8

Foundation Systems
8.1 Introduction
Properly designed and constructed manufactured home foundations can significantly reduce
the potential for damages from flooding, high winds, and seismic events. Many styles of founda-
tions are available for supporting manufactured homes. Continuous perimeter walls, constructed
of concrete, masonry, or treated wood; concrete or masonry piers; wood posts and piles; and
systems consisting of piers and ground anchors are some of the options available to a manufac-
tured homeowner and installer.

To be effective, manufactured home foundations must perform the following:

n Support the weight of the home, its contents, and its occupants
n Resist design loads from wind, snow, seismic events, and moving floodwaters
n Elevate the home sufficiently to prevent losses from a design flood event

Elevated foundations are classified as enclosed or open. As the name implies, enclosed foun-
dations enclose the space below the elevated home. Perimeter masonry, concrete, or sheathed
wood walls are enclosed styles. Open foundations consist of a system of individual members that
support the home only at discrete locations. Pier, post, and pile foundation systems are open
systems. Many open foundations have a non-structural skirting to enclose the space below the
home. The skirting is primarily for aesthetics and does not add to the strength of the founda-
tion. Skirting can help to protect piping installed below the home from freezing and reduce
both heat loss from the home and the potential for animal or insect entry into the home.

Selecting an appropriate foundation system depends on a number of variables, including the

building site conditions (elevation, slope, access restrictions, drainage); the flood zone; the
design loads (wind, flood, snow, and, if appropriate, seismic) at the site; the availability of ma-
terials; on-site soil characteristics; local construction practices; and cost. Whatever foundation
system is chosen, both the HUD Code and NFIP require a foundation to resist flotation, collapse,
or lateral movement during a design event to prevent damages to the home and surrounding
structures. Tables 8-1 through 8-3 at the conclusion of this chapter provide guidance to the se-
lection of appropriate manufactured home foundation systems as a function of flood depth and
flow velocity.

Proprietary systems are also an option for the manufactured homeowner. Proprietary systems
are discussed in Section 2.2.2 and the system must meet the design and performance criteria
described in Chapter 9.

More information on proprietary foundations is contained in the SBRA’s Guide to Foundation

and Support Systems for Manufactured Homes available at http://www.research-alliance.org/pages/
foundations_guide.htm.
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8.2 Enclosed Foundations

Enclosed foundations consist of perimeter foundation walls placed on continuous footings. The
walls enclose the area below the living space of the home (Figure 8-1). Perimeter walls are com-
monly constructed of concrete, masonry, or wood. Enclosed foundations are occasionally used
to raise manufactured homes, often creating the appearance of a site-built home (Figure 8-1).

Figure 8-1. A
manufactured home
elevated on a perimeter
foundation wall. Although
it appears the openings
are too high, the bottoms
of the openings are less
than 1 foot above the top
of the interior slab.

NFIP regulations permit enclosed foundations for manufactured homes in SFHA A zones with
a requirement that the foundation walls include flood vents. 44 CFR 60.3(c)(5) requires that:

“all new construction and substantial improvements, that fully enclosed areas be-
low the lowest floor that are usable solely for parking of vehicles, building access
or storage in an area other than a basement and which are subject to flooding
shall be designed to automatically equalize hydrostatic flood forces on exterior
walls by allowing for the entry and exit of floodwaters. Designs for meeting this
requirement must either be certified by a registered professional engineer or
architect or meet or exceed the following criteria: A minimum of two openings
having a total net area of not less than one square inch for every square foot of
enclosed area subject to flooding shall be provided. The bottom of all openings
shall be no higher than one foot above grade. Openings may be equipped with
screens, louvers, valves, or other covering or devices provided that they permit
the automatic entry and exit of floodwaters.”

This elevation technique should not be used in high-velocity or highly erosive flood conditions,
and is not permitted in V zones. Additional information on wall vents for floodwater flow is pro-
vided in FEMA Technical Bulletin 1, Openings in Foundation Walls and Walls of Enclosures (2008).

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Perimeter walls of enclosed foundations should include adequate reinforcement to resist unbal-
anced hydrostatic and/or hydrodynamic loads that may occur in fast rising flood events. Such
floods may result in water levels higher on the exterior side of the wall than the inside until flow
through the flood vents can equalize them.

