INTRODUCTION

This module of Engineering Laboratory V (BDA 37201) is published to

standardize the teaching materials for all sections in Faculty of Mechanical and
Manufacturing Engineering, Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia.

AIM

The aim of the part is to provide knowledge to students in order to relate the
principal of theory that have been studied in the subject of Fluid Mechanics II
and Thermodynamics II with the applied field. Engineering Laboratory V (BDA
37201) module is combination between Fluid Mechanics II Laboratory and
Thermodynamics II Laboratory. In this module, laboratory procedures and
figures will help the students to practice good laboratory conduct, produce
good laboratory report and also provide better understanding in Fluid
Mechanics and Thermodynamics. This module also help students in getting
information, explore theoretical applications and able to complete task,
according to professional practice.

OBJECTIVES

Objectives of this laboratory module are to educate students to:

1. Perform practical work according to procedure, instruction and specified
aims whilst using equipment efficiently in order to obtain data, information
and solve problems scientifically.
2. Prove theory based on experiment, observation, data processing and
information.
3. Encourage healthy attitude such as truthfulness, dedication, discipline,
cooperation, creativity and awareness to safety.
4. Develop high skill in production of a quality work, preparation and
professional report presentation.
COURSE LEARNING OUTCOMES

At the end of this course, the students will be able to:

1. Investigation - Conduct investigation through experiment that display
basic skills and knowledge of Fluids Mechanics II and Thermodynamics
II using various laboratory equipment, (C4, LO4)
2. Investigation - Analyze original data from experiments and compare
with fundamental theory. (C3, LO4)
3. Individual and Team Work - Work effectively in a group through
laboratory experiments and presentations (A3, LO5)
4. Communication – Perform effectively complex engineering experiments
applying the general ideas of the subject through oral presentation and
written reports (P5, LO3)

SYNOPSIS

This module covers several experiments for Fluid Mechanics II and

Thermodynamics II.

Fluid Mechanics II experiments cover:

Open Ended Fluid laboratory project instruction

Thermodynamics II experiments covers:

1. Air Conditioning System
2. Boiler Efficiency
3. Steam Turbine and Condenser
4. Internal Combustion Engine Performance Test (Diesel)
5. Two-Stage Air Compressor
ASSESSMENT

MARKING SCHEME
Overall marks for practical comprises of:
i. Fluid Mechanics II Laboratory 50 %
ii. Thermodynamics II Laboratory 50 %
Total: 100 %

MARKING SCHEME FOR FLUID MECHANICS II LABORATORY

i. Investigation (PLO4) 60 %
ii. Communication (PLO3) 40 %
iii. Team work assessment (PLO5) 40 %
Total: 100 %
* Total marks consists of 50 % overall final marks

MARKING SCHEME FOR THERMODYNAMICS II LABORATORY

i. Report (average of number of reports) 70 %
ii. Oral test 25 %
iii. Group member assessment 5 %
Total: 100 %
* Total marks consists of 50 % overall final marks

REPORT PREPARATION GUIDELINE

The aim of an experimental practical report is to enable the students to show

all relevant results, measurements and observations obtained during the
experiment. Therefore, students need to be alert, ready and responsive
towards the given task. Any results or observations must be recorded, and
presented in form of tables or graphs. The findings are to be discussed
thoroughly. At the end of the report, a short summary must be presented.

The report has to be completed in the allocated time and has to cover the
following aspects:
Full practical report assessments for Thermodynamics II laboratory are:

1. Title
2. Objectives 5%
3. Learning outcomes 10 %
4. Theory 15 %
5. List of Equipment 15 %
6. Experiment Procedure 10%
7. Result 15%
8. Discussions 15 %
9. Conclusion 10 %
10. References 5%
Total: 100 %

Practical report assessments for Fluid Mechanics II laboratory are:

1. Results 15 %
2. Observations 25 %
3. Calculation 15 %
4. Discussions 30 %
5. Conclusion 15 %
Total: 100 %

PRESENTATION PROCEDURE (FLUID MECHANICS II AND

THERMODYNAMICS II LABORATORY)

Each student is to attend a group oral test session, as an assessment for

understanding the experiment and the findings. Presentation session will be
conducted in group but the marks will be based on individual performance.
Presentation Assessment (individual) 25 %
PEER ASSESSMENT (FLUID MECHANICS II AND THERMODYNAMICS II
LABORATORY)

Each student is also responsible to assess the performance of other members

in the group. Assessment form will be given to the students and assessment
has to be based on truthful observation throughout the practical class. Peer
assessment by group members includes the following criteria: cooperation,
communication, responsibility, commitment, ability to work within the time
frame and quality of work.

Group Member Assessment (individual) 5%

** PLEASE BRING NECESSARY REFERENCE BOOKS DURING THE

PRACTICAL SESSIONS

LABORATORY GENERAL RULES

1. Students must perform all practical activities as determined in the schedule.

Any changes will be notified by the designated lecturer/instructor/tutor.
2. Practical attendance is compulsory and should not be less than 80%.
Students have to record their attendance. Non-attendance must be verified
by supporting documents.
3. Practical report has to be submitted within one (1) day after the practical
class to the designated lecturer/instructor/tutor on duty. LATE REPORT
WILL LEAD TO EITHER ZERO OR REDUCED MARKS.
4. Students have to be properly dressed according to university regulations.
Additional safety and health regulations must be adhered accordingly.
5. Students that are late without reasons can be barred from performing
experiment on that day and assumed not present on that day. This also
applies to students that leave the class without permission from designated
lecturer/instructor/tutor.
6. Students are not allowed to smoke, eat or drink during practical classes.
RULES AND REGULATIONS DURING EXPERIMENT

1. Students have to make sure that they understand thoroughly the

experiment to be performed in terms of aim, procedures, data acquisition
method and expected results.
2. Before attending the practical class, students should read and understand
the experimental procedures. Additional readings and references to
enhance the understanding in performing experiment are strongly advised.
3. Students are required to bring their own stationeries involved in the
experiments, such as pencil, pen, A4 paper, graph paper, and etc.
4. Every experiment has to be completed in the allocated time.
5. Experimental apparatus should not be moved to other location, unless
requested to do so.
6. Before leaving the laboratory, students are to:
a. Clean the table and workplace.
b. Return the experimental apparatus to its original location.
c. Ensure that the designated lecturer/instructor/tutor on duty verify the
practical report submission.

