ETHERNET

 FAST ETHERNET
 GIGABIT ETHERNET
What is Ethernet?
Ethernet is a family of computer networking technologies for local
area networks (LANs) and metropolitan area networks (MANs). It was
commercially introduced in 1980 and first standardized in 1983 as IEEE
802.3,[1] and has since been refined to support higher bit rates and longer
link distances.
Over time, Ethernet has largely replaced competing wired LAN
technologies such as token ring, FDDI, and ARCNET
 ETHERNET
EVOLUTION

STANDARD
ETHERNET FAST ETHERNET GIGABIT ETHERNET
TEN GIGABIT ETHERNET

10Mbps 100Mbps 1Gbps 10Gbps

IEEE STANDARD FOR
LANs
LLC : Logical link control
MAC :Media access control

Upper Layers Upper layers

---
Data link layer LLC
Ethernet MAC Token Ring Token Bus …
MAC MAC
---
Physical Layer Ethernet Token Ring Token Bus …
Physical Physical Layer Physical Layer
Layers
(several)
Transmission medium Transmission Medium
(OSI/Internet model) (IEEE STANDARD)
MAC Sublayer : In standard Ethernet , the MAC sublayer ,governs
the operation of the access method . And it also frames data received
from the upper layer and passes them to the physical layer.
FRAME FORMAT
The Ethernet frames contains seven fields : preamble ,SFD ,DA ,SA ,length or type of protocol data
unit(PDU),upper-layer data ,the CRC . Ethernet does not provide any mechanism for acknowledging received
frames , making it what is known as an unreliable medium . Acknowledgement must be implemented at the
higher layers . The format of the MAC frame is shown in fig.
802.3 MAC frame: Preamble:56 bits if alternating 1s and 0sSFD:Strat frame delimiter ,flag(10101011)

Preamble SFD Destination Source Length/Type Data and CRC

address address padding
7bytes 1byte 6 bytes 6bytes 2bytes 4bytes

Physical layer header

 PREAMBLE:The first field of the 802.3 frame contains 7 bytes(56bits )of alternating 0s
and 1s that alerts the receiving system to coming frame and enables it to synchronize its
input timing.
 START FRAME DELIMITER(SFD):The second field (1byte:10101011)signals the
beginning of the frame . The SFD warns the station that this is the last chance for
synchronization . The last 2 bits is11 and alerts the receive that the next field is the
destination address.
 DESTINATION ADDRESS(DA):The DA field is 6bytes and contain the physical address
of the destination station to receive the packet
 SOURCE ADDRESS : The SA field is also 6 bytes and contains the physical address of
the sender of the packet.
 LENGTH/TYPE : This field is defined as a type field or length field.Theoriginal Ethernet
used this field as the type field to define the upper –layer protocol using the MAC frame.
 DATA : This field carries data encapsulated from the upper –layer protocols.It is a
minimum of 46 and a maximum of 1500 bytes.
 CRC : The last filed contains error detection information,in this case a CRC-32.
FRAME LENGTH : Ethernet has imposed restriction on
both the minimum and maximum lengths of a frame , as
shown below

Destination address Source address Length PDU Data and padding CRC

6 bytes 6 bytes 2 bytes 4 bytes

Minimum frame length :512bits or 64 bytes
Maximum frame length:12,144bits/1518 bytes

REQUIREMENT OF MIN/MAX LENGTH:

 The minimum length is required for the correct operation of CSMA/CD.
 The maximum length is used to reduce the size of the buffer.
 It also prevents one station from monopolizing the shared medium.
 ADDRESSING : Each station on a Ethernet network(such as PC ,workstation or printer) has its own
network interface card(NIC).The NIC fits inside the station and provides the station with a 6-byte physical
address . The Ethernet address is 6bytes(48 bits)written in hexadecimal notation , with a colon between the
bytes.