8.3 Open Foundations and Breakaway Walls

NFIP regulations require manufactured homes in SFHAs designated V1-30, VE, or V on the
community’s FIRM have the space below the lowest floor either free of obstruction or construct-
ed with non-supporting breakaway walls (44 CFR 60.3(e)(5)). Elevating a manufactured home
on an open foundation involves raising it onto piers, posts, or piles. If the home is located in
an area of coastal flooding, an open foundation is the only way to safely elevate the home. If
the home is subjected to high-velocity riverine floodwaters, significant water depth, or potential
erosions, the home should also be elevated on an open foundation. Open foundations are in-
trinsically more resistant to moving floodwaters and breaking waves than enclosed foundations
since the home has a smaller surface area exposed to flood forces. Selection of the proper open
foundation for various flooding and site characteristics is critical to the success of the founda-
tion.

Breakaway walls, including non-structural skirting around a manufactured home, are walls that
are not part of the structural support of the home. They are designed and constructed to fail un-
der the loads imposed by floodwaters without jeopardizing the elevated portion of the home or
the structural support of the home. Because such enclosures are designed to fail at a lateral load
of no greater than 20 pounds per square foot, they will transfer minimal additional loads to the
foundation. Insect screening and latticework both allow floodwaters to pass through. Detailed
discussions on design and construction for breakaway walls can be found in FEMA Technical
Bulletin 9, Design and Construction Guidance for Breakaway Walls (2008).

8.3.1 Pier Systems

Most manufactured homes are placed on pier foundations. Although there are many variations,
pier foundations fall into two general styles. One style contains pier foundations combined with
other components (such as anchors and frame straps) for lateral stability; the second style relies
on the piers and their footings to resist all imposed loads. The foundation styles that use supple-
mental lateral-supporting devices often do not require reinforced piers. The determination of
the need for and the amount of reinforcing required is part of the design analyses. The final
design requirements for pier reinforcing is a function of the combination of flood, wind, and
seismic loads acting on the manufactured home, and the resulting pier capacity required to re-
sist flotation, collapse, or lateral movement.

When flood velocities are less than 1 fps, piers can be constructed using unbonded (dry-stacked)
concrete blocks or steel piers. When pier foundation systems are used without separate compo-
nents to resist lateral loads, the piers and footings must be much stronger. They not only have
to transfer all imposed loads to the bearing soils, but also must do so in a manner that does not
damage the piers and footings or overload the supporting soils.

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Piers designed to resist lateral and/or uplift loads without the use of ground anchors or straps
typically consist of reinforced brick masonry, reinforced concrete masonry units, or reinforced
cast-in-place concrete with steel reinforcing bars for both the piers and the below-grade foot-
ings. Because the ground around pier footings in SFHAs can be susceptible to erosion and
scour, the footings must be embedded below the anticipated scour depth.

In areas exposed to moving floodwaters, special consideration must also be given to controlling
scour around the pier foundation elements. Moving floodwaters can remove soil around and
beneath foundations, potentially reducing their load capacity to the point of foundation fail-
ure.

Floodwaters with high flow rates and floodwaters that carry a large sediment load create more
scour than low velocity or clear water flood flow. Because of this, scour is particularly damaging
where floodwaters converge or abruptly change direction. Scour is generally greatest around
discrete interior piers and the corners of perimeter wall foundations.

Scour removes soil particles from beside and, in severe cases, from beneath foundations. The
loss of soil around and/or beneath a foundation affects its capacity to support the design loads.
The loss of vertical foundation capacity can result in large settlements and potential collapse.
The loss of lateral capacity not only reduces the capacity of the foundation to resist lateral wind
and flood loads, but also can reduce the vertical capacity. The loss of lateral support for long
thin vertical elements (e.g., single block masonry stack piers) can result in buckling under the
design vertical loads.

Piers designed to resist lateral and/or uplift loads must be constructed using mortared horizon-
tal joints between courses and reinforced grout used to fill the vertical cell. The piers must be
firmly attached to the supporting footings.

8.3.1.1 Reinforced Pier Systems

Reinforced piers typically have steel reinforcements placed
inside of the piers. Reinforced pier systems are commonly Concrete Masonry Unit
constructed of concrete masonry units (CMUs) or cast-in- (CMU) Reinforced Piers
place concrete (Figure 8-2).
The International Residential Code
limits the height of solid masonry
In high-wind areas and in areas exposed to seismic or hy- piers, including hollow concrete ma-
drodynamic loads, piers may require much larger footings sonry units filled solidly with con-
to ensure applied loads do not exceed the soil’s bearing crete or Type M or S mortar to ten
capacity or allow tensile forces to develop in foundation times their least dimension. The
height limitation for unfilled hol-
elements in the upstream and windward side of the home.
low concrete masonry unit piers
Laterally bracing the piers can allow the structure to dis- is four times their least dimension
tribute imposed loads to the entire foundation system. (IRC§606.6).
Lateral bracing also provides protection against buckling
failure of vertical elements due to loss of confining soil
from erosion or scour.