REFERENCES

All references were combined and attached at the end of each topic.
 TOPIC 1

OPEN ENDED LABORATORY PROJECT INSTRUCTION

ENGINEERING LABORATORY 5
BDA 37201

INTRODUCTION

Open-ended experiment employs out-come based education. It is a student-

centered learning philosophy that focuses on empirically measuring student
performance, which is called outcomes. Thus, in this open ended laboratory
project, a problem will be given to a group of student to solve or complete by
conducting certain experimental work within a specified time. Student should
actively participate in discussion either in or out lab class.

TASK

Students are required to investigate an apparatus related to air flow in a

compressors system. Students will be divided into small group and each group
consists of 4 to 5 students. Each group is required to do the following task:
i. Construct a lab/experiment instruction for that apparatus. The
lab/experiment instructions should consists of :
a. Title
b. Objective
c. Learning outcomes
d. Theory
e. List of Equipment
f. Experiment Procedure
g. Result
h. Discussion
i. Conclusion
j. References

ii. Provide a full report for that apparatus including sample of data.
EVALUATION CRITERIA

Evaluation criteria are as follows:

i. Proposal 20% (Group) - Investigation
ii. Lab/Experiment Instruction 20% (Group) - Investigation
iii. Weekly Progress 20% (Individual and Group) -Team Working
iv. Full Report 20% (Group) - Investigation
v. Presentation 20% (Individual and Group) -
Communication

PROJECTS MILESTONES

This project will be conducted in 6 weeks with full supervision of Lab Instructor
and Lab Technician. Students are expected to design a new experiment but
all technical expects of equipment, tools, and lab resources must be consulted
by the Lab Technician.

WEEK ACTIVITY
1 Students will be divided into small group and each group consists of 4-5
students. Each group is required to propose their open ended
laboratory project based on title/scope given by the instructor
2 All groups are expected to come up with their Title, Learning Outcomes,
Objectives, Skills, Materials, Scopes, Theory and Procedures of the
new experiment setup for 1st experiment. The proposal must be
approved by the Lab Instructor while the technical aspect must be
approved by the Lab Assistant Engineer
3 Proposal presentation
4 Do an experiment and construct lab/experiment instruction.
5 Produce experiment full report
6 Project presentation

REFERENCES

1. Cengel, Y.A. and Boles, M.A. (2011). Thermodynamics: An Engineering

Approach., 7th Edition. New York : McGraw-Hill.
2. Sonntag, R.E. and Borgnakke C. (2007). Introduction to Engineering
Thermodynamics. 2nd edition. Hoboken, NJ : John Wil
 TOPIC 1
PELTON WHEEL

TOPIC LEARNING OUTCOMES

At the end of this topic, students will be able to to determine the
characteristics of performance and torque of Pelton Wheel.

CONTENTS

1.1 INTRODUCTION
The Pelton Wheel is a hydraulic turbine, in which one or more water jets
impinge tangentially onto buckets mounted around a wheel. The force
produced by the jet impact generates a torque that causes the wheel to rotate,
thus producing power. The name ‘Pelton’ derives from L.A Pelton, an American
engineer who performed notable research in order to determine the best shape
of the buckets.

Although the concept is very simple, some very large machines of high
efficiency have been developed. Power outputs of more than 100 MW, with
efficiencies of around 95% are not uncommon. On a small laboratory model,
however, the output may be just a few watts. The efficiency will therefore be
very much smaller, because losses in bearings and by wind age are
proportionally much higher than in a large, powerful turbine.
1.2 EXPERIMENTAL THEORY

1.2.1 ORIFICE METER

The Pelton Wheel (Figure 1.1 and 1.2) requires a source of water in order to
run. If the head of water is known along with the flow rate then it is possible to
deduce the best size of wheel to use, how fast it should rotate to obtain the
maximum efficiency, and power it is likely to develop. The velocity of the jet
can be estimated by using the known flow rate. A suitable jet diameter can be
chosen in relation to the jet size; typically the wheel would have a diameter of
10 times than of the jet. The best speed of rotation may then be selected, such
that the speed of the buckets is approximately half of the jet speed.

The power developed in the jet can be calculated from the speed and cross-
sectional area. The power developed by the Pelton Wheel will be less than
this, in the ratio of the wheel’s efficiency, which may be estimated by reference
to the known performance of existing machines of comparable size and output.
Depending on the head and flow rate available the size and speed of the Pelton
Wheel obtained in this way may prove to be impracticable or uneconomic.
Fortunately, other types of water turbine are available to suit a wide variety of
circumstances. The Pelton Wheel is usually chosen when the available head
is high, but the flow rate is comparatively low.

Figure 1.1 Pelton Wheel Layout

BDA 37201-Edition I/2013 2

 F2
F1

Figure 1.2 Pelton Wheel

Torque:
T = F1 − F2 r ………………… (1)

Where;
r = Brake wheel radius (0.025m)
F1 = Force on spring balance (0-25N)
F2 = Force on spring balance (0-15N)

Turbine power:
2NT
P= ………………… (2)
60

Where;
N = Speed (rev/min)
T = Torque (Nm)
P = Power (W)

Radial velocity (bucket):

v
Maximum efficiency occurs when u = ……. (3);
2
dN
Where; u= ……………………….... (4)
60

1
and v = Cv (2gH ) 2 ………………….. (5)
Where;

Cv = Velocity coefficient = 1
v = jet velocity
u = bucket velocity
d = wheel diameter
r = pitch radius
H = head

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1.3 EXPERIMENTAL EQUIPMENT
Equipment used for this experiment are:
a. Pelton Wheel.
b. Hydraulic bench.
c. Tachometer.

1.4 EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE

Steps to run the experiment are: (Refer Figure 1.3)
a. Close the spear valve (1) and switch on the water supply (2).
b. Slowly open the spear valve, allowing the jet (4) to drive the
Pelton Wheel. Fully open the valve.
c. Increase the load on the wheel by adjusting the knob above the
spring balance (3) at desired intervals.
d. At each interval, record the wheel speed (using optical
tachometer), both spring balances and jet inlet pressure.
e. Repeat the above experiment using spear valves position no 2.

3
1

4
2

Figure 1.3 Pelton Wheel Arrangement with Hydraulic Bench

Travel of spear : 6 – 7 mm (approx.)