Example: 06:01:02:01:2C:4B

6bytes =12 hex digits=48 bits

UNICAST AND MULTICAST

ADDRESSES :
Unicast :0;multicast:1
. ...
Byte 1 Byte 2 Byte 6

 The least significant bit of the first byte defines the type of address . If the bit is 0 ,the address is unicast ; otherwise , it is
multicast.
 A unicast address defines only one recipient ; the relationship between the sender and the receiver is one-to-one.
 A multicast address defines a group of addresses ; the relationship between the sender and the receiver is one-to-many.
 The broadcast destination address is a special case of the multicast address in which all bits are 1s.
ACCESS METHOD:CSMA/CD
Standard Ethernet uses 1-persistent CSMA/CD
SLOT TIME:
Slot time=round-trip time + time required to send the jam sequence

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SLOT TIME AND MAXIMUM NETWORK LENGTH:

Max Length=Propagation speed ×slot time

2
10Base5:Thick
Internet
 The name 10BASE5 is derived from several
characteristics of the physical medium. The
10 refers to its transmission speed of 10
Mbit/s. The BASE is short for baseband
signaling as opposed to broadband, and
the 5 stands for the maximum segment
length of 500 meters (1,600 ft.).

 It was the first Ethernet specification to

use a bus topology with a external
transceiver connected via a tap to a thick
coaxial cable.
10base2:Thin Internet
 The second implementation is called
10Base2,thin Ethernet , cheaper net .

 The cable is thinner and more flexible.

 The transceiver is a part of NIC , which is

installed inside the station.

 The implementation is most cost effective than

10Base5as thin coaxial cable is less expensive
than thick coaxial cable and the tee connection
are much cheaper than taps.
10Base-T:Twister Pair Ethernet
 The third implementation is called 10Base-
T or Twisted Pair Ethernet.

 It uses star topology and the station are

connected via two pairs of twisted
cable(one fro sending and one for
receiving)between the station and the hub.

 The maximum length of the twisted cable

here is defined as 100m,to minimize the
effect of attenuation in the twisted cable.
10Base-F:Fiber Ethernet

 Although there are several types

of optical fiber 10Mbps Ethernet
, the most common is called
10Base-F.

 10Base-F uses a star topology to

connect stations to a hub.

 The stations are connected to a

hub using two-optic cables.
It was designed to compete with LAN protocols such as FDDI or Fiber channel . IEEE created Fast
Ethernet under the name 802.3u.Fast Ethernet is backward-compatible with standard Ethernet ,
but it can transmit data 10 times faster at rate of100Mbps.

 Upgrade the data rate to 100Mbps.

 Make it compatible with standard Ethernet.
 Keep the same 48 bit-address.
 Keep the same frame format.
 Keep the same minimum and maximum frame lengths.
It is a new feature is added to the Fast Ethernet . It allows a station or a hub a range of
capabilities .

It was designed for the following purposes:

To allow incompatible devices to connect to one another.

To allow on devices to have multiple capabilities.

To allow a station to check a hub’s capabilities.

 COMMON FAST
ETHERNET
IMPLEMENTATI
ON

100Base-TX 100Base-FX 10Base-T4

Two wires category Four wires category 3UTP
5UTP Two wires fiber
In computer networking, Gigabit Ethernet (Gb E or 1 GigE) is a term describing various technologies for
transmitting Ethernet frames at a rate of a gigabit per second (1,000,000,000 bits per second), as defined by the
IEEE 802.3-2008 standard.
. Fast Ethernet increased speed from 10 to 100 megabits per second (Mbit/s). Gigabit Ethernet was the next
iteration, increasing the speed to 1000 Mbit/s. The initial standard for Gigabit Ethernet was produced by the
IEEE in June 1998 as IEEE 802.3z, and required optical fiber. 802.3z is commonly referred to as 1000BASE-X,
where -X refers to either -CX, -SX, -LX, or (non-standard) -ZX. For the history behind the "X" see Fast Ethernet.
IEEE 802.3ab, ratified in 1999, defines Gigabit Ethernet transmission over unshielded twisted pair (UTP)
category 5, 5e, or 6 cabling and became known as 1000BASE-T. With the ratification of 802.3ab, Gigabit Ethernet
became a desktop technology as organizations could use their existing copper cabling infrastructure.
IEEE 802.3ah, ratified in 2004 added two more gigabit fiber standards, 1000BASE-LX10 (which was already
widely implemented as vendor specific extension) and 1000BASE-BX10. This was part of a larger group of
protocols known as Ethernet in the First Mile.
Upgrade the data rate to 1Gbps.
Make it compatible with standard or fast Ethernet.
Use the same address ,frame format.
Keep the same minimum and maximum frame length.
To support auto negotiation as defined in Fast Ethernet.
 GIGABIT ETHERNET
IMPLEMENTATION

