seen in the
1 N Dedicated Digital Input design parameter number 41 (D041) under the
3 Y Auxiliary Digital inputs Electrical Specifications chapter (see DS40001609).
This means that for IOC to work correctly, an input
The board provides two switch buttons and two should be higher than 2V when active and lower than
potentiometers. There are also headers that provide 1V when inactive.
connections for external I/O, such as garage door trip
sensors. The two potentiometers have their transistor
in the optocoupler circuitry biased in its amplifying SOFTWARE
region. The output is therefore approximately linear, The code has numerous comments surrounding all
since the optocoupler LED does not have a linear I-V functions and important properties to help the reader
curve. Large currents in the 30 mA range are easily modify the operation. Some of the code used in
consumed for each POT. this application is taken from Microchip AN984 (see
The digital push buttons and auxiliary inputs are biased Reference 7). The modulation routines in particular are
to cause an interrupt-on-change (IOC) when either of based around this reference. Parts of the text will be
them is used. This alleviates the CPU from constantly replicated throughout this chapter for convenience.
checking the voltage level on the pins. Whenever an Table 12 lists the important developer information of
IOC is detected, an ADC reading must be taken in the software.
order to determine which input caused the interrupt. TABLE 12: BUILD INFORMATION
Property Description
FIGURE 33: MULTIPLEXED PUSH
BUTTONS CIRCUIT Language ANSI C89 C
Compiler XC8 V1.22 PRO
IDE MPLABX v1.80

Figure 33 shows an example circuit that has two

multiplexed signals (S0 and S1) on a single input pin to
the microcontroller. The 390 and 5.1K resistors form a
voltage divider with the 10K resistor. When switch 0
(SW0) is pressed, it is considered active and the output
voltage reads close to 5V, as seen in Equation 7.

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AN1660
Summary
Table 13 lists the states in the main state machine
inside of main.c. The main loop consists of a simple
state machine.

TABLE 13: STATE-MACHINE STATES

State Description
INIT The inverter is initialized and the motor is stopped.
IDLE Motor is off while polling for button presses.
MOTOR_STARTING Enter here while performing soft-start.
MOTOR_ON After the motor has been soft-started, the program enters this state. This state will
continuously poll all auxiliary inputs, switches and speed/current potentiometers.
MOTOR_STOPPING Enter here when program has been instructed to stop the motor. Soft-stop is performed
gradually here until the motor has been stopped completely, or it brakes.
Upon entry, the motor starts in its IDLE state where the
microcontroller initializes pins and stops the motor. If
SW1 is pressed, the motor starts and transitions into its
MOTOR_STARTING state. The motor starts using the
soft-start method where the frequency and voltage are
adjusted in a linear fashion in order to slowly bring the
motor up to operating speed.
The state machine then transitions into the MOTOR_ON
state when soft-start is complete. The motor speed and
current trip points are continuously polled in the main
loop. If an overcurrent scenario is detected, the
MOTOR_STOPPING state is entered and the motor is
stopped and status LEDs blinked in a pattern to
designate that a Fault condition has occurred. If SW1 is
pressed, the motor is stopped by either braking or by
soft-stop. The state machine returns to state IDLE.

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 AN1660
A structure diagram of the important files and their
methods and properties are shown in Figure 34.

FIGURE 34: STRUCTURE DIAGRAM

main.c modulate.c
It consists of state machine and global ISR flags. The It calculates the adjusted sine wave when given a Volt
PWM routine is given priority. No blocking code other and phase parameter and it saves all 64 values in a
than this routine is within the ISR. All other interrupts pre-filled buffer. The soft-start routine pace of
are serviced outside of the interrupt vector to give increment is limited by how fast this routine can
precedence to the modulation routines. complete, since the voltage and phase parameter often
demo_board.c change. When the motor is steadily running, the buffer
will not change often, since the two inputs are typically
This file acts as a facade to the main.c file. A facade constant.
is a software design pattern that provides a unified
interface to multiple complex subsystems. In essence, pwm.c
it alleviates the complex logic from the main.c file. The This does the actual loading of the PWM registers from
majority of the methods called from the main loop to the phase structure. The CLC is configured here to
this file are abstracted away to other files. generate three complementary PWMs.
bsp.h soft_start_stop.c
The board specific header file contains all hardware This file contains math-intensive operation methods.
definitions. This is referenced in most other files. Before doing a soft-start/stop, the speed POT position
common.h is measured. This position divided by the number of
steps for any given sequence, SOFT_START_DURA-
This file is the only file that should be modified to TION, will be added every SOFT_START_DELAY.
fine-tune the general settings, such as switching Figure 35 shows a flowchart for the while(1) loop in
frequency, timer intervals, trip points, etc. Any other main.c.
modifications to the system may require adjustments
elsewhere. This file is included in every source file.
generio_io.c
This file handles all user interface components, such as
buttons, switches, auxiliary I/O and potentiometers.
The ADC files are also referenced here for multiplexing
purposes.

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AN1660
FIGURE 35: MAIN ROUTINE FLOW DIAGRAM

Start
Main Loop

InitiĂlŝze Motor and

board parameters

Stop the Motor

Idle

No

Is SW1 or SW2
pressed?

Yes

Init͘ SoftStart Motor

Calculate
Modulation Buffer

No

Is SoftStart
finished?

Yes
Yes

Measure the speed and

ŽǀĞƌcurrent POTs

Has the set Calculate the

Yes
speed changed? Modulation Buffer

No

Is there an
ŽǀĞƌcurrent
condition?

No

Is SWϭ or SW2
pressed?

No

Any auxiliary
No
interrupts?

Yes

Take an ADC reading

on the multiplexed
pin and service it

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 AN1660
With the exception of the time-keeping TMR1 overflow
and modulation TMR2 overflow, all other ISR flags are
serviced outside of the ISR vector. Figure 36 shows a
flowchart of the ISR.

FIGURE 36: ISR FLOWCHART

Interrupt Service Routine

ISR entry

Calculate phase
Write modulation
Has TMR2 rolled values from pre-
Yes values into PWM
over? calculated
registers
modulation buffer

No

Set the associated

Has an IOC global flag to be
Yes
occurred? processed later in
main line code

No

Increment the
Has TMR1 rolled Uime-based
Yes
over? variables

No

Clear all interrupt

flags that have
occured

ISR Exit

The primary focus of the software is driving the

three-phase inverter. The PWM and CLC hardware
modules are utilized to complete this task. The majority
of the software processing power is spent calculating
the next PWM values and polling for user inputs, such
as trip sensors and speed control. Figure 37 shows the
general overview of the driving stage.

FIGURE 37: SOFTWARE PWM DIAGRAM

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AN1660
Software Modulation Generating the Sinusoidal Waveform
This section describes the modulation technique and The sinusoidal PWM (SPWM) look-up table method is
its associated routines. These sections are the primary the easiest way to generate a sine wave. The
focus of the code. calculations are done in an Excel sheet and then
pasted into the static program memory on the
MODULATION VARIABLES microcontroller. The sine values are read from the table
at predefined intervals to create a specific modulation
A global structure, mod, is kept in RAM, which frequency.
specifies the pulse width and offset of the PWM
A Sine Pointer variable, deltaPhase, can be adjusted
modules. Table 14 lists the three modulation structure to scale how fast or slow the modulation moves through
members. the look-up table. deltaPhase is then added to the
Phase variable. If the variable Phase is kept
TABLE 14: MODULATION STRUCTURE
increasing/decreasing at a constant rate, then the
MEMBERS resulting sine wave modulation frequency will be kept
Member Size Purpose constant. This variable can therefore be left to overflow.
phase uint16_t Present Phase Offset Each time a new value is needed from the look-up
table, the upper eight bits of the pointer variable are
deltaPhase uint16_t Phase Increment
used as the pointer index. The lower eight bits of the
(Frequency)
pointer variable can be viewed as fractional bits.
voltage uint8_t Pulse Width (Voltage)
To set the modulation frequency with a PWM frequency
Phase of 16 kHz, please see Equation 9.

