BASIC ARITHMETIC AND ALGEBRA POINTERS

Whole (natural) numbers

Natural numbers – numbers, which appear as a result of calculus of single subjects:
peoples, animals, birds, trees, different wares and so on. Series of natural numbers: 1, 2,
3, 4, 5, ... is continued endlessly and is called natural series.

Arithmetical operations
Addition – an operation of finding a sum of some numbers: 11 + 6 = 17. Here 11 and 6 –
addends, 17 – the sum. If addends are changed by places, a sum is saved the same: 11 + 6
= 17 and 6 + 11 = 17.

Subtraction – an operation of finding an addend by a sum and another addend: 17 – 6 =

11. Here 17 is a minuend, 6 – a subtrahend, 11 – the difference.

Multiplication. To multiply one number n (a multiplicand ) by another m ( a multiplier )

means to repeat a multiplicand n as an addend m times. The result of multiplying is called
a product. The operation of multiplicationiswrittenas:nxmorn·
m.Forexample,12x4=12+12+12+12=48.Inourcase12x4= 48 or 12 · 4 = 48. Here 12 is a
multiplicand, 4 – a multiplier, 48 – a product. If a multiplicand n and a multiplier m
arechangedbyplaces,theirproductissavedthesame: 12· 4=12+12+12+12==48 and 4·12=4+
4 + 4 + 4 + 4 + 4 + 4 + 4 + 4 + 4 + 4 + 4 = 48. Therefore, a multiplicand and a multiplier
are called usually factors or multipliers.

Division – an operation of finding one of factors by a product and another factor: 48 : 4 =

12. Here 48 is a dividend, 4 – a divisor, 12 – the quotient. At dividing integers a quotient
can be not a whole number. Then this quotient can be present as a fraction. If a quotient
is a whole number, then it is called that numbers are divisible, i.e. one number is divided
without remainder by another. Otherwise, we have a division with remainder. For
example, 23 isn’t divided by 4 ; this case can be written as: 23 = 5 · 4 + 3. Here 3 is a
remainder.

Raising to a power. To raise a number to a whole (second, third, forth, fifth etc.) power
means to repeat it as a factor two, three, four, five and so on. The number, repeated as a
factor, is called a base of a power; the quantity of factors is called an index or an
exponent of a power; the result is called a value of a power. A raising to a power is
written as:

35 =3·3·3·3·3=243.


Here 3 – a base of the power, 5 – an exponent (an index) of the power, 243 – a value of
the power.

The second power is called a square, the third one – a cube. The first power of any
number is this number.

Extraction of a root – an operation of finding a base of a power by the power and its
exponent:

Here 243 – a radicand, 5 – an index (degree) of the root, 3 – a value of the root. The
second root is called a square root, the third root – a cube root.The second degree of
square root isn’t written:

Addition and subtraction, multiplication and division, raising to a power and extraction of
a root are two by two mutually inverse operations.

Order of operations. Brackets

If brackets are absent, the following order of operations is right:

. 1) raising to a power and extraction of a root (one after another); 


. 2) multiplication and division (one after another); 


. 3) addition and subtraction (one after another). 


If brackets are present, at first all operations inside brackets are executed according to
the aforesaid order, and then the rest of the operations out of brackets are executed (in the
same order).

E x a m p l e. Calculate the next expression:
 (10+23 · 3)+43 – (16:2 –1)· 5–150:52 .

S o l u t i o n. At first, powers must be calculated and changed by theirs values:

(10 + 8 · 3) + 64 – (16: 2 – 1) · 5 – 150: 25;

after this, multiplication and division in the brackets and out of them are executed:
 ( 10 + 24 ) + 64 – ( 8 – 1 ) · 5 – 6 ;

now, additions and subtractions in the brackets are executed: 34 + 64 – 7 · 5 – 6 ;

finally, after the rest of the multiplication 7 · 5 = 35 we receive: 34 + 64 – 35 – 6 =

57

Laws of addition and multiplication

Commutative law of addition: m + n = n + m. A sum isn’t changed at rearrangement of
its addends. Commutative law of multiplication: m · n = n · m. A product isn’t changed at
rearrangement of its factors.