1000Base-SX 1000Base-LX 1000Base-CX 1000Base-T

Two wire Two-wire Two-wire Four-wire
Shortwave fiber Long –wave fiber Copper(STP) UTP
 1000BASE-SX
1000BASE-SX is a fiber optic Gigabit Ethernet standard for operation over
multi-mode fiber using a 770 to 860 nanometer, near infrared (NIR) light
wavelength.
The standard specifies a distance capability between 220 meters
(62.5/125 µm fiber with low modal bandwidth) and 550 meters (50/125 µm
fiber with high modal bandwidth).

 1000BASE-CX
1000BASE-CX is an initial standard for Gigabit Ethernet connections
with maximum distances of 25 meters using balanced shielded twisted
pair and either DE-9 or 8P8C connector (with a pinout different from
1000BASE-T). The short segment length is due to very high signal
transmission rate.
 1000BASE-T
1000BASE-T (also known as IEEE 802.3ab) is a standard for
Gigabit Ethernet over copper wiring.
Each 1000BASE-T network segment can be a maximum length of
100 meters (330 feet), and must use Category 5 cable or better
(including Cat 5e and Cat 6).

 1000BASE-LX
1000BASE-LX is a fiber optic Gigabit Ethernet standard
specified in IEEE 802.3 Clause 38 which uses a long wavelength
laser (1,270–1,355 nm), and a maximum RMS spectral width of
4 nm.
1000BASE-LX is specified to work over a distance of up to 5 km
over 10 µm single-mode fiber.
 SUMMARY FOR GIGABIT ETHERNET
IMPLEMENTATIONMedium
Name Specified distance

1000BASE-CX Shielded balanced copper cable 25 meters

1000BASE-KX Copper backplane 1 meter

220 to 550 meters dependent on fiber diameter

1000BASE-SX Multi-mode fiber
and bandwidth

1000BASE-LX Multi-mode fiber 550 meters

1000BASE-LX Single-mode fiber 5 km

1000BASE-LX10 Single-mode fiber using 1,310 nm wavelength 10 km

1000BASE-EX Single-mode fiber at 1,310 nm wavelength ~ 40 km

1000BASE-ZX Single-mode fiber at 1,550 nm wavelength ~ 70 km

Single-mode fiber, over single-strand fiber:

1000BASE-BX10 10 km
1,490 nm downstream 1,310 nm upstream

1000BASE-T Twisted-pair cabling (Cat-5, Cat-5e, Cat-6, Cat-7) 100 meters

1000BASE-TX Twisted-pair cabling (Cat-6, Cat-7) 100 meters

IEEE STANDARDS:

In 1985,the computer society of the IEEE started a project called , Project

802,to set standards to enable intercommunication among equipment from a
variety of manufactures . Project 802 does not seek to replace any part of the OSI
or the Internet model . Instead , it is away of specifying functions of the physical
layer and the data link layer of major LAN protocols.
The IEEE has subdivided the data link layer into two sublayers : Logical link
control
(LLC)and media access control(MAC).IEEE has also created several
physical layer standards for different LAN protocols.
Notable IEEE Standards
formats
IEEE 802 LAN/MAN

Standards for LAN/MAN bridging and management and remote media

IEEE 802.1
access control (MAC) bridging.

IEEE 802.2 Standards for Logical Link Control (LLC) standards for connectivity.

Ethernet Standards for Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision

IEEE 802.3
Detection (CSMA/CD).

IEEE 802.4 Standards for token passing bus access.

IEEE 802.24 Standards for Logical Link Control (LLC) standards for connectivity.