This value represents a full 360 degrees of angle, EQUATION 9:

where 0x0000 = 0 degrees and 0xFFFF = 359.9
degrees. F
PWM HZ
F
RESOLUTION
= --------------- = 0.244 --------
16 BIT
deltaPhase 2

The deltaPhase value is adjusted accordingly to the Essentially, every increment of deltaPhase will adjust
voltage parameter. The voltage parameter is derived the modulation frequency by 0.244 Hz. Changing the
directly from the ADC reading of the speed POT. This PWM frequency will result in a different resolution.
variable is added to the frequency variable, phase To find the Table Pointer delta value that will provide a
value, every TMR2 overflow to get an adjusted 60 Hz modulation frequency, use the formula in
modulation angle value. Equation 10.

Voltage EQUATION 10:

The voltage is modified by the ADC reading of POT0. F
It has a maximum value of 127 and a minimum value MOD 60
DELTA P HASE = -------------- = ------------- = 246 BITS
0.244 0.244
of 0. A value of 127 indicates that the PWM signal will
have a duty cycle close to 100% when the sine wave
is at its peak value. The voltage sampling rate can be If value 246 is added to delta at each PWM interrupt,
then the resultant modulation will be 60 Hz.
modified in the SAMPLE_POT_RATE as seen in
Table 14. The 64-byte sine wave table is then To generate multiple-phase outputs, simply add a
multiplied by this amplitude factor and added to 50% constant offset value to the Phase Pointer. The source
of this method is AN984 listed under Reference 7. For
duty cycle. These scaled values are saved in a
more information, please refer to pages 5, 6 and 9 of
64-byte array in RAM for quick access in the ISR. It the above-mentioned application note.
should be noted that the V/f processing is only
executed when the motor voltage is changed such as
in soft-start.
Checks are in place to ensure that the voltage does
not go below the pre-configured minimum value.

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 AN1660
V/f PROFILE System Configuration Settings
The two subroutines, CalcAmplitude and The inverter board code contains numerous settings
CalcPhase, calculate the two parameters that that are easily changeable by modifying a single
generate the values for the PWM signals. CalcPhase #define. The entire configuration is within a
takes the scaled POT0 reading as an input and returns common.h file. Other #defines, which depend on the
a value between 0 and 512. inputs from the common.h file, are located within the
The amplitude calculation checks the minimum and project. These #defines should be modified with
ideal frequencies to ensure that the voltage is held extreme care.
within the correct zone (constant voltage past ideal
frequency). GENERAL
Table 15 lists the settings associated with the general
PWM MODULATION operation.
This is called every TMR2 overflow. The angle TABLE 15: GENERAL CONFIGURATION
parameter has only its upper six bits used as the SETTINGS
pointer index into the pre-calculated and scaled sine
table in RAM. Only the upper six bits are used since the Name Description
total size of the table is 64 bytes (26 = 64). The returned If this is commented out, it will
value from the sine table is assigned to the first PWM disable CLC4 from outputting
pointer variable. The same routine is followed to get the PWM4 on Aux4 (P2). This is
second and third phase outputs after the angle DEBUG used primarily as one of the
parameter is incremented according to the predefined tests in the acceptance
phase offset. A value of 0x4000 between modulation document (see Section
outputs will generate a 90-degree phase shift. “Acceptance Test”).
LoadModulateBuffer is called to calculate the TMR1 is used as a generic
scaled PWM values. It takes a single parameter, TMR1_TIMER_SET timer and multiple items rely
volts, with which to multiply the default sine table. It on this as a heartbeat.
then adds HALF_DUTY. The frequency at which
Speed and Current Pinch
DRIVING FREQUENCY
SAMPLE_POT_RATE POTs are sampled as a
An article published by WEG, a major motor function of
manufacturer (see Reference 7), points out that there TMR1_TIMER_SET (ms)
is no simple interrelation between the insulation life and The microcontroller
the switching frequency. General experiences have operational frequency.
shown the following pattern: Changing this will require vast
_XTAL_FREQ
• If fS < 5 kHz the probability of insulation failure changes to the calculations of
occurrence is directly proportional to the switching the PWM frequency and other
frequency. dependences.
• If fS > 5 kHz the probability of insulation failure
occurrence is quadratically proportional to the
switching frequency.
High-switching frequencies can also cause bearing
damages. However, a switching frequency increase
results in the motor voltage FFT improvement and,
therefore, it tends to improve the motor thermal
performance besides reducing noise.

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AN1660
MODULATION
The modulation routine has a few associated system
settings (see Table 16). The soft-start/stop routine
lengths and delays, as well as the modulation
frequency, can be modified here. The default code
already contains three predefined frequencies of:
1. 3.9 kHz
2. 7.8 kHz
3. 15.6 kHz
Different frequencies can be configured, but changes
to the modulation routines and sine wave values will
need to be made. The frequencies above were
selectively chosen so as to minimize the overhead in
calculations by using powers of 2 (shifts only) for
multiplication and division.
TABLE 16: MODULATION-RELATED SETTINGS
Name Description
FREQ_XXXX Predefined PWM switching frequencies
SOFT_START_DURATION Amount of times Timer1 rolls over before incrementing soft-start V/f profile
SOFT_START_DELAY TMR1_TIMER_SET (ms) per each count
SOFT_STOP_DURATION Amount of times Timer1 rolls over before decrementing soft-stop V/f profile
SOFT_START_DELAY TMR1_TIMER_SET (ms) per each count
MODULATION_MAX The maximum modulation frequency
MODULATION_IDEAL The ideal modulation frequency for the motor
MODULATION_MIN The minimum modulation frequency

USER INPUT/ OUTPUTS

The ADC is used on multiplexed pins to distinguish
which I/O has been activated. An isolated user input is
labeled as being active when the input on the isolated
side is driven high at typically 5V. Table 17 shows the
relative user configurable #defines.
TABLE 17: SETTINGS FOR THE USER I/O
Name Description
BOARD_V Microcontroller voltage on VDD
S1_V The expected voltage on pin RA4 when S1 is pressed
S2_V The expected voltage on pin RA4 when S2 is pressed
AUX2_V The expected voltage on pin RB5 when Aux2 is active
AUX3_V The expected voltage on pin RB5 when Aux3 is active
AUX4_V The expected voltage on pin RB5 when Aux4 is active
ADC_STOP_POS The upper limit for Idle operation
ADC_STOP_NEG The lower limit for Idle operation

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 AN1660
The speed reading returns a signed integer that is then
compared to the ADC_STOP_NEG/POS #defines.
Rotating the POT counter clockwise from the fully
clockwise position will decrease the motor from full
speed to idle and then full speed in reverse, as seen in
Figure 38.