Associativelawofaddition:
(m+n)+k=m+(n+k)=m+n+k.Asumdoesn’tdependongroupingofits addends.

Associative law of multiplication: (m · n) · k = m · (n · k) = m · n · k. A product doesn’t

depend on grouping of its factors.

Distributive law of multiplication over addition: (m + n) · k = m · k + n · k. This law

expands the rules of operations with brackets (see the previous section).

Prime and composite numbers

Numbers, which aren’t divisible by any numbers except 1 and itself, are called prime
numbers. Numbers, which have also other factors, are called composite numbers. There is
an infinite set of prime numbers. The set of them till 200 is:

2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 29, 31, 37, 41, 43,

47, 53, 59, 61, 67, 71, 73, 79, 83, 89, 97, 101,

103, 107, 109, 113, 127, 131, 137, 139, 149, 151,

157, 163, 167, 173, 179, 181, 191, 193, 197, 199.

Factorization. Resolution into prime factors

Any composite number can be presented as a product of prime factors by the single way.
For example,

48=2·2·2·2·3, 225=3·3·5·5, 1050=2·3·5·5·7.

For small numbers this operation is easy. For large numbers it is possible to use the
following way. Consider the number 1463. Look over prime numbers and stop, if the
number is a factor of 1463. According to the divisibility criteria, we see that numbers 2, 3
and 5 aren’t factors of 1463. But this number is divisible by 7, really, 1463: 7 = 209. By
the same way we test the number 209 and find its factor: 209: 11 = 19. The last number is
a prime one, so the found prime factors of 1463 are: 7, 11 and 19, i.e. 1463 = 7 · 11 · 19.
It is possible to write this process using the following record:

Number factor

1464 7

209 11

19 19

Greatest common factor

Common factor of some numbers - a number, which is a factor of each of them. For
example, numbers 36, 60, 42 have common factors 2 and 3 . Among all common factors
there is always the greatest one, in our case this is 6. This number is called a greatest
common factor (GCF).

To find a greatest common factor (GCF) of some numbers it is necessary:


1) to express each of the numbers as a product of its prime factors, for example:

360 = 2 · 2 · 2 · 3 · 3 · 5 ,

2) to write powers of all prime factors in the factorization as:

360=2·2·2·3·3·5=23 · 32 · 51,

3) to write out all common factors in these factorizations;


4) to take the least power of each of them, meeting in the all factorizations;

5) to multiply these powers.

Example.FindGCFfornumbers: 168,180and3024.

Solution. 168=2·2·2·3·7=23 ·31 ·71,

180=2·2·3·3·5=22 ·32 ·51,

 3024=2·2·2·2·3·3·3·7=24 ·33 ·71.

Write out the least powers of the common factors 2 and 3 and multiply
them: GCF=22 · 31 =12.

Least common multiple

Common multiple of some numbers is called a number, which is divisible by each of
them. For example, numbers 9, 18 and 45 have as a common multiple 180. But 90 and
360 are also theirs common multiples. Among all common multiples there is always the
least one, in our case this is 90. This number is called a least common multiple (LCM).

To find a least common multiple (LCM) of some numbers it is necessary:


1) to express each of the numbers as a product of its prime factors, for example:

504 = 2 · 2 · 2 · 3 · 3 · 7 ,

2) to write powers of all prime factors in the factorization as:

504=2·2·2·3·3·7=23 ·32 ·71 ,

3) to write out all prime factors, presented at least in one of these numbers;

4) to take the greatest power of each of them, meeting in the factorizations;

5) to multiply these powers.

E x a m p l e . Find LCM for numbers: 168, 180 and 3024.

Solution. 168=2·2·2·3·7=23 ·31 ·71,

180=2·2·3·3·5=22 ·32 ·51, 3024=2·2·2·2·3·3·3·7=24 ·33 ·71 .

Write out the greatest powers of all prime factors: 24, 33, 51, 71 and multiply
them: LCM=24 · 33 · 5· 7=15120.