Diameter of the nozzle outlet : 10 mm

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 Listed in Table 1.1 are positions of the spear with its corresponding
nozzle area.

Table 1.1 Nozzle Area Details

Position of spear Area at nozzle

(Number of turns or mm) (mm2)

Closed 0

½ turn or 0.75mm 9.4

1 turn or 1.50mm 18.3

1 ½ turn or 2.25mm 26.5

1st data: 2 turn or 3.00 mm 34.4

2 ½ turn or 3.75mm 41.1

3 turn or 4.50mm 47.7

3 ½ turn or 5.25mm 53.5

2nd data: 4 turn or 6.00mm 58.7

4 ½ turn or 6.75mm 63.3

Figure 1.4 Outlet Position from the Bucket and Wheel Centreline.

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ACTIVITY 1

ADDITIONAL THEORY (10%)

Please describe additional theory according to this topic.

RESULTS (15%)
a. Fill in the experimental result in Table 1.2 and Table 1.3 in the
Appendix A and Appendix B.
b. Plot the graph of flow rate (l/min) vs discharge coefficient for
meter orifice, venture meter and pitot tube in the same graph.
c. Calculate and fill up Table 1.2 and 1.3.

OBSERVATION (20%)
Please make an observation of the experiment that you have conducted.

CALCULATION (10%)
Show your calculation.

DISCUSSION (30%)
Plot two graphs:
a. Graph 1: Calculated Torque, T against Measured Speed, N
b. Graph 2: Power, P against Measured Speed, N
(Both graphs can be plotted in one graph with its own separate
axis.).

CONCLUSION (15%)
Deduce conclusion from the experiment. Please comment on your
experimental work in terms of achievement, problems faced throughout the
experiment and suggest recommendation for improvement.

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REFERENCES

1. Munson, B.R., Young, D. F., Okiishi, T.H. (2010). Fundamentals of Fluid

Mechanics. 6th Edition. Hoboken, NJ : John Wiley.
2. Cengel, Y.A. and Cimbala J.M. (2010). Fluid Mechanics- Fundamentals
and Applications. 2nd Edition. Boston, MA : McGraw-Hill.
3. Mott, R.L. (2006). Applied Fluids Mechanics. 6th Edition. Upper Saddle
River, NJ : Prentice Hall.
4. Robert A. Granger (1988). Experiments in Fluid Mechanics. New York :
Holt, Rinehart, and Winston.
5. Manual of Pelton Wheel, TQ Education & Training Ltd.

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APPENDIX A

PELTON WHEEL

Table 1.2 Results of 1st Position

VALVE POSITION: NOZZLE AREA: PRESSURE:

Wheel Speed,
Force, F2 Force, F2 Torque, T Power, P
NO. N
(rpm) (N) (N) (Nm) (W)

10

11

12

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APPENDIX B

PELTON WHEEL

Table 1.3 Results of 2nd position

VALVE
NOZZLE AREA: PRESSURE:
POSITION:
Wheel
Force, F1 Force, F2 Torque, T Power, P
NO. Speed, N
(N) (N) (Nm) (W)
(rpm)
1

10

11

12

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 TOPIC 2
FRICTION LOSS ALONG A PIPE

TOPIC LEARNING OUTCOMES

At the end of this topic, students will be able to determine the loss of energy
due to fluid friction along a straight pipe with smooth walls.

CONTENT

2.1 INTRODUCTION
In hydraulic engineering practice, it is frequently necessary to estimate the
head loss incurred by a fluid as it flows along a pipeline. For example, it may
be necessary to calculate what additional head would be required to double
the rate of flow along an existing pipeline.

Loss of head is incurred by fluid mixing which occurs at fittings such as bends
or valves, and by frictional resistance at the pipe wall. Where there are
numerous fittings and the pipe is short, the major part of the head loss will be
due to the local mixing near the fittings. For a long pipeline, on the other hand,
skin friction at the pipe wall will predominate

2.2 EXPERIMENTAL THEORY

Figure 2.1 illustrates flow along a length of straight uniform pipe of diameter
D. All fittings such as valves or bends are sufficiently remote as to ensure that
any disturbances due to them have died away, so that the distribution of
velocity across the pipe cross section does not change along the length of pipe
under consideration. Such a flow is said to be “fully developed.” The shear
stress at the wall, which is uniform around the perimeter and along the length,
produces resistance to the flow. The piezometric head h therefore falls at a
uniform rate along the length, as shown by the piezometers in Figure 2.1.
Since the velocity head is constant along the length of the pipe, the total head
H also falls at the same rate.

The slope of the piezometric head line is frequently called the “hydraulic
gradient”, and is denoted by the symbol i:

− dh − dH ……….. (1)
i= =
dl dl

(the minus signs are due to the fact that head decreases in the direction of
increasing L, which is measured positive in the same sense as the velocity V.
The resulting value of i is then positive).

Figure 2.1 Illustration of Fully Developed Flow along a Pipe

Over the length L between section 1 and 2, the fall in piezometric head is:

h1 − h2 = iL .................……….. (2)

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Expressed in term of piezometric pressures p1 and p2 at section 1 and 2:

p1 − p2 = wiL = giL ....……….. (3)

in which w is the specific weight and  is the density of water.

There is a simple relationship between wall shear stress τ and hydraulic

gradient i. The pressures p1 and p2 acting on the two ends of the length L of
pipe produce a net force. This force, in the direction of flow, is

( p1 − p2 )A

in which A is the cross-sectional area of the pipe. This is opposed by an equal

and opposite force, generated by the shear stress τ acting uniformly over the
surface of the pipe wall.