FIGURE 38: ADC TO MOTOR READINGS

-512 ADC_STOP_NEG ADC_STOP_POS +512

Reverse Idle Forward

Note: The ADC value is printed above.

The biasing of S1 and S2, as well as all of the auxiliary

inputs, is designed to allow the greatest voltage
differential between the shared active elements. This is
achieved by carefully-selected resistors in a voltage
divider network.

MOTOR FEEDBACK
The only feedback to the system is the small RC
feedback network that is connected in between the
motor and GND. This network provides a small voltage
reading that is proportional to the current in the motor,
as seen in Table 18.
TABLE 18: MOTOR FEEDBACK SETTINGS
Name Description
CURRENT_TRIP_V In Volts, when generating a Fault condition. Use this setting if the user wishes
to reallocate the current trip POT to some other usage.
CURRENT_TRIP_AVG Number of ADC measurements to average for the current trip. Make this a
multiple of 2 for code speed.

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AN1660
HARDWARE DESIGN
CONSIDERATIONS
This inverter is constructed to run up to a ½ HP motor;
however, components that can exceed those levels
are used. A low-cost solution is one that selects the
minimum amount of parts with as little performance
overhead as possible to run the application. Table 19
highlights some components that limit the flexibility of
the inverter board.

TABLE 19: HARDWARE COMPONENT LIMITATIONS

Component Limit Description Approximate Limit Value Derivation
Diode Bridge Maximum Input Current 10A Data sheet
DC Ripple Capacitors Maximum Input Current 2.5 Arms through each capacitor Data sheet
Flyback Converter Input Voltage 250VAC Data sheet
Flyback Transformer Secondary Output Current 200 mA Data sheet
2
Feedback Resistor Motor Current 4.5A  IR  0.22  5W
Various Terminal Connectors Input/Output Voltage on Variable Data sheet
each terminal
IGBTs Switching Frequency and Fswitch < 25 kHz and See Section “Motor
Motor Current Idrain < 5A without a heat sink Feedback (Current
Sense)”
* The derivation source comes from the component’s respective data sheet.

Figure 39 shows a thermal image of the inverter when Notice how the IGBTs and NTC are the hottest
running the motor at 220V 60 Hz with no load. components on the board. The IGBTs are rated up to
150°C and the NTC up to 200°C. The other parts that
FIGURE 39: INVERTER BOARD DRIVING are warm include the linear regulators, flyback
MOTOR WITH NO LOAD converter and diode bridge. This design ensures that
under full load, none of the components will be
performing out of specification. The designer may wish
to optimize some of the parts for his/her application,
such as the IGBTs and diode bridge. This section will
explore design limitations and optimizations that can be
made.

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 AN1660
DC Bus Voltage Capacitors The voltage doubler consists of two capacitors that can
optionally be configured by a single jumper (W1) to
The default DC bus capacitors have a capacitance of double the input voltage, as seen in Figure 41.
560 uF and a ripple current rating of 0.235A. Ripple
current is the amount of RMS AC current flowing
FIGURE 41: VOLTAGE DOUBLER
through the capacitor’s plates as seen in Figure 40.

FIGURE 40: RIPPLE CURRENT

The ripple current rating is a direct correlation with its Table 20 shows when to connect to the jumper.
Equivalent Series Resistance (ESR). Current passing TABLE 20: JUMPER SETTINGS
through the capacitor will cause a voltage drop across
its internal resistance which then causes the capacitor Input Voltage Motor Rated
Jumper In (W1)
to heat up. Too much heat dissipation will prematurely (V) Voltage (V)
damage the capacitor. 9 115 230
The amount of ripple voltage on each of the capacitors 8 115 115
should be carefully monitored when the motor size is 8 230 230
increased and the V/f profile is modified.
The ripple current is related to the ripple voltage. Given WITHOUT VOLTAGE DOUBLER
the input frequency, capacitor bank size and load When the voltage doubler is not engaged, the effective
current, Equation 11 outlines the magnitude of ripple capacitance of the two large capacitors in series
voltage. creates a total capacitance as shown in Equation 12.

EQUATION 11: VOLTAGE RIPPLE ACROSS EQUATION 12: TOTAL CAPACITANCE

CAPACITORS WITHOUT DOUBLER
DV V
ICAP = C ------- = C -------- = C  V  F
DT T 1 1 1
-------------- = ---------- + ----------
C TOT C 12 C 13
Rearranging:
Note: C12 and C13 are the two large
I LOAD capacitors. Please refer to Appendix B:
V = ----------------
FC “Complete Inverter Board Schematic”
for the schematic.
Symbol Description Units
Since the capacitors are of the same value, the total
V Ripple Voltage which is equal V
capacitance is (560 uF/2), or 280 uF.
to the difference between
VACmax –VACmin The output frequency from the full-wave rectifier is
double the input frequency, as shown in Figure 23.
Iload Total load current as seen by A
the capacitor Equation 13 shows the voltage across both ends of the
ƒ Input frequency as seen by Hz capacitors combined will equal the peak voltage of the
the capacitor input.

C Total capacitance of the bank F

EQUATION 13: VOLTAGE ACROSS BOTH
CAPACITORS IN SERIES
A ¼ HP motor that was used throughout the tests will
consume approximately 1.4A at 60 Hz as seen in V = V + V13  = V  2
Figure 26. The input frequency, or charge/discharge DC 12 IN
rate, for the capacitors and total capacitance bank
varies depending on whether the voltage doubler
jumper is inserted.

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Given the above calculations at 220V input, the ripple Driver Stage
voltage is as shown in Equation 14.
The driving stage uses an International Rectifier
three-phase gate driver for high-voltage applications. It
EQUATION 14: RIPPLE VOLTAGE
has integrated dead time and drives six external,
1.4A N type IGBTs/FETs in bootstrap operation. The inverter
V = ---------------------------------------  42V  13.5%  was designed and tested with IGBTs; however, FETs
120H Z  280F
can easily be placed on the same footprint. The default
IGBTs are rated up to 10A on their drain with a very low
WITH VOLTAGE DOUBLER Vce saturation.
If the W1 jumper is inserted, then the voltage across The design consideration between selecting FETs or
both ends of the capacitors will be as seen in IGBTs is usually a function of switching frequency and
Equation 15. current. Table 21 compares a design decision between
placing an FET or an IGBT down.
EQUATION 15: CAPACITOR VOLTAGE TABLE 21: IGBT AND FET COMPARISON
WITH VOLTAGE DOUBLER RDS(ON)/
Type Part # Imax
VCE(ON)
V = V –V 
DC 12 13 IGBT IRG4BC20KD-SPbF 16A NA/ 2.27V
FET IRFIB7N50APBF 6.6A 0.520 Ohm/ NA
=  V IN  2  –  –  V IN  2  
IGBTs are inherently more expensive, so the design for
a ½ HP motor should use FETs with a low Rds_on.
= V  2  2
IN From the IR IGBT’s data sheet, Thermal Resistance
(Junction to ambient) is 40°C/W for a TO-263 package,
The DC voltage is effectively double that of the input and TJ is limited to 150°C. The IGBT in this particular
voltage, but at a cost of increased ripple voltage and D2Pak can, therefore, dissipate up to 3.15W before it
current. requires a heat sink for an ambient temperature of
Note: There is no protection for placing input 25°C.
voltage higher than120 and placing W1 on Hence, without a heat sink, the IGBT can only pass
the jumper. If this happens, the capacitors 1.38A to the emitter through its collector
are at risk of irreversible damage since  3.15W = 2.27  1.38  . The FET can handle 2.46A
their voltage rating will be exceeded. 2
without needing a heat sink 3.15W = 0.520  2.46  . It is
Each capacitor will only see one half of the sine wave critical that the designer should note that the data sheet
cycle. Therefore, the ripple voltage for the voltage specification of maximum current does not imply that
doubler scenario will have a frequency that reflects the the device can handle that amount without a heat sink
input frequency on a 1:1 ratio (see Equation 16). or in a warm ambient environment. Figure 42 shows
that the losses for an IGBT scale linearly, whilst the
FET scales at a power of two.
EQUATION 16: RIPPLE VOLTAGE WITH
VOLTAGE DOUBLER
FIGURE 42: IGBT VERSUS FET IN
Assuming identical capacitors at 120V input: CURRENT AND POWER
CONSUMPTION
1.4
V = ----------------------------  84V  27% 
60  280F