Divisibility criteria
Divisibility by 2. A number is divisible by 2, if its last digit is 0 or is divisible by 2.
Numbers, which are divisible by 2 are called even numbers. Otherwise, numbers are
called odd numbers.

Divisibility by 4. A number is divisible by 4, if its two last digits are zeros or they make a
two-digit number, which is divisible by 4.
Divisibility by 8. A number is divisible by 8, if its three last digits are zeros or they make
a three-digit number, which is divisible by 8.

Divisibility by 3 and by 9 . A number is divisible by 3, if a sum of its digits is divisible by

3. A number is divisible by 9, if a sum of its digits is divisible by 9.

Divisibility by 6. A number is divisible by 6, if it is divisible by 2 and by 3. Divisibility by

5. A number is divisible by 5, if its last digit is 0 or 5.

Divisibility by 25. A number is divisible by 25, if its two last digits are zeros or they make
a number, which is divisible by 25.

Divisibility by 10. A number is divisible by 10, if its last digit is 0.


Divisibility by 100. A number is divisible by 100, if its two last digits are zeros.
Divisibility by 1000. A number is divisible by 1000, if its three last digits are
zeros.
Divisibility by 11. A number is divisible by 11 if and only if a sum of its digits, located on
even places is equal to a sum of its digits, located on odd places, OR these sums are
differed by a number, which is divisible by 11.

There are criteria of divisibility for some other numbers, but these criteria are more
difficult and not considered in a secondary school program.

Example.

A number 378015 is divisible by 3, because a sum of its digits 3 + 7 + 8 + 0 + 1 + 5 = 24,

which is divisible by 3. This number is divisible by 5, because its last digit is 5. At last,
this number is divisible by 11, because a sum of even digits: 7 + 0 + 5 =12 and a sum of
odd digits: 3 + 8 + 1 = 12 are equal. But this number isn’t divisible by 2, 4, 6, 8, 9, 10, 25,
100 and 1000, because ... Check these cases yourself !

Simple fractions
A part of a unit or some equal parts of a unit is called a vulgar (simple) fraction. A
number of equal parts into which a unit has been divided, is called a denominator; a
number of these taken parts, is called a numerator. A fraction record:

Here 3 – a numerator, 7 – a denominator.
 If a numerator is less than a denominator,

then the fraction is less than 1 and called a proper fraction. If a numerator is equal to a
denominator, the fraction is equal to 1. If a numerator is greater than a denominator, the
fraction is greater than 1. In both last cases the fraction is called an improper fraction. If a
numerator is divisible by a denominator, then this fraction is equal to a quotient: 63 / 7 =
9. If a division is executed with a remainder, then this improper fraction can be presented
as a mixed number:

Here 9 – an incomplete quotient ( an integer part of the mixed number ), 2 – a remainder (

a numerator of the fractional part ), 7 – a denominator .


It is often necessary to solve a reverse problem – to convert a mixed number into a

fraction. For this purpose, multiply an integer part of a mixed number by a denominator
and add a numerator of a fractional part. It will be a numerator of a vulgar fraction, and
its denominator is saved the same.

Reciprocal fractions are two fractions whose product is 1. For example, 3 / 7 and 7 / 3 ;
15 / 1 and 1 / 15 and so on.

Operations with simple fractions

Extension of a fraction. A fraction value isn’ t changed, if to multiply its numerator and
denominator by the same non-zero number. This transformation of a fraction is called an
extension of a fraction. For instance:

Cancellation of a fraction. A fraction value isn’t changed, if to divide its numerator and
denominator by the same non-zero number. This transformation of a fraction is called a
cancellation of a fraction or lowest term. For instance:
Comparison of fractions. From two fractions with the same numerators that one is more,
a denominator of which is less:

From two fractions with the same denominators that one is more, a numerator of which is
more:

To compare two fractions, which have different both numerators and denominators, it is
necessary to extend them to reduce to the same denominators.