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Figure 8-2. Reinforced masonry and concrete piers.

Adequate connections between the piers and the manufactured home are necessary for the
manufactured home and its foundation to resist lateral and uplift loads from floods, winds, and
earthquakes. Generally, multiple fastener bolted connections are needed to connect the top of
the piers to the manufactured home frames when the piers must transfer moments. If the piers
must resist only uplift loads, fastening requirements may be simplified. Regardless of the com-
plexity of the connection, consult the manufactured home manufacturer to ensure the factory
built components are not overloaded. Figure 8-3 shows a method used to fasten a home’s steel
frames to reinforced masonry piers using nuts, steel plates, and bolts grouted into the piers.

8.3.1.2 Unreinforced Pier Systems

Unreinforced brick or CMU pier systems have no rein-
forcing steel and, therefore, have very little resistance Dry-Stacked Piers
to overturning, sliding, and uplift. Because of this, Dry-stacked block piers can fail
unreinforced piers should always be provided with other when a home is exposed to com-
stabilizing devices like ground anchors. bined wind and flooding (ASCE 7,
Load Combination #6). Failure re-
sults when wind forces lift the
When used with stabilizing devices, many styles of manufactured home’s frame off its
unreinforced piers are available to support manufactured windward piers. Without the weight
homes; the styles provide varying degrees of strength to of the home to stabilize the piers,
resist loads on the home. These systems can be construct- the piers can easily fail by sliding
ed without mortar (called dry-stacked masonry); with or overturning.
dry-stacked block lightly secured with a surface bonding
material; with mortared block; or with fully mortared, grouted block.

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Figure 8-3. Bolted

connection between
frame and reinforced pier.

When placed directly on concrete footings or pads, 3-foot tall piers constructed with single,
dry-stacked blocks to create an 8-inch by 16-inch pier can only resist flood velocities of ap-
proximately 1.0 fps. Three-foot tall (16-inch by 16-inch) double-stacked piers can resist flood
velocities of approximately 1.75 fps. Dry-stacked piers or posts supported on ABS pads fail at
lower velocities than piers supported on concrete. The failure at lower velocities is due to a re-
duced frictional resistance between the pier blocks or posts and the ABS pad. The design flood
velocity for double-stacked piers on ABS pads is 1.25 fps.

If dry-stacked piers are not fully submerged, they can resist higher flood velocities. This is be-
cause the portion of the pier above the water line adds to the pier’s stability but does not add
to the flood load that the pier must resist. Engineers can calculate the ability of partially sub-
merged piers to resist moving floodwaters or their resistance can be determined by testing.

Applying surface-bonding materials strengthens the piers by increasing their shear resistance.
However, surface bonding has limited impact on their resistance to bending moments from
lateral loads; therefore, surface bonded piers still need to be used with other foundation com-
ponents. The increased shear resistance allows 3-foot tall (16-inch by 16-inch) piers to resist
hydrodynamic loads from floodwaters moving at approximately 2.0 fps for single-stacked piers
and 3.0 fps for double-stacked piers. This resistance to moving floodwaters can only be achieved
when the surface bonding materials not only bond the individual pier blocks to each other, but
also the pier to the concrete footing below. A FEMA sponsored testing program conducted at
the Haynes Coastal Engineering Laboratory, Texas A&M University verified the design values.

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The Texas A&M testing program included piers constructed using a polyurethane based ma-
sonry adhesive as joint bonding material. The Illinois Tool Works (ITW) TACC Division's Mason
Bond was certified by ICC Evaluation Service as meeting the IBC and IRC for Types M, N, O,
and S Portland cement/lime mortar. Test results showed the single stack adhesive bonded piers
to be the strongest configuration tested.

Mortared block and fully grouted mortared block are much stronger than dry-stacked and sur-
face-bonded piers, but their strengths do not match piers with #3 reinforcing steel bars grouted
into the vertical cells. Mortared and fully grouted piers usually require other foundation com-
ponents (like shear walls) to resist lateral loads.

Reinforced piers (constructed by introducing reinforcing steel to fully grouted piers) can be
made to resist lateral and vertical loads when used with other foundation components like large
concrete footings.

Unreinforced piers cannot be used in V zones. In Coastal A zones, fully grouted piers may be
adequate for low flood velocities, but reinforcing with steel is recommended.