With the voltage doubler, the ripple voltage is doubled.

IGBT
Note: Keep in mind of the typical 20% tolerance Power (W)

value on the capacitance when doing FET

calculations.

Current (A)

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 AN1660
Lower current applications will benefit from using FETs, Do not replace the fast-acting with general purpose
while higher current applications with larger motors diodes. The diodes must be fast-acting in order to
should use IGBTs. charge the bootstrap capacitors efficiently without
Figure 43, from an IR application note, AN980 (see losing leakage current from fast-switching cycles.
Reference 5), shows that the cost decision point for
choosing IGBTs over FETs coincides with a motor of Inrush Current
1HP.
An inrush limiter is used to limit the initial current that is
drawn from the AC supply from tripping a household
FIGURE 43: PER UNIT DOLLARS circuit breaker. This negative temperature coefficient
VERSUS MOTOR SIZING (NTC) thermistor suppresses the high inrush current
surges that occur when charging the low-impedance
DC smoothing capacitors of C12 and C13. Once the
capacitors are energized, the resistance of the NTC will
decrease rapidly to a very low value.
A few items of data are needed to scale an inrush
current limiter:
1. Load capacitance of device to be protected
2. Steady-state current (IMAX) and maximum
ambient temperature
3. Required reduction of inrush current to
determine R25 of NTC inrush current
limiters
4. Maximum supply voltage
Motors that are less than 1 HP in size should use FETs,
according to the International Rectifier application note. For further details, please see Epcos application note
The designer should determine the trade offs of the two listed under Reference 9.
elements. The Cantherm MF72 data sheet, Power NTS
Essentially, there is a trade off between the cost of the Thermistor of the selected NTC, MF72-22D11, already
silicon and the aluminum needed for the heat sink. provides these data points. Important characteristics of
Cheaper FETs/IGBTs need more dissipation caused by the NTC are placed in Table 22.
higher losses versus expensive parts that need no
external dissipation. As pointed out in the IR application
note, “Often it is more cost-effective to choose silicon
rather than aluminum.”
SMD thermal dissipation is an alternative route to using
a heat sink, albeit at a cost of heating up other
components on the inverter.
Besides the switching elements, another design issue
is the selection of gate resistors and bootstrap diodes
and capacitors.
The gate resistors were selected at 22 Ohms in order
to lower the dV/dt which reduces the negative voltage
spike caused by fast transitions. The designer should
be careful not to make this transition too slow in
proportion to the switching frequency; if this condition is
not met, the element will never switch full on or off.
Please see Reference 11 from Avago Technologies for
information in selecting the correct gate resistor.
1.0 uf 25V capacitors were chosen as the bootstrap
capacitors. The voltage across the capacitor must not
be lower than Vg_on in between switching times; the
gate will fail to fire if this condition is not respected. The
diodes must be fast-acting in order to preserve the
charge on the capacitors.

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TABLE 22: NTC KEY PARAMETERS

Stead State Approx. R of Dissipation Load Capacitance

Part Number R25
Current Max. Current Coefficient @ 120VAC @ 240VAC
MF72-22D11 22 2A 0.563 15 mW/ °C 880 uF 220uF
According to the MF72-22D11 data sheet, the Flyback Converter
maximum load capacitance at 220V is determined to
be 880 uF, which is higher than the inverter board’s The inverter uses a flyback converter to convert the
load capacitors of 560 uF. Its ambient resistance at rectified DC voltage into two separate and isolated
room temperature is 2 Ohms, which should limit the power supplies. The LNK625 provides the regulation
current to a 220V/22 = 10A. The designer should also instead of the microcontroller. A lower cost solution
check the diode bridge to ensure that the peak current should dedicate a PWM module plus other monitoring
is within the ratings. The steady-state current must be software to control the flyback power supply.
taken into consideration when driving larger motors or The feedback resistors, R16 and R17, are carefully
when modifying the V/f curve. Recall that large chosen to bias the output voltage to around 14-15V. It
voltages at low frequencies will cause very large is critical that these resistors are 1%. The 15V is used
currents in the stator. If the motor is kept in this mode, to supply power to the IGBT/FET driver chip. Its gate
the designer risks damaging the NTC. voltage is directly proportional to its supply voltage. The
The load capacitance is doubled from 280 uF (560/2) to designer should verify that this gate voltage is sufficient
560 uF and the current is also doubled when using the to drive the switching elements.
voltage doubler at 120V. Please take this into The fast-acting diodes used in the input filter and output
consideration when choosing an NTC. rectification should not be exchanged for general
The manufacturer’s maximum current derating curve purpose ones. The output rectification capacitors are
must be looked at if the inverter board is to be placed chosen to provide ample current to the low voltage
into an application where the ambient temperature is electronics; however, their capacitance value may still
not 25°Celsius. The resistance of the NTC is inversely be lowered and hence optimized after careful
proportional to the rise of the ambient temperature. considerations of the load. Place these capacitors as
close to the integrated circuits as possible.
The NTC must be given sufficient time to bring itself
back to room temperature after it has been consuming The layout of the PCB should closely match that of the
current, before the inverter board is switched back on. LNK625 data sheet. For more design considerations,
If the NTC has not properly reset its temperature to a please see the LNK623-626 LinkSwitch©-CV Family
safe point and the inverter is switched on too soon, the data sheet (Reference 14).
designer risks irreparable damage of the fuse. Since
large capacitors are being charged in this application, Linear Regulators
the large time constant associated with these
The MCP1703A provides the step-down voltage from
capacitors will usually cause the NTC to release
16V to 5V on both secondaries of the transformer. The
thermal energy faster than the capacitors becoming
MCP1703A is operating at its maximum input voltage
fully discharged. The bleed-off resistors of R8 and R13
of 16V. If the flyback regulation causes voltage spikes
should be adjusted to tweak the RC time constant.
higher than the allowed maximum input voltage,
Lastly, it is not uncommon for the NTC to heat up during designers may want to look at the MCP16301 switching
normal operation. According to Table 22, the regular for improved efficiency or at the MCP1804 as a
temperature for the NTC is as seen in Equation 17. replacement.
Another consideration is the package of the regulators.
EQUATION 17: NTC TEMPERATURE The optocouplers consume large currents, higher than
2 2 20 mA, while being biased in their active region. The
P NTC = I R = 2 A  0.563 = 2.252W
two potentiometers and the dedicated isolated output
have their associated optocoupler circuits biased this
P
NTC 2.252 way. It is important that the designer correctly identifies
T = ------------------------------- = -------------  150C
NTC C OEF F
NTC
0.015 the package for heat dissipation. The maximum power
dissipation is shown in Equation 18.