The area of pipe wall is PL, where P is the perimeter of the cross section, so
the force due to shear stress is τ.PL

Equating these forces:

( p1 − p2 )A = .PL

this reduces, by use of Equation (3), to

A
 =  P gi
  …………………….... (4)

Now, expressing A and P in terms of pipe diameter D, namely A = πD2/4 and

P = πD so that (A/P) = D/4, we obtain the result:

 =  4 gi .................………… (5)

D
 

In the case of laminar flow, the velocity profile is parabolic. The ratio U/V of
centre line velocity to mean velocity is

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 U
= 2 ...............................……..…… (6)
V

and the velocity gradient of the wall is given by

 du  − 4U − 8V
dr = D = D
 R ………….........(7)

So that the wall shear stress τ due to fluid viscosity is

8V
=
D ........…………………..……(8)

Substituting for τ in Equation (5) from this equation leads to the result of
Poiseuille’s equation

32vV
i=
gD 2 ………….…………….......(9)

In the case of turbulent flow the nature of flow has made it impossible to find a
simple expression for the wall shear stress, so the value has to be found
experimentally. So a dimensionless friction factor f could be defined by

 = f . 12 V 2 ………………...…........(10)

The hydraulic gradient i may now be expressed in term of f by use of equation

(5), and the following result is readily obtained:

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 2
4f V
i=
D 2g ……………………..........(11)

Therefore, the head loss (h1 – h2) between sections 1 and 2 of a pipe of
diameter D, along which the mean velocity is V, is seen from the Equation (2)
to be given by:

LV2
h1 − h2 = 4 f
D 2g …..……..…............(12)

Where, L is the length of pipe run between the sections. This is frequently
referred to as Darcy’s equation.

There is no corresponding theoretical for turbulent flow. However, correlation

of many experimental results on smooth walled pipes, due to Blasius, is:

f = 0.079 Re−
1

…………….…...........(13)
4

This gives explicit values which are in agreement within 2% over the limited
range of Re from 104 to 105. Above 105, it diverges substantially from
experiment.

2.3 EXPERIMENTAL EQUIPMENT

Equipment used for this experiment are:
a. Friction loss.
b. Hydraulic bench.
c. Measuring cylinder 1000 ml.
d. Thermometer.
e. Stop watch.

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2.4 EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
Steps to run the experiment are:
a. Set the apparatus (1) on the bench and level so that the
manometer stands vertically.
b. Fully open the bench supply valve (2) and adjust until there is a
steady flow down the overflow pipe (3), so that it provides a
constant head to the pipe under test.
c. Open partly the needle valve (4) to allow water through the
system.
d. Remove the trapped air by manipulating the flexible connecting
pipes (5).
e. Clear all the trapped air from the piezometer connection.
f. Close the needle valve (4) after the levels in the two limbs in
manometer give the same value.
g. Adjust the height of water level by allowing air to escape through
the air valve (6) at the top, or may be depressed by pumping
air through the valve.( note: manual pump while m/c off ).
h. Open the needle valve (4) fully to obtain a differential head at
least 400 mm.
i. Collect the discharge rate by measuring the volume of 300 ml in
the measuring cylinder (7). Record time, t in Table 2.1.
j. Let the reading stable for a while before recording h 1 and h2 in
the Table 2.1. Take a few readings and record the mean value.
k. Close the needle valve so that the h1 value reduced to about 20
mm. Repeat step i onwards. Readings will be at reducing flow
rates.
l. Record the water temperature at a frequent interval. These
readings cover the laminar and transition region only.

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 6

h1 h2

3
4

5 1
7

Figure 2.2 Arrangement of Friction Losses in Pipe

Figure 2.3 Arrangement of Friction Losses in Pipe with Hydraulic Bench

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ACTIVITY 1

ADDITIONAL THEORY (10%)

Please describe additional theory according to this topic.

RESULTS (15%)
a. Calculate and fill up Table 2.1 in Appendix A.
Length of pipe between piezometer tappings, L = 524 mm
Diameter of pipe, D = 3.00 mm
Cross sectional area of pipe πD2/4, A = 7.069 mm2 = 7.069 x 10-
6 m2

b. Plot three graphs:

Graph 1: Hydraulic gradient, i against velocity, V (m/s)
Graph 2: Log f, against log Re.
Graph 3: Log i, against log Re
(All the graphs can be plotted in one graph with its own separate
axis).
c. Find the slope of a linear portion for the Graph 1.It gives the value
of i/V.

OBSERVATION (20%)
Please make an observation of the experiment that you have conducted.

CALCULATION (10%)
Show your calculation.

DISCUSSION (30%)
a. Discuss the result of the graphs.
b. Rewrite Equation (9) in the form of kinematic viscosity, ν.
c. Insert the slope value, i/V to get the theoretical value of kinematic
viscosity, ν.
d. Compare and discuss the result of theoretical and experimental
values of kinematic viscosity, ν.

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 e. Explain the effect of friction, f due to the change of flow (Reynolds
No) from laminar to transition.
f. Find the critical point where the flow changes from laminar to
transition flow. (Mark on the graph).

CONCLUSION (15%)
Deduce conclusion from the experiment. Please comment on your
experimental work in terms of achievement, problems faced throughout the
experiment and suggest recommendation for improvement.

REFERENCES

1. Munson, B.R., Young, D. F., Okiishi, T.H. (2010). Fundamentals of Fluid

Mechanics. 6th Edition. Hoboken, NJ : John Wiley.
2. Cengel, Y.A. and Cimbala J.M. (2010). Fluid Mechanics- Fundamentals
and Applications. 2nd Edition. Boston, MA : McGraw-Hill.
3. Mott, R.L. (2006). Applied Fluids Mechanics. 6th Edition. Upper Saddle
River, NJ : Prentice Hall.
4. Robert A. Granger (1988). Experiments in Fluid Mechanics. New York :
Holt, Rinehart, and Winston.
5. Emeritus Prof. E.Markland (1996), A First Course in Hydraulics, TQ
Education & Training Ltd.

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APPENDIX A

FRICTION LOSS ALONG A PIPE

Table 2.1 Results with water manometer (for laminar and transition flow
region)
Qty t h1 h2 θ V f
No. i log i log f Re log Re
(ml) (s) (mm) (mm) (0C) (m/s) (x10-3 )

1 300

2 300

3 300

4 300

5 300

6 300

7 300

8 300

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 TOPIC 3
CENTRIFUGAL PUMP

TOPIC LEARNING OUTCOMES

At the end of this topic, students will be able to obtain the characteristics
performance of centrifugal pump.

CONTENT

3.1 INTRODUCTION
Centrifugal pumps consist basically of an impeller rotating within a spiral
casing. The fluid enters the pump axially through the suction pipe via the eye
of the impeller; it is discharged from the impeller around the entire
circumference either into a ring stationary diffuser vanes (and through them
into the volute casing) or directly into the casing. The casing ‘collects’ the fluid,
decelerates it – thus converting some of the kinetic energy into pressure
energy – and finally discharges the fluid through the delivery flange.