8.3.2 Pile Foundations

Pile foundations provide protection for the broadest range of flooding conditions. This foun-
dation system consists of the pile supports, horizontal beams, longitudinal support under the
manufactured home, and foundation bracing for additional resistance to lateral wind, floodwa-
ters, and seismic events. A properly designed pile foundation can withstand high-wind and water
velocities, and can resist erosion and scour around its base if embedded to an adequate depth
(Figure 8-4). Because of this, pile foundations meet the NFIP requirements for installation in
V zones. Pile foundations are also appropriate for Coastal A zones and for areas exposed to high-
velocity riverine flooding.

Figure 8-4. Manufactured

home on a pile
foundation.

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Saturated soils with low bearing capacities are less of a stability problem for a pile foundation
than for a pier foundation; thus, pile foundations are preferable in coastal areas. The design of
pile foundations requires determining the number, size, length, and location of piles appropri-
ate to the particular manufactured home, soil conditions, and flooding situation at the site. A
pile design methodology is provided in the Coastal Construction Manual (FEMA 55) that requires
input parameters, including soil property and loading information.

Piles are vertical supports similar to posts, but differ in the method and depth of placement.
Piles are embedded much deeper than posts and do not rest on footings for resistance. Instead,
the piles are driven until they rest on a solid support layer, such as bedrock, or until they are
embedded deep enough that the friction between the ground and the piles will enable them to
resist the gravity, lateral, and uplift loads expected to act on them.

The most commonly used piles in residential construction are wood. Steel and precast concrete
piles are also used. Pile foundations are primarily used in areas where other elevation methods
are not feasible, such as V zones.

A major consideration in the effectiveness of pile foundations is the method of installation. Piles
are placed into the ground by impact driving, water jetting, augering, or some combination of
these methods (Figure 8-5). Piles are often driven by a single- or double-acting diesel hammer
or an air/steam hammer. Pile driving is an excellent method due to the strength of the pile and
the ability of the pile and its soil interface to resist vertical and horizontal loads.

Figure 8-5. Pile driving

methods.

A less desirable, but frequently used method is jetting. Jetting inserts piles into sandy soil by
forcing a high-pressure stream of water through a pipe along the side of the pile. The stream of
water creates a hole in the sand while the pile is continuously pushed or dropped to the desired
depth. Jetting results in a lower load capacity due to loose soils that create decreased friction be-
tween the piles and the surrounding soil. Jetted piles must be inserted deeper into the ground
than driven piles in order to achieve the same load capacity.

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Another method is the use of an auger to pre-drill holes for piles. If the soil is composed of ad-
equate clay or silt, using an auger to create holes for piles is sufficient. Additionally, some sands
may contain enough clay or silt to permit the use of an auger. This method can be used by itself
or in conjunction with pile driving.

Pile installation methods, including driving, jetting, and, to a lesser extent, augering can make
precise location control difficult. Also, irregularities in the piles and soil will often prevent the
piles from being driven perfectly vertical. When using piles to support manufactured housing,
wood beams are typically secured to the piles and the home is secured to the beams.

When soils near the top of a pile are lost due to scour, the pile loses some of its ability to resist
vertical and lateral loads. Erosion and scour must be taken into account when determining pile
embedment depth and lateral bracing requirements. Due to the variability associated with dif-
fering installation methods and erosion/scour potential, a geotechnical engineer should be
involved in the design process to verify that intended pile capacities are achieved.

8.4 Bracing
Bracing is often used to lower the point of application of lateral loads to reduce moments
applied to the foundation system (cross bracing) or to provide lateral support to resist buck-
ling (knee bracing). Diagonal bracing runs diagonally from one vertical supporting member to
another, stiffening the vertical supporting members and increasing their strength and lateral
stability (Figure 8-6). Unfortunately, with greater strength comes a larger exposure to wave and
debris impact. Diagonal bracing is too slender to resist compressive forces and is typically only
designed to carry tension forces. This technique of bracing is especially beneficial in higher el-
evated homes.

Steel rods are often used to diagonally brace wood posts or piles. The rods are fitted through
drilled holes filled with wood preservative and fastened with nuts and cast beveled washers.
Rod bracing offers two important benefits. One, rod bracing can easily be fitted with turnbuck-
les that allow bracing to be tightened after an event that creates loads in the bracing; two, rod
bracing has smaller cross-sections than bracing created with dimensional lumber and thus is
exposed to lower flood forces.

Knee bracings are short diagonal braces that run from a vertical support member to a horizon-
tal support member (Figure 8-7). Knee braces can be effective in supporting the pile against
the lateral forces of wind and water, Knee bracing increases the strength and stiffness of the
extended pile foundation by retraining rotation near the top of the pile and reducing the pile
bending length. Knee bracing is not as stiff as diagonal bracing. Knee braces have an advantage
over diagonal braces in that they present less obstruction to waves and debris. Knee braces are
shorter than diagonal braces and are usually designed for both tension and compression forces.
Engineers should be consulted to determine bracing designs, particularly for knee bracing.