It is evident that the placement of the inrush limiter is

critical; therefore, it should be placed so as not to touch
or heat up any adjacent components.

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 AN1660
EQUATION 18: PACKAGE SIZING FIGURE 44: MOTOR RC FEEDBACK
T –T  FILTER
J – M AX A
P MAX = ----------------------------------------
 JA

Where:

Symbol Description Units

Pmax Maximum Power Dissipation W
TJ-max Maximum Junction °C
Temperature Symbol Description
TA Ambient Temperature °C Imotor Total current through the motor’s
stator.
JA Thermal Resistance from °C/W
Junction to Ambient RFeedback A power resistor. The value must
be carefully calculated in
Solving for the MCP1703A in SOT-89 package: proportion to the expected
locked-rotor current of the motor.
 150C – 25C  D A fast-acting diode that is used to
P MAX = ---------------------------------------- = 817 M W
153C  W eliminate negative transients.
Therefore, to safely use the MCP1703A in an SOT-89 RFilter and Used to eliminate high-frequency
package, the maximum power must be limited to CFilter noise by creating a low-pass filter.
817 mW. Power consumption higher than 817 mW These are placed as close to the
would require reducing the ambient temperature or microcontroller pin as possible.
adding a heat sink.
The total allotted current for the SOT-89 regulator is as The feedback resistor must be carefully selected. The
shown in Equation 19. voltage drop across the resistor is used to determine if
an overcurrent scenario has been entered. The
EQUATION 19: POWER CONSUMPTION IN resolution of the ADC is 4.88 mV per step (5V / 1023).
A resistor with high-resistance will induce a larger
SOT-89 PACKAGE
voltage drop and hence a larger ADC resolution
P between the signal and the noise floor. However, the
MAX
I = -----------------------------------
MAX V – V  energy consumed by the resistor will be higher
IN OUT
compared to a resistor of a lower value.
The inverter has a 5W 0.22 Ohm resistor as the
817 M W feedback. With an expected maximum current of 4A,
= ----------------------------- = 74 M A
 16V – 5V  the total voltage drop across it will be 0.88V. The total
power consumed is therefore 3.52W, which is below
If the above calculations were performed for an 5W. The designer has to avoid this voltage drop from
MCP1703A in an SOT223 package, the maximum rising high enough so as to cause the IGBTs to switch
current drawn from the 5V line can be up to 183 mA on. The minimum IGBT gate-to-emitter (VGS) voltage
without having to add extra thermal dissipation. The for this inverter board is 10V. The IGBT driver supplies
current design uses the SOT223 package for flexibility. a driving voltage of 15V. If the voltage across the
resistor rises to 5V, the designer risks the inverter
Motor Feedback (Current Sense) malfunctioning and damaging the driver.
The current feedback system is a very simple and The designer may also want to include a hardware
low-cost solution. In some motor applications, a Fault-protection circuit to handle fast Fault type events.
high-side current reading circuit is employed due to its
accuracy and non-invasiveness. The solution provided
in Figure 44 presents a low-side current sense that
consists of only a few discrete components.

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AN1660
Optocouplers LIMITATIONS
The isolation barrier between the microcontroller and This low-cost board has two limitations that the
the outside world is complete with optocouplers. The designer should be aware of:
optocoupler can be biased in two modes of operation:
1. No power factor correction on the input stage
Linear mode and Digital Logic mode. These two modes
can easily be modified by the designer by changing 2. Decreased horsepower output compared to that
only one resistor (R2), as shown in Figure 45. of a traditional PSC setup with an identical motor

FIGURE 45: THE COMMON-COLLECTOR

CIRCUIT
RECOMMENDATIONS
These tests that were conducted can be further
expanded. The following lists some endeavors that
should enhance this document further:
1. Characterize more than one split-phase
motor
2. Test a three-phase motor
3. Rerun the existing tests at 115V input
with the voltage doubler
4. Connect another measuring element to
the three output PWM terminals.
Between this measurement and the input
power measurement, the designer can
Note: When the forward current is ‘0’, the
calculate the efficiency of the inverter and
output is low. When the optocoupler
driving circuitry as separate entities
LED is conducting, the output is high.
5. Power Factor Correction on the input
stage of the inverter
The optocouplers are kept within their linear region for
the potentiometer circuits so that every incremental 6. Implement Space Vector PWM (SVPWM)
swipe of the potentiometer can produce an amplified instead of Sine PWM (SPWM) to
copied signal on the output. While the output is not a compare total harmonic distortion and
direct 1:1 relationship, it is a sufficient and VDC utilization (please see
cost-effective method in creating an isolated analog Reference 15).
signal. A downside of this method is that large currents
will be consumed by the optocoupler. ACCEPTANCE TEST
Digital Logic mode is used on the inverter board for all
isolated digital I/O with the exception of the dedicated Introduction
output. When the optocoupler LED is active, the output
is high as indicated in Figure 45. Rise and fall times This section provides a quantitative test bench and
while operating in Digital Logic mode are much slower quick-start operation for the high-voltage and
since the load resistor R2 is increased. When R2 is low-voltage properties of the inverter board, which are
decreased, the rise (TR) and fall times (TF) decrease analyzed in this document.
dramatically. This is why the dedicated output and input This inverter was originally designed to drive a
circuitries are biased in their active region. single-phase AC induction motor; however, it can be
The schematic seen in Appendix B: “Complete used to create any arbitrary phase difference between
Inverter Board Schematic” shows that the the three outputs.
multiplexed pins appear similar to Figure 45, with the
exception of a voltage divider with a 10K pull-down
resistor. The load resistors are carefully chosen to
create offsets that are equidistant from one another so
that the ADC on the microcontroller can easily
differentiate between signals.
Note: The designer must take into consideration
the 20-30 mA current consumption of the
optocoupler LED circuitry and its effect on
the maximum current capability of the
linear regulator (MCP1703A).

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 AN1660
General Safety Notice Power Supply
This board consumes high currents and voltages with All measurements below (see Table 23 and Table 24)
no isolation from the supplied input power. It is advised are in Volts DC (VDC) unless otherwise specified
that extreme caution is taken while performing any
measurements. The following are some general notes:
• If a scope is used, make sure that it is an isolated
model since the GNDs are floating with respect to
earth ground.
• It is safer to test the inverter using a DC power
supply with current limiting for the initial test.
60VDC can be used to verify the low-voltage
operation.
• The isolated section of the inverter has a separate
return path from the non-isolated one.
• It is recommended to use an isolating transformer
with the appropriate VA rating while testing and
developing.
.
(1)
TABLE 23: POWER SUPPLY MEASUREMENTS
Description Abbreviation TP+ TP- Min. Max. Expected Actual(4)

Input Voltage(2) VIN VIN(P3) VIN(P3) 20VAC/ 230VAC/ —

30VDC 325VDC
5V Microcontroller PIC_5V 6 PIC_GND 4.52 5.53 5.03
Voltage
15V Microcontroller PIC_15V 7 PIC_GND 12.96 15.84 14.4
Secondary Voltage
15V Isolated ISO_15V 8 ISO_GND 12.24 14.97 13.61
Secondary Voltage
5V Isolated Voltage ISO_5V 9 ISO_GND 4.51 5.51 5.01
VBUS (representative VBUS 10 PIC_GND  VIN 2  – 1.4  VIN 2  + 1.4 VIN 2
of VIN)(3)
VBOOTSTRAP LNK VBOOT 11 PIC_GND 5.38 6.58 5.98
Note 1: TP = Test Point
2: An applied AC voltage that is above 115V must not have the jumper placed in circuit. Doing so will cause
the inverter to malfunction. There is no protection against this user error.
3: If VIN is an AC signal, VBUS = VIN * 2. If VIN is a DC signal, VBUS = VIN – 1.
4: To be filled in by the user.