Standards for token ring access and for communications between

IEEE 802.5
LANs and MANs

IEEE 802.6 Standards for information exchange between systems.

IEEE 802.7 Standards for broadband LAN cabling.
IEEE 802.8 Fiber optic connection.
IEEE 802.9 Standards for integrated services, like voice and data.

IEEE 802.10 Standards for LAN/MAN security implementations.

IEEE 802.11 Wireless Networking – "WiFi".

IEEE 802.12 Standards for demand priority access method.

IEEE 802.14 Standards for cable television broadband communications.

IEEE 802.15.1 Bluetooth

IEEE 802.15.4 Wireless Sensor/Control Networks – "ZigBee"

Wireless Body Area Network[3] (BAN) – (e.g. Bluetooth low

IEEE 802.15.6
energy)

IEEE 802.16 Wireless Networking – "WiMAX"

 IEEE 802 refers to a family of IEEE standards dealing with local area networks and metropolitan area networks.
More specifically, the IEEE 802 standards are restricted to networks carrying variable-size packets. (By contrast, in
cell relay networks data is transmitted in short, uniformly sized units called cells. Isochronous networks, where
data is transmitted as a steady stream of octets, or groups of octets, at regular time intervals, are also out of the
scope of this standard.)

 The services and protocols specified in IEEE 802 map to the lower two layers (Data Link and Physical) of the
seven-layer OSI networking reference model. In fact, IEEE 802 splits the OSI Data Link Layer into two sub-layers
named Logical Link Control (LLC) and Media Access Control (MAC), so that the layers can be listed like this:

•Data link layer

• LLC Sublayer
• MAC Sublayer
•Physical layer
Working groups:
Name Description Note
Bridging (networking) and Network
IEEE 802.1
Management
IEEE 802.2 LLC inactive
IEEE 802.3 Ethernet
IEEE 802.4 Token bus disbanded
IEEE 802.5 Defines the MAC layer for a Token Ring inactive
IEEE 802.6 MANs (DQDB) disbanded
IEEE 802.7 Broadband LAN using Coaxial Cable disbanded
IEEE 802.8 Fiber Optic TAG disbanded

IEEE 802.9 Integrated Services LAN (ISLAN or isoEthernet) disbanded

IEEE 802.10 Interoperable LAN Security disbanded

Wireless LAN (WLAN) & Mesh (Wi-Fi
IEEE 802.11
certification)
IEEE 802.12 100BaseVG disbanded
IEEE 802.13 Unused Reserved for Fast Ethernet development
IEEE 802.14 Cable modems disbanded
IEEE 802.15 Wireless PAN
IEEE 802.15.1 Bluetooth certification
IEEE 802.15.2 IEEE 802.15 and IEEE 802.11 coexistence

IEEE 802.15.3 High-Rate wireless PAN (e.g., UWB, etc.)

Low-Rate wireless PAN (e.g., ZigBee,

IEEE 802.15.4
WirelessHART, MiWi, etc.)
IEEE 802.15.5 Mesh networking for WPAN
IEEE 802.15.6 Body area network
IEEE 802.16 Broadband Wireless Access (WiMAX certification)

IEEE 802.16.1 Local Multipoint Distribution Service

IEEE 802.17 Resilient packet ring
IEEE 802.18 Radio Regulatory TAG
IEEE 802.19 Coexistence TAG
IEEE 802.20 Mobile Broadband Wireless Access
IEEE 802.21 Media Independent Handoff
IEEE 802.22 Wireless Regional Area Network
IEEE 802.23 Emergency Services Working Group
IEEE 802.24 Smart Grid TAG New (November, 2012)
IEEE 802.25 Omni-Range Area Network Not yet ratified
IEEE 802.3
 IEEE 802.3 is a working group and a collection of IEEE standards produced by
the working group defining the physical layer and data link layer's media access
control (MAC) of wired Ethernet. This is generally a local area network
technology with some wide area network applications.
 Physical connections are made between nodes and/or infrastructure devices
(hubs, switches, routers) by various types of copper or fiber cable.

 802.3 is a technology that supports the IEEE 802.1 network architecture.

 802.3 also defines LAN access method using CSMA/CD.