Figure 3.1 Centrifugal Pump Test Rig

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3.2 EXPERIMENTAL THEORY
Assuming steady flow, pump basically increases the Bernoulli head of the flow
between point 1 (suction) and point 2 (delivery), neglecting viscous work and
heat transfer, this denotes by head, H. The head of a pump is the mechanical
work transferred by the pump to the medium pumped under local gravity
conditions. The head, H tells us the increment of mechanical energy, E
between inlet and outlet.

Head could be defined as:

(PD − PS ) (VD2 − V 2S )
H = (Z − Z ) + + ....................... (1)
D S
g 2g
Where

ZD − ZS
: difference in the height of the inlet and outlet cross section on
the pump.

PD − PS
g : difference in the pressure head of the medium pumped
between inlet and outlet.

V D2− V 2
S

2g : difference in the speed of the medium pumped between inlet

and outlet.

Usually VD and VS are about the same; Z D − Z S is no more than a meter or

so.

Therefore, the net pump head, H equals to change in pressure head;

PD − PS
H …………………..... (2)
g
The power required to drive the pump is brake power, Pm ech

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 2N
=T
Pm ech = T. 60
………….……………. (3)
Where T = torque (Nm)

Hydraulic power output, Phydr :

Phydr = gQH …………………. (4)

The pump efficiency,  is given by the ratio between the power output by
a pump and the power drawn from the shaft, i.e.
Phydr
= …………....……… .(5)
Pmech

3.2.1 PUMP CHARACTERISTIC CURVE

On a centrifugal pump driven at a constant speed, the head, H; the power
required, P (and thus the efficiency), as well as the parameter NSPHreq depend
on the flow rate Q. The relationship between these performance data is
displayed in characteristic curves. The operating behaviour of each centrifugal
pump is characterized by these characteristic curves.

3.2.2 SYSTEM CHARACTERISTIC CURVE

The system characteristic curve is given by the pressure losses in the pipes at
a specific flow rate. The operating point of a pump is positioned, as in Figure
3.2, where the head of the pump and the system are the same, that is at the
point where the system characteristic curve and pump characteristic curve
converged.

BDA 37201-Edition I/2013 13

 Figure 3.2 Operating Point of a Pump

3.3 EXPERIMENTAL EQUIPMENT

Equipment used for this experiment is Basic Module Water Pump with:
a. A Self-Priming Centrifugal Pump.
b. Drive and Brake Unit.

3.4 EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE

Series of measurements at various speeds must be performed on the pumps.
The pump must be running at constant speed and the system must be more
or less in a steady state condition. Steps to run the experiment are:
a. Turn ON all main switches and check the apparatus is ready.
b. The belt guard (1) must be in place and the direction of the
rotation indicator in “clockwise direction” is illuminated.
c. The pump can only start with back pressure. The ball valve (2)
for flow rate regulation must be closed.
d. Move the potentiometer (3) to start the motor. Fully open the ball
valve.
e. Set the speed to 1000 rpm and observe whether water is pumped
back to the tank (4).

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3.4.1 EXPERIMENT AT CONSTANT SPEED, 2900 rpm
a. Check to ensure the ball valve is fully opened.
b. Increase the speed to 2900 rpm by turning the potentiometer.
c. For this experiment, take the flow rate reading from magnetic-
inductive only (5).
d. Record flow rate, P1, P2 and torque.
e. Close a little the ball valve to reduce the flow rate.
f. Repeat from j until the minimum flow rate.

3.4.2 EXPERIMENT AT VARIOUS SPEED

a. Set the speed to 1500 rpm with the ball valve is fully opened.
b. Record flow rate, P1, P2 and torque.
c. Increase the speed into 1600 rpm (100 rpm increment).
d. Repeat from n until the maximum speed, i.e. 2900 rpm.

P1

P2

Figure 3.3 Self-suction and Delivery Pressures Display

BDA 37201-Edition I/2013 15

 5

1 2

Figure 3.4 Self-priming Centrifugal Pump

ACTIVITY 1

ADDITIONAL THEORY (10%)

Please describe additional theory according to this topic.

RESULTS (15%)
Calculate and fill up Table 3.1 and 3.2 in Appendix A and Appendix B.
a. MEASUREMENTS AT CONSTANT SPEED, N=2900 RPM
Graph 1: Head, H (m) against Flow Rate, Q (m3/hr)
Graph 2: Mechanical Power, Pmech (W) against Flow Rate, Q (m3/hr)

Graph 3: Efficiency,  against Flow Rate, Q (m3/hr)

BDA 37201-Edition I/2013 16

 b. MEASUREMENT AT VARIOUS SPEED
Graph 4: Head, H (m) against Flow Rate, Q (m3/hr)
(All graphs can be plotted in one graph with its own separate axis. Graph
4 must be drawn using the template of Graph 1).

OBSERVATION (20%)
Please make an observation of the experiment that you have conducted.

CALCULATION (10%)
Show your calculation.

DISCUSSION (30%)
a. Discuss the results from the graphs.
b. What suggestions do you have for improving the experiment?
c. Find the operating point of the pump. Mark on the graph.
d. Describe the significance of the pump’s operating point.

CONCLUSION (15%)
Deduce conclusion from the experiment. Please comment on your
experimental work in terms of achievement, problems faced throughout the
experiment and suggest recommendation for improvement.

REFERENCES

1. Munson, B.R., Young, D. F., Okiishi, T.H. (2010). Fundamentals of Fluid

Mechanics. 6th Edition. Hoboken, NJ : John Wiley.
2. Cengel, Y.A. and Cimbala J.M. (2010). Fluid Mechanics- Fundamentals
and Applications. 2nd Edition. Boston, MA : McGraw-Hill.
3. Mott, R.L. (2006). Applied Fluids Mechanics. 6th Edition. Upper Saddle
River, NJ : Prentice Hall.
4. Robert A. Granger (1988). Experiments in Fluid Mechanics. New York :
Holt, Rinehart, and Winston.
5. Manual of Centrifugal Pump, (GUNT Hamburg), Germany.