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Figure 8-6. Diagonal bracing.

Figure 8-7. Knee bracing.

8.5 Footings
Footings are the components of a foundation system that transfer loads applied to a home to
the earth below it. Footings continuously support gravity loads (and are generally well designed
for this purpose), but they also must transfer lateral and uplift loads produced by wind events,
seismic events, snow accumulation, and moving floodwaters.

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The soils below the footings must support the home and resist all the loads applied to the
home. When soils are strong, footings can be relatively small and foundation systems relatively
compact. When soils are weak, however, the footings become large, complicated, difficult to
construct, and quite expensive. Even when placed on firm soils, footings often need to be over-
sized to provide sufficient weight to resist uplift forces and overturning moments.

The design size of a pier footing is a direct function of soil bearing capacity. Soil bearing capac-
ity can be directly determined by soils tests. In some jurisdictions, approximate bearing capacity
can be assessed by soil classification. Model building codes (such as the IBC and NFPA 5000)
have presumptive soil bearing capacity values that can be used in the absence of soils test data.

The depth of the footings depends on local frost levels and expected scour depths (whichever
is greater). Local codes may provide specific requirements for the depth of footings based on
local soil conditions.

8.6 Foundation Materials Selection

As stated in 44 CFR 60.3(a)(3), all structural and non-structural materials at or below the BFE
must be flood damage-resistant. A flood damage-resistant material is defined as any building
material capable of withstanding direct contact with floodwaters for 72 hours without sustaining
significant damage (i.e., damage requiring more than low-cost cosmetic repair, such as paint-
ing). In addition, materials should be durable and resistant to decay and corrosion.

Some flood damage-resistant foundation material choices include the following:

n Pressure-treated lumber
n Naturally decay-resistant lumber (only for applications above grade)
n Concrete: a minimum 28-day compressive strength of 5,000 lb/in2 is recommended in
coastal environments
n Masonry: reinforced and fully grouted in coastal environments
n Steel: corrosion-resistant
n Closed-cell foam insulation
n Other flood damage-resistant materials approved by local building officials

The most commonly used foundation materials are wood, concrete, steel, and masonry. Their
properties, advantages, and special considerations are discussed in Sections 8.6.1 through 8.6.4.
Additional information on materials’ durability can be found in FEMA 55 and trade organi-
zation publications. FEMA’s Technical Bulletin 2, Flood Damage-Resistant Materials Requirements
(2008) also contains information on appropriate materials used in SFHAs.

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8.6.1 Wood Foundations

Wood is a very workable material and one of the most cost-effective; however, it is susceptible to
decay, insect infestation, marine borers, and weathering. Wood must be adequately maintained
to ensure the foundation’s integrity. All wood used in foundation piles, girders, beams, braces,
and walls must be pressure-preservative treated or, when not in direct contact with the ground,
naturally decay-resistant. No wood with natural resistance to decay is considered to have suf-
ficient decay resistance for ground contact or partial water immersion. Wood exposed to the
ground and exterior elements should be pressure-preservative treated to increase its resistance to
infestation and decay. The degree of resistance depends on the treatment chemical and the
amount of retention in lb/ft3 of wood.
ACQ- or ACZA-Treated Wood
The preservatives used in pressure treating wood for foun-
dation applications; e.g. piles, piers, and posts, include: Designers and builders considering
the use of ACQ- or ACZA-treated
n chromated copper arsenate (CCA) wood should consider using stain-
less steel hardware and fasteners or
n pentachlorophenol obtain the latest information on the
n creosote chemicals’ interaction with hardware
due to reports of alleged problems
n copper azole with corrosion of galvanized framing
hardware and nails in contact with
wood treated with these chemicals.
8.6.2 Concrete Foundations
Concrete is an economical and workable foundation
material that is extremely good at resisting compressive loads. Concrete can be reinforced to
increase its ability to withstand tensile loads that often result from flood, wind, and seismic ac-
tivity. Corrosion of the reinforcement and the cracking of the concrete weaken the concrete
structural element, reducing its ability to resist loads. Providing adequate concrete cover to
reinforcement is the best defense against corrosion. Consult the latest version of American
Concrete Institute (ACI) publication 318, Building Code Requirements for Structural Concrete, for
minimum concrete cover requirements. Additional protection from corrosion can be achieved
by using epoxy-coated reinforcement.