E x a m p l e . Compare the fractions:

S o l u t i o n . Multiply numerator and denominator of the first fraction - by denominator

of the second fraction and numerator and denominator of the second fraction - by
denominator of the first fraction:

The used transformation of fractions is called a reducing of fractions to a common

denominator.

Addition and subtraction of fractions. If denominators of fractions are the same, then in
order to add the fractions it is necessary to add their numerators; in order to subtract the
fractions it is necessary to subtract their numerators (in the same order). The received
sum or difference will be a numerator of the result; a denominator is saved the same. If
denominators of fractions are different, before these operations it is necessary to reduce
fractions to a common denominator. At addition of mixed numbers a sum of integer parts
and a sum of fractional parts are found separately. At subtracting mixed numbers we
recommend at first to reduce the mixed numbers to improper fractions, then to subtract
these fractions and after this to convert the result into a mixed number again (in case of
need).
 E x a m p l e.

Multiplication of fractions. To multiply some number by a fraction means to multiply it

by a numerator and to divide a product by a denominator. Hence, we have the general
rule for multiplication of fractions: to multiply one fraction by another it is necessary to
multiply separately their numerators and denominators and to divide the first product by
the second.

Example.

Division of fractions. To divide some number by a fraction it is necessary to multiply this

number by a reciprocal fraction. This rule follows from the definition of division (see the
section “Arithmetical operations”).

Example.

Decimal fractions (decimals)

Decimal fraction is a result of dividing of unit by ten, hundred, thousand parts etc. These
fractions are very comfortable in calculations, because they are based on the same
system, that calculus and record of integers are built. Due to this both record and rules of
operations with decimal fractions are actually the same as for integers.

At recording decimal fractions it isn’t necessary to mark parts ( as denominator ); this is

known by place, that the corresponding digit occupies. At first the integer part of a
number is written; to the right of it the decimal point is put; the first digit after the point
means a number of tenths ( a number of tenth parts of unit ), the second – a number of
hundredths, the third – thousandths, and so on. Digits, located after decimal point, are
called decimal places.

Example.

One of advantages of decimals – they are easily reduced to the shape of vulgar fractions:
a number after a decimal point ( 5047 in our case ) is a numerator, and the n-th power of
10 ( n – a quantity of decimal places, in our case n = 4 ) is a denominator:
If a decimal doesn’t contain an integer part, zero is put before a decimal point:

Properties of decimals.
1. A decimal fraction isn’ t changed, if to add some zeros to the right of it:

13.6 =13.6000.

2. A decimal fraction isn’t changed, if to reject zeros, located in the end:

0.00123000 = 0.00123


Note: it’ s prohibited to reject zeros, located not in the end of a decimal!

3. A decimal fraction will be increased by 10, 100, 1000 ,...times, if to transfer a decimal
point to one, two, three, ... places to the right: 

3.675 ---> 367.5 (it increases by 100 times).


4. A decimal fraction will be decreased by 10, 100, 1000 ,...times, if to transfer a decimal
point to one, two, 
 three, ... places to the left:

 1536.78 ---> 1.53678 (it decreases by 1000 times) 


These properties permit quickly to multiply and to divide decimal fractions by 10, 100,
1000 and so on.

Repeating decimal is a decimal in which a digit or a group of digits repeats endlessly in a

pattern. This group of repeating digits is called a period of decimal and is written in
brackets. For instance,

E x a m p l e. If to divide 47 by 11, then the result is 4.27272727... = 4.(27)

Operations with decimal fractions

Addition and subtraction of decimals. These operations are executed as well as an
addition and a subtraction of whole numbers. It is only necessary to write the
corresponding decimal places one under another.
 Example.

Multiplication of decimals. At first stage let’s multiply the fractions as integers, not
taking a decimal point into consideration. After this we use the following rule: a number
of decimal places in a product is equal to a sum of numbers of decimal places in all
factors. Note: before putting the decimal point in the product it is prohibited to reject
zeros in the end of it !

Example.

A sum of numbers of decimal places in factors is equal: 3 + 4 = 7. A sum of digits in the

product is 6. Therefore, it is necessary to add one zero to the left: 0197056 and to put
before this a decimal point: 0.0197056.