BDA 37201-Edition I/2013 17

APPENDIX A

CENTRIFUGAL PUMP
Table 3.1 Results at Constant Speed

Speed = ………………………. rpm

Flow rate, Suction Delivery Mechanical Hydraulic

Torque, Head, Efficiency
Q Pressure, Pressure, Power, Power,
NO
(l/s) P1 (bar) P2 (bar)
T (Nm) H (m)
Pmech (W) Phydr (W) ,

3
4

10

11

12

13

BDA 37201-Edition I/2013 18

APPENDIX B

CENTRIFUGAL PUMP

Table 3.2 Results at Various Speeds

Suction Delivery
Motor Speed Flow Rate
No Pressure Pressure, Head H (m)
N ( rpm ) Q ( 1/s) P1( bar) P2 ( bar )

10

11

12

13

14

15

BDA 37201-Edition I/2013 19

 TOPIC 4
BOUNDARY LAYER

TOPIC LEARNING OUTCOMES

At the end of this topic, students will be able to:
1. To determine the velocity distribution, displacement thickness and
momentum thickness in a boundary layer of a flat plate.
2. To differentiate the effect of smooth and rough surface of the plate to the
formation of the boundary layer.

CONTENT

4.1 INTRODUCTION
When fluid flow over a solid object, the fluid adjacent to the object’s surface
moves with the velocity of the object. The fluid’s relative velocity increases from
zero at the surface to the velocity of the free-stream through a region called a
boundary layer.

A boundary layer is defined as a region of fluid flow past or through an object

where the vorticity and shear stress are nonzero. In the case of internal flows,
where the boundary layers over the wetted surface meet and mix, the flow is
called fully developed. Our concern will be with external flows, where the flow
is partitioned into rotational (boundary layer) and irrotational (free-stream)
flows.

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 Figure 4.1 General Characteristics of the Boundary Layer over a Flat
Plate

Consider a steady flow over a smooth plate as shown in Figure 4.1, where the
streaming velocity U is constant over the length of the plate. It is found that the
thickness of the boundary layer,  grows along the length of the plate as
indicated in the diagram. The motion in the boundary layer is laminar at the
beginning, but if the plate is sufficiently long, a transition to turbulence is
observed. This transition is produced by small disturbances which, beyond a
certain distance, grow rapidly and merge to produce the apparently random
fluctuations of velocity which are the characteristics of turbulent motion. The
parameter which characterizes the position of the transition is the Reynolds
number, Rex based on distance x from the leading edge:

Ux
Rex = ……………………. (1)
v

The nature of the process of transition renders it prone to factors such as

turbulence in the free stream and surface roughness of the boundary.
Therefore it is impossible to give a single value of Rex at which transition will
occur, but it is usually found in the range 1x105 to 5x105.

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4.2 EXPERIMENTAL THEORY

Figure 4.2 Velocity Distribution and Displacement Thickness of

Boundary Layer

A useful concept of thickness by which fluid outside the layer is displaced away
from the boundary by the existence of the layer, as indicated schematically in
Figure 4.2, by the approaching streamline. The curve OA shows the
distribution of velocity u within the layer as a function of distance y from the
boundary. If there were no boundary layer, the free stream velocity U would
persist right down to the boundary as shown by the line CA. The reduction in
volume flow rate (per unit normal to the diagram) due to the reduction of
velocity in the layer is therefore
h
Q = 0 (U − u)dy …………… (2)

which corresponds to the shaded area OAC in the diagram, the dimension h
being chosen so that u = U for any value of y greater than h. If the volume flow
rate is now considered to be restored by displacement of the streamline at A’
A away from the position to a position B’ B through a distance δ*, the volume
flow rate between A’ A and B’ B is also ΔQ, and this is seen to be

Q = U * …………………..... (3)

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Equating the results of Equation (2) and (3) gives

1h
 *= (U − u)dy …………….. (4)
U
 0

or
1 u
 (1−
h
* = )dy ……………. (5)

U 0 U
Now h is any arbitrary value which satisfy the condition

u
u =U or 1− =0
U

For all values of y greater than h. The value of h may therefore be increased
indefinitely without affecting the value of intregral, so we allow h to increase
towards infinity:

h→

and obtain the result for the displacement thickness

 u
 * =  (1− )dy …………… (6)

0 U

The displacement thickness, δ* is the thickness by which fluid outside the layer
is displaced away from the boundary due to the boundary layer.

Considering mass and momentum flux in boundary layer, momentum

thickness θ is a measure of the loss of momentum that the fluid experience as
it passes through the boundary layer.

 u u
 = (1− )dy …………… (7)
0 U U

BDA 37201-Edition I/2013 23

Therefore, skin friction drag coefficient Cf is

d
C =2 ……………………..... (8)
f
dx

Overall skin friction coefficient C f

Df
C f= ………...…..…......... (9)
1
2 U 2 L

This equation gives the overall skin friction coefficient on a flat plate in terms
of the momentum thickness at the trailing edge and the length of the plate:

L
C =2 ……………………........ (10)
f
L

It is frequently useful to refer to the ratio of displacement thickness δ* to

momentum thickness θ, and this is called shape factor H.

*
H= ………………………..... (11)


Table 4.1 Correlations for Laminar and Turbulent Boundary Layer

Laminar Boundary Turbulent Boundary

Layer Layer

Displacement
1.721x 0.046 x
thickness,
Re x Re x 0.2
δ*

Momentum
0.664 x 0.036 x
thickness,
Rex Re x 0.2
Θ

BDA 37201-Edition I/2013 24

The effect of pressure gradient
The preceding discussion relates to a boundary layer development along a
smooth plate with uniform flow in the free-stream in conditions of zero pressure
gradient along the plate. If the stream is accelerating or decelerating,
substantial changes take place in the boundary layer development.

For this experiment, liners which are fitted to the test section produce
decelerating free stream. The boundary layer grows more rapidly and the
shape factor increases in the downstream direction. The pressure rises in the
direction of flow, and this pressure rise tends to retard the fluid in the boundary
layer more severely than that in the main stream since it is moving slower.
Energy diffuses from free stream through the outer part of the boundary layer
towards the surface to maintain the forward movement against the rising
pressure. However, if the pressure gradient is sufficiently steep, this diffusion
will be insufficient to sustain the forward movement, and the flow along the
surface will reverse, forcing the main stream to separate. It is this separation,
or stall as it is sometimes called, which leads to the main component of drag
on bluff bodies and to the collapse of the lift force of an aerofoil when the angle
of incidence is excessive.