Proper mixing, placement, and curing are essential for durable concrete. During placement,
concrete will normally require vibration to eliminate air pockets and voids in the finished sur-
face. The vibration must be sufficient to eliminate the air, but not to separate the concrete or
water from the mix. Appropriate freeze protection may be needed if pouring is done in cold
temperatures. Concrete placed in cold weather takes longer to cure, and the uncured concrete
may freeze, which will adversely affect its final strength. Methods of preventing concrete from
freezing during curing include the following:
n Heating adjacent soil before pouring
n Warming the mix ingredients before batching
n Placing insulating blankets over and around the forms after pouring
n Selecting a cement mix that will shorten curing time

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Because the environmental impact of salt-laden air and moisture make the damage potential
significant for concrete, this guide recommends that all concrete construction in and near
coastal flood hazard areas (both V and A zones) be built with the more durable 5,000-pounds
per square inch (psi) minimum compressive strength concrete regardless of the purpose of the
construction and the design loads.

8.6.3 Steel Foundations

Prefabricated steel stands are available for supporting manufactured housing. Like unreinforced
masonry piers, steel stands have little resistance to overturning and should only be used in
conjunction with other foundation components like ground anchors or perimeter shear walls.
Metal stands should also be firmly secured to the homes’ frames.

8.6.4 Masonry Foundations

Reinforced masonry has much more strength and ductility than unreinforced masonry for re-
sisting large flood, wind, and earthquake forces. It is recommended that permanent masonry
construction in and near coastal flood hazard areas be reinforced and fully grouted regardless
of the purpose of the construction and the design loads.
Moisture can have a damaging effect on masonry con- Open Masonry Foundations
struction. Moisture-borne salts in coastal environments
Open masonry foundations in earth-
entering the piers through cracks or openings in the
quake hazard areas require special
masonry joints can cause cracking and spalling of the reinforcement detailing and pier pro-
masonry. Moisture entering piers in cold weather envi- portions to meet the requirements
ronments can expand upon freezing, causing small cracks for increased ductility.
to become large cracks. The entry of moisture into rein-
forced masonry construction can lead to corrosion of the
reinforcement and additional cracking and spalling of the masonry. Moisture resistance is high-
ly influenced by the quality of the materials and the quality of the masonry construction at the
site. For CMUs, choosing Type I “moisture controlled” units and keeping them dry in transit
and on the job will minimize shrinkage and cracking. For optimum crack prevention, Type S
mortar should be used for below-grade applications and Type M mortar may be used for above-
grade applications.

In addition to Portland cement/lime based mortar, polyurethane based masonry adhesives are
now available. Care must be taken in the selection and application of masonry adhesives. As a
minimum, the selected adhesive must be certified by a nationally recognized organization as
meeting or exceeding the requirements for Types M, O, and S cement/lime based mortar and
approved for use in masonry construction designed in accordance with applicable provisions of
the IRC and IBC.

8.7 Foundation Selection and Flood Resistance

Flooding can have a dramatic effect on the suitability and stability of a manufactured
home foundation. But not all floods are the same, and the type of flooding, along with its

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char-acteristics and severity at a site, will eliminate many foundation types. Sections 8.7.1 through
8.7.5 provide guidance (for installers, owners, community officials, and designers) on selecting
foundations suitable to different flood types and site conditions.

8.7.1 Flooding Types

Flooding can be divided into seven major types: coastal, riverine, flash flood, alluvial fan, mud-
flow, lake or pond overflow, and poor drainage. Unique hazards are associated with each of
these flooding types.
n Coastal flooding is usually accompanied by waves, high velocity flow, and erosion. Damages
to structures are usually the results of erosion and scour, and direct impact from wave
action.
n Riverine flooding is associated with dominant hazards, including velocity, depth, and
duration. These hazards are determined by several factors, including the slope of the
channel and watershed, land uses within the watershed, and the extent, intensity, and
duration of precipitation. (Both coastal and riverine flooding can transport damaging
debris. Debris impact can weaken a structure and make it more vulnerable to damages
from flooding.)
n Flash floods are accompanied by rapidly rising water and extreme flood velocities, with
high debris carrying potential. Although they are generally of short duration, the forces
exerted on structures by the high velocity floodwaters and debris can cause extensive
damage in a very short time.
n Alluvial fan flooding is distinct in that the region of greatest flood hazard is not well-
defined, and floodwaters can follow many different paths across a normally dry area.
Alluvial fan floods usually occur in arid areas at the base of steeply sloping terrain, and can
have extreme flood velocities and debris loads.
n Mudflows are proximately caused by flooding and can be considered a river of liquid
and flowing mud on the surfaces of normally dry land areas. Mudslides usually offer little
warning and can be very destructive due to their debris load and velocity.
n Lake or pond overflow is rarely as hazardous as coastal or riverine flooding, and is usually
limited to inundation by slowly moving or standing water.
n Poor drainage can lead to backups and generally results in ponding type flooding. Poor
drainage is usually caused by a lack of topographic relief to allow for natural drainage from
a site, or it might be the result of a specific hindrance such as blockage of a drainage ditch
or an undersized culvert. In areas where drainage impediments become severe, they can
compound risk and damages from other types of flooding such as riverine or flash floods.