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AN1660
Input / Output
TABLE 24: I/O MEASUREMENTS(1)
Setup Abbreviation TP+ TP- Min. Max. Expected Actual(2) Notes
Isolated Auxiliary Inputs
5V connected between C and D Aux0 1 PIC_GND 2.98 3.64 3.31
respectively
5V connected between E and F Aux1 1 PIC_GND 2.25 2.75 2.50
respectively
5V connected between G and H Aux2 1 PIC_GND 4.32 PIC_5V 4.80
respectively
Isolated Auxiliary Outputs
5V connected between A and B Aux3 2 PIC_GND 4.48 PIC_5V 4.98
Isolated Inverter Inputs (Switches)
Press button S0 SW0 3 PIC_GND 4.29 PIC_5V 4.77
Press button S1 SW1 3 PIC_GND 2.95 3.61 3.28
Isolated Inverter Inputs (POTs)
POT R36 turned fully clockwise POT0 4 PIC_GND 0.00 0.00 0.00
POT R36 at middle position POT0 4 PIC_GND 0.99 1.24 1.10
POT R36 turned fully POT0 4 PIC_GND 4.31 PIC_5V 4.79
counter-clockwise
POT R37 turned fully clockwise POT1 5 PIC_GND 0.00 0.00 0.00
POT R37 at middle position POT1 5 PIC_GND 1.07 1.39 1.19
POT R37 turned fully POT1 5 PIC_GND 4.32 PIC_5V 4.80
counter-clockwise
Note 1: TP = Test Point
2: To be filled in by the user.
Figure 46 shows how to test the isolated auxiliary
inputs by applying a +5V DC supply on terminals A and
B, C and D, E and F, G and H. Please connect to the
correct polarities on the terminals.

FIGURE 46: ISOLATED AUXILIARY

INPUT TEST

The resistors for the multiplexed resources were

chosen to provide the largest voltage differential
between states.

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 AN1660
Isolated Output Inverter Board Operation
Figure 4 shows the required setup to test the isolated After the above measurements are validated, motor
digital output (Aux4). Terminal I should be connected to drive operation should be tested.
a +5V power source. Terminal J should be connected The software is capable of producing any output phase
to ground through a 180Ω resistor. Isolated and difference. The most common offsets are typically 90 or
non-isolated grounds need to be bridged and 120 degrees. The default firmware produces a
connected with the ground of the probe. Probe 1 should 90-degree offset for driving single-phase AC induction
measure at test point J. Probe 2 should measure at test motors. A three-phase ACIM may also be used with the
point 12. Figure 47 shows the expected output. inverter after the configuration file is modified by using
the ONE_TWENTY_DEG #define inside the
FIGURE 47: ISOLATED OUTPUT TEST modulate.c file.
Test procedure:
1. Connect the motors input wires to the U, V and
W outputs of the inverter.
2. Apply 230V AC power to VIN.
3. The PWR LED should light up, indicating power
to the inverter.
4. Turn POT0 at the midpoint position, facing
down. This is the stop position of the motor.
5. Press SW1 to start the motor.
6. Slowly turn POT0 fully clockwise. The motor
should spin clockwise. The motor light on the
Upon power-up, the default code will present a 7.8 kHz
inverter should blink at an increased rate,
PWM waveform on the digital output channel as seen
proportional to the speed of the motor.
in Figure 48.
7. Turn POT0 fully counter-clockwise. After the
center-stop position (six o’clock) has been
FIGURE 48: EXAMPLE OF PWM
passed, the motor should start spinning in the
EXPECTED OUTPUT
opposite direction. The motor light should again
blink accordingly.
8. Press SW1 again to turn the motor off.
9. POT1 adjusts the current pinch feature of the
inverter. Press SW1 to start the board again.
Lower the current limit and when the limit has
been reached, the motor will shut off.
10. Apply 115V power to VIN with a jumper placed
on W1. Placing a jumper on W1 will double the
voltage going to the inverter.
Note: The voltage with the jumper W1 in-circuit
must not exceed 115V, as there is no
protection against this user error.

Note 1: Scope 1 is the PWM output on P2.

2: Scope 2 is the PWM output on RC4.

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AN1660
APPENDIX A: BILL OF MATERIALS
TABLE 25: BILL OF MATERIALS
Quantity Designator Description Part Number
2 C1, C7 CAP CER 470PF 100V 5% NP0 0805 CL21C471JCCNNNC
4 C2, C9, C24, C25 CAP ALUM 10UF 25V 20% RADIAL UVZ1E100MDD
2 C3, C8 CAP ALUM 47UF 35V 20% RADIAL ESH476M035AE3AA
4 C4, C5, C10, C18 Cap, Ceramic, 0.1uF, 50V X7R 08055C104MAT2A
10 C6, C14, C15, C16, C17, CAP CER 1UF 50V 10% X5R 080 UMK212BJ105KG-T
C19, C20, C21, C22, C23
1 C11 CAP CER 820PF 2KV 10% X7R 1210 1210GC821KAT1A
2 C12, C13 CAP ALUM 560UF 250V 20% SNAP EET-UQ2E561CA
6 D1, D2, D4, D7, D8, D9 DIODE ULTRA FAST 600V 1A SMA STTH1L06A
1 D3 Full Wave Diode Bridge GBU10M-BP
1 D5 LED, SMD, YEL, 0805 package APT2012YC
2 D6, D10 LED, SMD, GRN, 0805 package APT2012CGCK
1 D11 DIODE_FAST_SOD123 CFRMT107-HF
1 F1 FUSEHOLDER 22.5MM PCB 5X20MM 0031.8201
BK
1 NTC1 Current Limiter Inrush 100R 20% NTC1MF72-010D11
1 P1 Header, PICkit™ 2, 1X6 0.1sp TSW-106-07-F-S
1 P2 TERMINAL BLOCK 3.5MM 2POS PCB ED555/2DS
1 P3 2PHDR-200 OSTTC022162
1 P4 TERMINAL BLOCK 5.08MM 3POS PCB EDZ350/3
1 P5 Term_BLK_8pos 3.5mm ED555/8DS
2 POT0, POT1 3386P-1-202TLF 3386P-1-202TLF
6 Q1, Q2, Q3, Q4, Q5, Q6 Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor with RG4BC20KDSTRLP
Ultrafast Soft Recovery Diode
2 R1 RES 0.0 OHM 1/8W 0805 SMD RMCF0805ZT0R00
5 R2, R3, R45, R47, R48, R49 RES 510 OHM 1/8W 0805 SMD RRMCF0805FT510R
2 R4, R7 RES 47 OHM 1/8W 0805 SMD RMCF0805FT47R0
2 R5, R6 RES 820 OHM 1/8W 0805 SMD RMCF0805FT820R
2 R8, R13 RES 100K OHM 1/4W 5% CARBON CF14JT100K
FILM
1 R9 RES 270K OHM 1/4W 5% CARBON RNMF14FTC270K
FILM
2 R10, R11 RES 4.7K OHM 1/8W 1% 0805 SMD RMCF0805FT4K70
1 R12 ES 330 OHM 1/4W 5% CARBON FILM CF14JT330R
5 R14,R15, R23, R24, R36 RES 1K OHM 1/8W 1% 0805 SMD RMCF0805FT1K00
1 R16 ES 30.9K OHM 1/8W 1% 0805 SMD RMCF0805FT30K9
1 R17 RES 6.04K OHM 1/8W 1% 0805 SMD RNCP0805FTD6K04
5 R18, R20, R25, R40, R42 RES 10K OHM 1/8W 1% 0805 SMD RMCF0805FT10K0
1 R19 RES 160K OHM 1/8W 1% 0805 SMD RMCF0805FT160K
6 R21, R27, R34, R35, R38, RES 390 OHM 1/8W 0805 SMD RMCF0805FT390R
R43
2 R22, R44 RES 5.1K OHM 1/8W 1% 0805 SMD RMCF0805FT5K10
1 R26 RES 0.22 OHM 5W 5% RADIAL 2-1623788-5
6 R28, R29, R30, R31, R32, RES 20 OHM 1/8W 1% 0805 SMD RMCF0805FT20R0
R33