4.3 EXPERIMENTAL EQUIPMENT

Details of the equipment are (see Figure 4.2):
a. The AF10 Air Flow Bench (TQ)
b. The AF10A Multitube Manometer.
c. The AF14 Boundary Layer Apparatus, fitted with liners.
d. Accessories i.e. a flat plate (smooth and rough surface) and a
Pitot tube

4.4 EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE

a. Check the air valve (1) for the airbox of Air Flow Bench to ensure
it is fully opened.
b. Take the ambient temperature (2) and record in Table 4.1.

BDA 37201-Edition I/2013 25

 c. Placed a flat plate (3) at mid height in the section, with a
sharpened edge (4) facing the oncoming flow.
d. Liners (5) to be fitted on the wall of working section with the
position of decelerating free stream.
e. Set a Pitot tube (6) exactly on contact on the surface of the plate.
Do not over press the Pitot tube on the plate surface.
f. Take the current reading of micrometer (7) and it becomes a
zero.
g. Select only one tube of the Manometer (8) and take the water
level reading. Use this as an initial reading at atmospheric
pressure.
h. Press the ‘ON’ button – green button (9) to start the Air Flow
Bench. Let a few minutes to stabilize the manometer reading.
i. Take the first reading of Manometer. Record it in the Table 4.1.
The traverse distance, y should start from 0.20mm.
j. Increase the value of micrometer (7) by 0.20 mm. Take the
second reading and repeat the steps until y exceeding 1.00 mm.
k. Then increase each reading by 0.50 mm. Continue with the same
procedure.
l. Repeat step 6.10 until the readings becoming constant as the
velocity equals to free stream velocity.
m. Press the ‘OFF’ button (10).Unlock the screw of the plate (11)
and change the side of the plate into rough side (3).
n. Repeat from step h until completed.

BDA 37201-Edition I/2013 26

 4

Figure 4.3 Arrangement of Test Section

BDA 37201-Edition I/2013 27

 2

11

10

Figure 4.4 Air Flow Bench with Test Section

BDA 37201-Edition I/2013 28

ACTIVITY 1

ADDITIONAL THEORY (10%)

Please describe additional theory according to this topic.

RESULTS (15%)
a. Calculate and fill up Table 4.2 and 4.3 in Appendix A and
Appendix B.

PARAMETERS

Atmospheric pressure, Patm = 1010 mb = 1.010 x 105 N/m2

Patm
Air density,  air =
RTam bient

Gas constant, R = 287.2 J/kg.K

Water density, water = 1000 kg/m3

Dynamic viscosity (air), μ kg/ms (based on T ambient).


Kinematic viscosity (air), = kg/m2s 2
air

Temperature, T = 273 + T ambient K

Length of plate, L = 0.265 m

Thickness of Pitot tube, 2t = 0.40mm; t = 0.20mm

u
Values of u/U, = ; Po = Pitot tube reading in the free
U
stream

b. Plot the graph, traverse distance y against the velocity ratio (u/U)
for both smooth and rough plate.
c. Plot on the same graph, traverse distance y against u/U(1- u/U)
for both smooth and rough plate.

BDA 37201-Edition I/2013 29

 d. Calculate displacement thickness δ* and momentum thickness Θ
based on the area of the above graph. Then, calculate the shape
factor H. This will be an experimental value.
e. Calculate theoretical value of displacement thickness δ*,
momentum thickness Θ and shape factor H.

OBSERVATION (20%)
Please make an observation of the experiment that you have conducted.

CALCULATION (10%)
Show your calculation.

DISCUSSION (30%)
a. Compare and discuss the result of theoretical and experimental
values.
b. Explain the effect of surface condition on the formation of
boundary layer.
c. For the rough plate, the velocity distribution does not fall towards
zero at y = 0. State the reason and the method to solve this
problem.
d. Predict the result if the liners on the test section is reversed, i.e.
becoming accelerating flow. What would happen?
e. State at least 5 sources of error in this experiment.

CONCLUSION (15%)
Deduce conclusion from the experiment. Please comment on your
experimental work in terms of achievement, problems faced throughout the
experiment and suggest recommendation for improvement.

BDA 37201-Edition I/2013 30

REFERENCES

1. Munson, B.R., Young, D. F., Okiishi, T.H. (2010). Fundamentals of Fluid

Mechanics. 6th Edition. Hoboken, NJ : John Wiley.
2. Cengel, Y.A. and Cimbala J.M. (2010). Fluid Mechanics- Fundamentals
and Applications. 2nd Edition. Boston, MA : McGraw-Hill.
3. Mott, R.L. (2006). Applied Fluids Mechanics. 6th Edition. Upper Saddle
River, NJ : Prentice Hall.
4. Robert A. Granger (1988). Experiments in Fluid Mechanics. New York :
Holt, Rinehart, and Winston.
5. Emeritus Prof. E.Markland (2000), A First Course in Airflow, TQ Education
& Training Ltd.

BDA 37201-Edition I/2013 31

APPENDIX A

BOUNDARY LAYER

Table 4.2 Velocity Distribution on a Smooth Flat Plate

Ambient temperature, T (OC):…………………

Micrometer Axis Manometer

Pressure, Air velocity, Velocity
No. Reading Distance, Reading, 1-(u/U)
h (mm) P (N/m2) u (m/s) Ratio, u/U
(mm) y (mm)
1

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

BDA 37201-Edition I/2013 32

APPENDIX B

BOUNDARY LAYER

Table 4.3 Velocity Distribution on a Rough Flat Plate

No. Micrometer Axis Manometer Pressure, Air velocity, Velocity 1-(u/U)

Reading Distance, Reading, P (N/m2) u (m/s) Ratio, u/U
(mm) y (mm) h (mm)

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

BDA 37201-Edition I/2013 33

 TOPIC 5
CAVITATION

TOPIC LEARNING OUTCOMES

At the end of this topic, students will be able to determine the parameters
which contribute to the formation of cavitation.

CONTENT

5.1 INTRODUCTION
Since the molecules of a liquid are in constant agitation, some of the molecules
in the surface layer will have sufficient energy to escape from the attraction of
the surrounding molecules into the space above the free surface. Some of
these molecules will return and condense, but others will take their place. If
the space above the liquid is confined, an equilibrium will be reached so that
the number of molecules of liquid in the space above the free surface is
constant. These molecules produce a partial pressure known as the vapour
pressure in the space.