8.7.2 Flood Characteristics

The flood source, its proximity to a site, and the flood hazard zone will provide information
about flood characteristics. However, historical flood events at and near the site can also pro-
vide important clues about expected flood conditions at the site. All should be considered when
home foundations are evaluated.

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High velocities, large waves, and large floating debris can cause many home installations to fail,
especially those on stacked masonry block, crawlspace, slab, shallow pier, and post foundations.
Large flood depths can float or wash homes off their foundations. Long-duration floods can
weaken soils, foundations, and anchor systems. Refer to Section 5.2 for more information on
flood characteristics.

8.7.3 Flood Hazard Zones

Table 8-1 is provided as general guidance for the selection of foundation systems for manu-
factured homes located at different flood hazard zones, Different flood hazard zones are
represented on FIRMs by different zone designations. Detailed information pertaining to flood
hazard zone designations and current NFIP regulations is provided in Chapter 3.

8.7.4 Proximity to Flood Source

Proximity to the flood source will, to a large extent, determine whether a home site is in a more
or less hazardous location. As discussed in Chapter 4, sites in a floodway or closest to a river or
stream will be subject to the greatest flood depths, highest velocities, and greatest debris poten-
tial. Sites outside the floodway and far from a river or stream and closer to the landward limit of
the floodplain will be subject to reduced flood hazards (e.g., shallow flood depths, lower veloci-
ties, low erosion potential, and only small debris).

Sites in a V or Coastal A zone will be subject to the highest waves, greatest flood velocities and
depths, greatest erosion potential, and largest debris. Sites outside the V zone and far from the
shoreline will be subject to reduced wave, velocity, depth, erosion, and debris conditions.

Closeness is a relative issue, however. Therefore, it may be useful to look at the location of a
home site relative to the flood source or floodplain boundary. Two approaches may be useful, a
distance approach and a floodplain width approach.
1. The distance approach relies on a distance measurement between the home site and the
stream or river bank or floodway (in the case of a riverine flood source), or between the
home site and the V zone boundary or shoreline (in the case of an A zone in a coastal
area).
2. The floodplain width approach considers the relative position of the home site within the
floodplain. (See Figure 4-2, which is a schematic of a floodplain/floodway.)

For riverine areas outside the floodway:

1. Distance approach: If a home site lies within a few hundred feet of a river or stream or
floodway, it should be considered “close,” and foundations should be appropriate to sites
with greater flood hazards.
2. Floodplain width approach: If a home site lies within the third of the floodplain closest to
the river or stream or floodway, it should be considered “close,” and foundations should be
appropriate to sites with greater flood hazards.

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For Coastal A zones:

1. Distance approach: If a home site lies within a few hundred feet of the V zone boundary (or
shoreline, if a V zone has not been mapped), it should be considered “close,” and V zone
foundations should be used. Beyond that point, A zone foundations may be suitable.
2. Floodplain width approach: If a home site lies within the half of the floodplain closest to the
V zone boundary (or shoreline, if a V zone has not been mapped), it should be considered
“close,” and V zone foundations should be used. Beyond that point, A zone foundations may
be suitable.

8.7.5 Foundation Selection Guidance

The recommendations contained in Tables 8-1 through 8-3 should be evaluated in light of spe-
cific soil, terrain, and base flood conditions at a home site. The pier information contained in
the tables is appropriate for piers used in foundation systems that contain other components
(like ground anchors) that are properly selected, designed, and installed to resist flood and
wind forces on the manufactured home itself. The pier construction styles listed are those re-
quired to resist flood forces on the piers themselves.

Areas exposed to flash flooding, alluvial fans, and mudslides pose unique (and often not specifi-
cally known) hazards. Foundations for homes in those areas should be developed by licensed
engineers working closely with local floodplain managers.