DS00001660B-page 40  2014 Microchip Technology Inc.

 AN1660
TABLE 25: BILL OF MATERIALS (CONTINUED)
Quantity Designator Description Part Number
1 R46 RES 6.8K OHM 1/8W 1% 0805 SMD RMCF0805FT6K80
2 S0, S1 SWITCH TACTILE SPST-NO 0.05A 24V B3S-1002
1 T1 Four-Winding Transformer (Non-Ideal) 750813144
1 U1 4-Pin Phototransistor Optocoupler ACPL-217-500E
1 U2 8-Bit Micro PIC16F1509-E/SO
1 U3 AC/DC Converter LNK625DG
2 U4, U6 SOLATOR 3KVRMS 4CH TRANS 16SOI ACPL-247-500E
1 U5 IC MOSFET DRIVER IRS2334SPbF
2 VR1, VR2 POS 5V 250mA, LDO Regulator SOT89 MCP1703T-5002E/MB
1 VR3 Resistor MOV-07D471K

 2014 Microchip Technology Inc. DS00001660B-page 41

 APPENDIX B: COMPLETE INVERTER BOARD SCHEMATIC
DS00001660B-page 42

AN1660
Non-Isolated R1
+5V
Isolated
0R

P1
AGND DGND 1
Vpp/AUX0
2
VPP/MCLR R2 U1 R3 P2
VDD Garage Light
3
GND 1 Garage Light
PGD/Ramp
4
ICSPDAT 510R 510R 2
5
PGC ICSPCLK AUX4 ED1514-ND
6 ACPL-217-500E
NC
PICKIT2 DGND

DGND

+5V VR1 D1
C24 VIN
1
+5V 3 +15V
VOUT
2

750813144
GND
10uF 25V C2 TAB(GND)
4 C1 STTH1L06A R4
C5 C6 R5 C4 C3
0.1μF 1.0uF 10uF 25V MCP1703T-5002E/DB 0.1μF
820R 47uF 35V 470pF 47R VR2
10 T1 9 D2 1 C9
VIN
3 +5V ISO
VOUT
+5V R6 2
GND
+5V DGND
R7
STTH1L06A C7 4 10uF 25V
C8 TAB(GND)
NTC1 DGND C10
+Vbus 0.1μF MCP1703T-5002E/DB
U2 47R 470pF 47uF 35V 820R
7 8
1 20
VDD VSS 1
2 19 F1
RA5 RA0/PGD PGD/Ramp R10 R11 2 HOT C12 R8 R9 C11
3 18 MF72-010D11

1
P3 100K 270K

MOV-07D471K
Remote Learn RA4 RA1/PGC PGC D3 560uF 250V 820pF 2KV
4 17
Vpp/AUX0 RA3/MCLR RA2 CLC1 1 NEU
5 16 4.7K 4.7K

VR3
Open/Close Door PWM1 RC5 RC0 CLC2 3 2 ISOGND

MOV
6 15
Garage Light RC4 RC1 PWM4 W1
7 14 GBU10M-BP
PWM2 RC3 RC2 Speed 2
8 13 R13
Isense RC6 RB4 SDA R12 4
9 12 C13 100K

4
RC7 RB5
10 11 560uF 250V 330R
CLC3 RB7 RB6 SCL
PIC16F1509-E/SO
AUX1

STTH1L06A
R14 R15 +5V
AUX2 5
DGND D4
AGND
1K 1K R36 AUX3
D6 D5
LED2 LED2
1K AGND
R16

D10 U3 30.9K
DGND C14 1 8 R17
+Vbus EN/UV S
1.0uF 2
BP/M S
7 6.04K
3 6
NC S
DGND 4 5
D S
LNK625DG

IRG4BC20KDSTRLP
AGND
IRG4BC20KDSTRLP
IRG4BC20KDSTRLP

Q1 Q2 Q3 AGND

+5V ISO

S0
P4 +5V
M1
+5V ISO Remote Learn
1
M2
2
M3 C20
3 C21
1.0uF
IRG4BC20KDSTRLP

1.0uF B3S-1002
IRG4BC20KDSTRLP

ED1644-ND R20
IRG4BC20KDSTRLP

Q4 +5V
Q5 Q6 DGND ISOGND 10K
Remote Learn R23
U4 ISOGND S1
16 1
Open/Close Door
R21 1K Start/Stop Motor
15 2
R19 R24
Isense 390R 14 3
Isense
160K R18 R22 1K
C22 13 4 B3S-1002
CFRMT107-HF

R26 1.0uF
5.1K R27 R25
R28 R29 R30 R31 R32 R33 0.22R D11 10K 12 5
20R 20R 20R 20R R34 10K
20R 20R DGND Speed 11 6 390R
ISOGND
R35
AGND 390R 10 7 CCW CCW
DGND PGD/Ramp Speed
9 8 390R POT1
+15V R38 390R ACPL-247-500E POT0 2K
DGND 2K
ISOGND 3386P-1-202TLF
3386P-1-202TLF
11

10

19

16

13

18

15

12
 2014 Microchip Technology Inc.