Under certain conditions, areas of low pressure can occur locally in a flowing
fluid. If the pressure in such areas falls below the vapour pressure, there will
be local boiling and a cloud of vapour bubbles will form. This phenomenon is
known as cavitation and can cause serious problems, since the flow of liquid
can sweep the flow of bubbles on into an area of higher pressure where the
bubbles will collapse suddenly. If this should occur in contact with a solid
surface, very serious damage can result due the very large force with which
the liquid hits the surface. Cavitation can affect the performance of hydraulic

BDA 37201-Edition I/2013 34

machinery such as pumps, turbines and propellers, and the impact of
collapsing bubbles can cause local erosion of metal surfaces.

Cavitation can also occur if a liquid contains dissolved air or other gases, since
the solubility of gases in a liquid decreases as the pressure is reduced. Gas or
air bubbles will be released in the same way as vapour bubbles, with the same
damaging effects. Usually, this release occurs at higher pressures and,
therefore, before vapour cavitation commences.

5.2 EXPERIMENTAL THEORY

5.2.1 THE MASS FLOW RATE

When water flows through the venturi meter (Figure 5.1), where the cross
section area at section (1) is large, the velocity of Water at the section is low
and the accompanying pressure at section (1) is high. On the other hand, the
pressure at section (2) is low.

Figure 5.1 Water flows through the Venturi Meter

Applying energy equation between section (1) and (2) , neglecting the energy
loss between (1) and (2) gives :

p V2 p V2
1
+ 1+ z = 2+ 2+ z ………….………….. (1)
 2g 1  2g 2

In the case of horizontal venturi meter, Z1 = Z2 , then equation (1) becomes :

p V2 p V2
1
+ 1= 2+ 2 ………………………………. (2)
 2g  2g
BDA 37201-Edition I/2013 35
Cavitation will occur when pressure p2 at the throat reduced to saturated
vapour pressure, pv then from equation (2) gives :

p V2 p V2
1
+ 1= 2+ 2
 2g  2g

p = p +  (V 2 − V 2 ) ……………………... (3)
v 1 1 2
2g


p −p = p + (V 2 − V 2 )

v,abs atm 1 1 2
2g


p =p + p + (V 2 − V 2 ) …………….. (4)

v,abs atm 1 1 2
2g

Where,

p1 = pressure at section (1), N/m2

p2 = pressure at section (2), N/m2

patm = atmospheric pressure

p v,abs = (saturated) vapor pressure, N/m2, abs

pv = (saturated) vapor pressure, N/m2

V1 = average velocity at section (1), m/s

V2 = average velocity at section (2), m/s

Z1 = elevation of section (1), m

Z2 = elevation of section (2), m

BDA 37201-Edition I/2013 36

 g = acceleration due to gravity, m/s2

 = specific gravity (N/m3)

BDA 37201-Edition I/2013 37

5.3 EXPERIMENTAL EQUIPMENT

The Cavitation Apparatus is a self-contained unit for demonstration of

cavitation when water flows through a throat with water flow rate and pressure
is lower than vapour pressure. The apparatus consists of:
a. Cavitation Panel:
i. venturi meter with 6x35 mm inlet, 6x6mm throat and 6x35
mm outlet.
ii. pressure gauge (0-3.5 kg/cm2) at the inlet and vacuum
gauge for the throat.
iii. Inlet and outlet port with flow control valve at inlet side.
b. Flow meter, range 10-75 l/m.
c. Storage tank.
d. Water pump
i. operational power, 0.55 kW
ii. maximum delivery pressure is over 2 kg/cm2
iii. maximum flow rate of over 60 l/min

BDA 37201-Edition I/2013 38

 4

P1 P2

2 1

Figure 5.2 Cavitation Panel Apparatus

Steps to run the experiment are:

a. Check the water storage tank level (1) as it must be nearly full.
b. Record the atmospheric pressure.
c. Start water pump (2).
d. Adjust flow rate to 10 l/min using a flow control valve (3).
e. Record P1, P2 and flow rate .
f. Observe and record the formation of cavitation at the throat (4).
g. Increase the flow rate by 5 l/min.
h. Repeat steps e and f until 50 l/min.

BDA 37201-Edition I/2013 39

ACTIVITY 1

ADDITIONAL THEORY (10%)

Please describe additional theory according to this topic .

RESULTS (15%)
Calculate and fill up Table 5.1 in Appendix A.

OBSERVATIONS (20%)
Please make an observation of the experiment that you have conducted.

CALCULATION (10%)
Show your calculation.

DISCUSSION (30%)
Discuss the results.
a. Compare pv calculated from equation (3) to p2, obtained from the
experiment when the bubble begins to appear at the throat.
b. Compare pv,abs calculated from equation (4) to saturated vapour
pressure in the text.

5.4.1. CONCLUSION (15%)

Deduce conclusion from the experiment. Please comment on your
experimental work in terms of achievement, problems faced throughout the
experiment and suggest recommendation for improvement.

BDA 37201-Edition I/2013 40

REFERENCES

1. Munson, B.R., Young, D. F., Okiishi, T.H. (2010). Fundamentals of Fluid

Mechanics. 6th Edition. Hoboken, NJ : John Wiley.
2. Cengel, Y.A. and Cimbala J.M. (2010). Fluid Mechanics- Fundamentals
and Applications. 2nd Edition. Boston, MA : McGraw-Hill.
3. Mott, R.L. (2006). Applied Fluids Mechanics. 6th Edition. Upper Saddle
River, NJ : Prentice Hall.
4. Robert A. Granger (1988). Experiments in Fluid Mechanics. New York :
Holt, Rinehart, and Winston.
5. Instruction Manual of HF 170 Cavitation Apparatus , Essom Company
Limited.

BDA 37201-Edition I/2013 41

APPENDIX A

CAVITATION

TABLE 5.1

Water Temperature : ……..(oC) ;

Atmospheric Pressure : ……..(N/m2)

FLOW PRESSURE PRESSURE

VELOCITY (m/s) OBSERVATION
NO RATE, Q (N/m2) (N/m2)

(litre/min) p1 p2 V1 V2 pV pV,abs

10

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BDA 37201-Edition I/2013 53