Table 8-1. Recommended Manufactured Home Foundation Selection for Lake/Pond Flooding (for very low velocity
less than 1 fps)

Lake/Pond Flooding (standing water; maximum flood flow velocity 1.00 fps)
Flood Zone/Foundation Type A, AE, A 1-30, AO/AH
Steel pier 3
Single block stack 3
Dry-stacked masonry block
Double block stack 3
Dry-stacked masonry block with Single block stack 3
surface-bonded mortar Double block stack 3
Mortar or adhesive-bonded masonry Single block stack 3
block Double block stack 3
Reinforced and grouted masonry Single block stack 3
block Double block stack 3
Fill/slab 3
Posts 3
Perimeter foundation walls 3
Piles 3
3 = OK
fps = feet per second

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Single block stack (8 inch by 16 inch) on concrete footing or ABS pad

Double block stack (16 inch by 16 inch) on concrete footing or ABS pad

Table 8-2. Recommended Manufactured Home Foundation Selection for Riverine Flood Zones (and maximum flood
flow velocity)

Riverine Flooding
Flood Zone/Foundation Type Floodway1 A, AE, AE1-30, AO/AH

Steel pier
3
Vmax=1.00 fps

Single block stack Do Not Use

3
Vmax=1.25 fps2
Dry-stacked masonry block
Double block stack Do Not Use
3
Vmax=1.75 fps3

Single block stack Do Not Use

3
Dry-stacked masonry block Vmax=2.00 fps
with surface-bonded mortar 3
Double block stack Do Not Use
Vmax=3.00 fps

Single block stack Do Not Use

3
Mortar or adhesive-bonded Vmax=2.50 fps
masonry block 3
Double block stack Do Not Use
Vmax=3.00 fps

Single block stack Do Not Use

3
Reinforced and grouted Vmax=5.00 fps
masonry block 3
Double block stack Do Not Use
Vmax=5.00 fps
Fill/slab Do Not Use 3
Posts Do Not Use 34
Perimeter foundation walls Do Not Use 3
Piles 5
3 3
1
Any construction in the floodway requires certification that the construction will not cause a rise in flood levels.
2
Vmax shown for single stack block on concrete pad or footing. Vmax = 1.00 fps for single stack block on ABS pad.
3
Vmax shown for double stack block on concrete pad or footing. Vmax = 1.25 fps for double stack block on ABS pad.
4
Scour protection is recommended around shallow foundations where velocities exceed 2 fps.
5
Pile foundations are suggested for all sites exposed to flood velocities greater than 5 fps unless designed by a licensed engineer
or architect.

3 = OK
Vmax = maximum design flood velocity (ft/sec) for foundation type

Single stack (8 inch by 16 inch)

Double stack (16 inch by 16 inch)

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Table 8-3. Recommended Manufactured Home Foundation Selection for Coastal Flood Zones

Coastal Flooding
A, AE, A1-30,
A, AE, A1-30, AO/
AO/AH
Flood Zone/Foundation Type V, VE, V1-30 AH
(Outside LiMWA
(LiMWA area)2
area)2

Steel pier Do Not Use Do Not Use

3
where Vmax=1.00 fps

Single block stack Do Not Use Do Not Use

3
where Vmax=1.25 fps3
Dry-stacked
masonry block
Double block stack Do Not Use Do Not Use
3
where Vmax=1.75 fps4

Dry-stacked Single block stack Do Not Use Do Not Use

3
where Vmax=2.00 fps
masonry block with
surface-bonded
Double block stack Do Not Use Do Not Use
3
mortar
where Vmax=3.00 fps

Single block stack Do Not Use Do Not Use

3
Mortar or adhesive- where Vmax=2.50 fps
bonded masonry
block
Double block stack Do Not Use Do Not Use
3
where Vmax=3.00 fps

Single block stack Do Not Use Do Not Use

3
Reinforced and where Vmax=5.00 fps
grouted masonry
block
Double block stack Do Not Use Do Not Use
3
where Vmax=5.00 fps

Fill/slab Do Not Use Do Not Use 3

Posts Do Not Use Do Not Use 35
Perimeter foundation walls Do Not Use Do Not Use 3
Piles1 3 3 3

1
Pile foundations are suggested for all sites exposed to flood velocities greater than 5 fps unless designed by a licensed engineer
or architect.
2
The Limit of Moderate Wave Action (LiMWA) is the inland limit of the area affected by waves greater than 1.5 feet.
3
Vmax shown for single stack block on concrete pad or footing. Vmax = 1.00 fps for single stack block on ABS pad.
4
Vmax shown for double stack block on concrete pad or footing. Vmax = 1.25 fps for double stack block on ABS pad.
5
Scour protection is recommended around shallow foundations where velocities exceed 2 fps.

3 = OK
Vmax = maximum design flood velocity (ft/sec) for foundation type
Single stack (8 inch by 16 inch)
Double stack (16 inch by 16 inch)

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