+15V
+5V Curent Pinch
VCC

HO1

HO2

HO3

VS1

VS2

VS3
LO1

LO2

LO3

U5
ISOGND
IRS2334SPbF

C16 C17 C15 C23

1.0uF
C25 1.0uF 1.0uF 1.0uF
HIN1

HIN2

HIN3
COM

C18 C19
LIN1

LIN2

LIN3

VB1

VB2

VB3

0.1μF 1.0uF ED1520-ND

10uF 25V +5V P5
DGND 284391-8
7

20

17

14

U6 R45 1
16 1 AUX0
+15V 2
DGND Vpp/AUX0
15 2 510R
R47 3
R46 6.8K
14 3 AUX1
D7 4
R44 510R
DGND 13 4
AUX1 5
CLC2 STTH1L06A R48
5.1K 12 5 AUX2
CLC3 D8 6
R40 510R
CLC1 AUX2 11 6
R49 7
STTH1L06A
PWM1 R42 10K 10 7
AUX3
D9 AUX3 8
PWM2 R43 510R
10K 9 8
PWM4
STTH1L06A 390R ACPL-247-500E

DGND
 AN1660
REFERENCES
1. Speed Control of 3-Phase Induction Motor
Using PIC18 Microcontrollers, Padmaraja
Yedamale, AN843, Microchip Technology
2. AC Induction Motor Fundamentals, Rakesh
Parekh, AN887, Microchip Technology
3. V/f Control of Three-Phase Induction Motors
Using PIC16F7X7 Microcontrollers, Rakesh
Parekh, AN889, Microchip Technology
4. Determining MOSFET Driver Needs for Motor
Drive Applications, Jamie Dunn, AN898,
Microchip Technology
5. IGBTs vs HEXFET® Power MOSFETs for
Variable Frequency Motor Drives, Ajit Dubhashi
and Brian Pelly, AN980, International Rectifier
6. Bidirectional VF Control of Single and
Three-Phase Induction Motors Using the
PIC16F72, Padmaraja Yedamale, AN967,
Microchip Technology
7. An Introduction to AC Induction Motor Control
Using the dsPIC30F MCU, Steve Bowling,
AN984, Microchip Technology
8. Induction Motors Fed by PWM Frequency
Inverters, WEG
9. Application Note for Inrush Current Limiters,
EPCOS
10. Induction Motor Speed Torque Characteristics,
Yaskawa Electric America, Inc
11. Gate Drive Optocoupler Basic Design for IGBT/
MOSFET, AN967, Microchip Technology
12. Bidirectional VF Control of Single and Three-
Phase Motors Using the PIC16F72, Padmaraja
Yedamale, AN967, Microchip Technology
13. Efficiency Improvement of Permanent-Split
Capacitor Motors in HVAC Applications Using a
Two-Phase Asymmetrical Inverter, Anderson, K.
14. LNK623-626 LinkSwitch-CV Family Data Sheet,
Power Integrations
15. VF Control of 3-Phase Induction Motor Using
Space Vector Modulation, Rakesh Parekh,
AN955, Microchip Technology

 2014 Microchip Technology Inc. DS00001660B-page 43

AN1660
NOTES:

DS00001660B-page 44  2014 Microchip Technology Inc.

Note the following details of the code protection feature on Microchip devices:
• Microchip products meet the specification contained in their particular Microchip Data Sheet.

• Microchip believes that its family of products is one of the most secure families of its kind on the market today, when used in the
intended manner and under normal conditions.

• There are dishonest and possibly illegal methods used to breach the code protection feature. All of these methods, to our
knowledge, require using the Microchip products in a manner outside the operating specifications contained in Microchip’s Data
Sheets. Most likely, the person doing so is engaged in theft of intellectual property.

• Microchip is willing to work with the customer who is concerned about the integrity of their code.

• Neither Microchip nor any other semiconductor manufacturer can guarantee the security of their code. Code protection does not
mean that we are guaranteeing the product as “unbreakable.”

Code protection is constantly evolving. We at Microchip are committed to continuously improving the code protection features of our
products. Attempts to break Microchip’s code protection feature may be a violation of the Digital Millennium Copyright Act. If such acts
allow unauthorized access to your software or other copyrighted work, you may have a right to sue for relief under that Act.

Information contained in this publication regarding device Trademarks

applications and the like is provided only for your convenience The Microchip name and logo, the Microchip logo, dsPIC,
and may be superseded by updates. It is your responsibility to
FlashFlex, flexPWR, JukeBlox, KEELOQ, KEELOQ logo, Kleer,
ensure that your application meets with your specifications.
LANCheck, MediaLB, MOST, MOST logo, MPLAB,
MICROCHIP MAKES NO REPRESENTATIONS OR
OptoLyzer, PIC, PICSTART, PIC32 logo, RightTouch, SpyNIC,
WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND WHETHER EXPRESS OR
SST, SST Logo, SuperFlash and UNI/O are registered
IMPLIED, WRITTEN OR ORAL, STATUTORY OR trademarks of Microchip Technology Incorporated in the
OTHERWISE, RELATED TO THE INFORMATION, U.S.A. and other countries.
INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO ITS CONDITION,
QUALITY, PERFORMANCE, MERCHANTABILITY OR The Embedded Control Solutions Company and mTouch are
FITNESS FOR PURPOSE. Microchip disclaims all liability registered trademarks of Microchip Technology Incorporated
arising from this information and its use. Use of Microchip in the U.S.A.
devices in life support and/or safety applications is entirely at Analog-for-the-Digital Age, BodyCom, chipKIT, chipKIT logo,
the buyer’s risk, and the buyer agrees to defend, indemnify and CodeGuard, dsPICDEM, dsPICDEM.net, ECAN, In-Circuit
hold harmless Microchip from any and all damages, claims, Serial Programming, ICSP, Inter-Chip Connectivity, KleerNet,
suits, or expenses resulting from such use. No licenses are KleerNet logo, MiWi, MPASM, MPF, MPLAB Certified logo,
conveyed, implicitly or otherwise, under any Microchip MPLIB, MPLINK, MultiTRAK, NetDetach, Omniscient Code
intellectual property rights. Generation, PICDEM, PICDEM.net, PICkit, PICtail,
RightTouch logo, REAL ICE, SQI, Serial Quad I/O, Total
Endurance, TSHARC, USBCheck, VariSense, ViewSpan,
WiperLock, Wireless DNA, and ZENA are trademarks of
Microchip Technology Incorporated in the U.S.A. and other
countries.
SQTP is a service mark of Microchip Technology Incorporated
in the U.S.A.
Silicon Storage Technology is a registered trademark of
Microchip Technology Inc. in other countries.
GestIC is a registered trademarks of Microchip Technology
Germany II GmbH & Co. KG, a subsidiary of Microchip
Technology Inc., in other countries.
All other trademarks mentioned herein are property of their
respective companies.
© 2014, Microchip Technology Incorporated, Printed in the
U.S.A., All Rights Reserved.
ISBN: 978-1-63276-868-1

QUALITY MANAGEMENT SYSTEM Microchip received ISO/TS-16949:2009 certification for its worldwide
headquarters, design and wafer fabrication facilities in Chandler and
CERTIFIED BY DNV Tempe, Arizona; Gresham, Oregon and design centers in California
and India. The Company’s quality system processes and procedures

== ISO/TS 16949 ==
are for its PIC® MCUs and dsPIC® DSCs, KEELOQ® code hopping
devices, Serial EEPROMs, microperipherals, nonvolatile memory and
analog products. In addition, Microchip’s quality system for the design
and manufacture of development systems is ISO 9001:2000 certified.

 2014 Microchip Technology Inc. DS00001660B-page 45

 Worldwide Sales and Service
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03/25/14
Fax: 86-756-3210049

DS00001660B-page 46  2014 Microchip Technology Inc.