Division of decimals.

Division of decimal fraction by integer.

If a dividend is less than a divisor, write zero in an integer part of a quotient and
put after it a decimal point. Then, not taking the decimal point of dividend into
consideration, join to its integer part the next digit of fractional part and compare again
the received integer part of a dividend with a divisor. If a new number is again less than a
divisor, put one more zero after a decimal point in a quotient and join to an integer part of
a dividend the next digit of its fractional part. Thus, repeat this process till the received
dividend would be not more than a divisor. After this one can fulfill the division as for
integers. If a dividend is more than a divisor or equal to it, divide at first its integer part,
write a result of the division in the quotient and put a decimal point. After this one can
continue the division as for integers.
Division of decimal fraction by another one.

At first transfer decimal points in a dividend and a divisor by the number of decimal
places of divisor, i.e. make the divisor an integer. Now divide as well as in the previous
case.

E x a m p l e . Divide 0.04569 by 0.0006.


S o l u t i o n. Transfer the decimal points to 4 places to the right and divide 456.9 by 6:

Converting a decimal to a simple fraction and back

To convert a decimal to a vulgar fraction it is necessary: a number after a decimal point
to make as the numerator, and the n-th power of 10 ( here n – a quantity of decimal
places ) - as the denominator. A non-zero integer part of a decimal is saved the same in a
vulgar fraction; a zero integer part is omitted. For example:

To convert a vulgar fraction to a decimal it is necessary to divide a numerator by a

denominator according to the division rules.

Example. Convert 5/8 toadecimalfraction.


Solution. Dividing5 by 8,we’llreceive0.625. (Checkit,please!)

In the most of cases this process can be continued infinitely. Then a simple fraction
cannot be converted exactly to a decimal. But in practice this is never required. Dividing
is broken if decimal places, that are of interest, have been already received.
Example. Convert 1/3 to a decimal fraction.


S o l u t i o n . Dividing 1 by 3 will be infinite: 1:3 = 0.3333... . Check it, please.

Percents
Percent is a hundredth part of unit. A record 1% means 0.01. There are three main
problems by percents:

Problem 1. Find an indicated percent of a given number.

The given number is multiplied by the indicated number of percent; then a product
is divided by 100.

Example. A deposit in a bank has an annual increase 6%. A sum of money in the
beginning was equal to $10000. How many dollars will the sum be increased by in the
end of the year?

Solution: $10000· 6/100=$600.

Problem 2.

E x a m p l e . Find a number by another given number and its percent value of the
unknown number.

The given number is divided by its percent value; the result is multiplied by 100.

A salary by January was equal to $15000, that was equal 7.5% of an annual salary.
What was the annual salary ?

Solution: $15000/7.5· 100=$200000.

Problem 3. Find the percent expression of one number by another.

The first number is divided by the second, and a result is multiplied by 100.
 E x a m p l
e .On 2001 a plant have produced 40000 cars; and on 2002 - only 36000 cars. What
percent does it constitute relatively to the output of 2001?

Solution: 36000/40000· 100=90%.

Ratio and proportion. Proportionality

Ratio is a quotient of dividing one number by another.
Proportion – an equality of two ratios. For instance:

12 : 20 = 3 : 5; a : b = c : d .


Border terms of the proportion: 12 and 5 in the first proportion;

a and d in the second proportion.

Middle terms of the proportion: 20 and 3 in the first proportion;

b and c in the second proportion.


The main property of a proportion: A product of border terms of a proportion is equal to

a product of its middle terms.


Two mutually dependent values are called proportional ones, if a ratio of their values is
saved as invariable. This invariable ratio of proportional values is called a factor of a
proportionality.

Example. A mass of any substance is proportional to its volume. For

instance, 2 liters of mercury weigh 27.2 kg, 5 liters weigh 68 kg, 7
liters weigh 95.2 kg. A ratio of mercury mass to its volume ( factor
of a proportionality ) will be equal to:

Thus, a factor of a proportionality in this example is density.