COMMUNICATION STANDARDS
A revision of base standard incorporating the
802.3-2012 2012 802.3at/av/az/ba/bc/bd/bf/bg amendments, a
corrigenda and errata.
Define a 4-lane 100 Gbit/s backplane PHY for operation
over links consistent with copper traces on “improved
FR-4” (as defined by IEEE P802.3ap or better materials
802.3bj June 2014 to be defined by the Task Force) with lengths up to at
least 1m and a 4-lane 100 Gbit/s PHY for operation over
links consistent with copper twinaxial cables with
lengths up to at least 5m.
This amendment to IEEE Std 802.3 defines the physical
layer specifications and management parameters for
802.3bk 2013 EPON operation on point-to-multipoint passive optical
networks supporting extended power budget classes of
PX30, PX40, PRX40, and PR40 PMDs.
802.3bm 2015 100G/40G Ethernet for optical fiber

1000BASE-T1 - Gigabit Ethernet over a single twisted

802.3bp 2014 pair, automotive & industrial environments
40GBASE-T for 4-pair balanced twisted-pair cabling with
802.3bq ~Feb 2016 2 connectors over 30 m distances
400 Gbit/s Ethernet over optical fiber using multiple
802.3bs ~ 2017 25G/50G lanes
Power over Ethernet enhancements up to 100W using
all 4-pairs balanced twisted-pair cabling, lower standby
802.3bt ~ 2017 power and specific enhancements to support Iot
applications (e.g. Lighting, sensors, building
automation).
 Token bus
network(802.4)

 Token bus is a network implementing the token ring protocol over a "virtual ring" on a coaxial
cable.[A token is passed around the network nodes and only the node possessing the token may
transmit. If a node doesn't have anything to send, the token is passed on to the next node on the
virtual ring. Each node must know the address of its neighbor in the ring, so a special protocol is
needed to notify the other nodes of connections to, and disconnections from, the ring.
 Token bus was standardized by IEEE standard 802.4. It is mainly used for industrial applications.
The main difference is that the endpoints of the bus do not meet to form a physical ring.
 Due to difficulties handling device failures and adding new stations to a network, token bus gained a
reputation for being unreliable and difficult to upgrade.
 In order to guarantee the packet delay and transmission in Token bus protocol, a modified Token bus
was proposed in Manufacturing Automation Systems and flexible manufacturing system (FMS).
 A means for carrying Internet Protocol over token bus was developed.
 The IEEE 802.4 Working Group is disbanded and the standard has been withdrawn by the IEEE.
Token Ring/IEEE 802.5
 The Token Ring network was originally developed by IBM in the 1970s. It is
still in IBM's primary local-area network (LAN) technology. The related IEEE
802.5 specification is almost identical to and completely compatible with IBM's
Token Ring network.

 Token Ring and IEEE 802.5 networks are basically compatible, although the
specifications differ in minor ways. IBM's Token Ring network specifies a star,
with all end stations attached to a device called a multi station access unit
(MSAU). In contrast, IEEE 802.5 does not specify a topology, although
virtually all IEEE 802.5 implementations are based on a star.
Physical Connections

IBM Token Ring network stations are

directly connected to MSAUs, which can be
wired together to form one large ring (see
Figure: MSAUs Can Be Wired Together to
Form One Large Ring in an IBM Token
Ring Network).
Patch cables connect MSAUs to adjacent
MSAUs, while lobe cables connect MSAUs
to stations. MSAUs include bypass relays
for removing stations from the ring.
Token Ring Operation

Token Ring and IEEE 802.5 are two principal examples of token-
passing networks (FDDI is the other). Token-passing networks move
a small frame, called a token, around the network. Possession of the
token grants the right to transmit. If a node receiving the token has
no information to send, it passes the token to the next end station.
Each station can hold the token for a maximum period of time
.
If a station possessing the token does have information to transmit,
it seizes the token, alters 1 bit of the token (which turns the token
into a start-of-frame sequence), appends the information that it
wants to transmit, and sends this information to the next station on
the ring.Therefore, collisions cannot occur in Token Ring networks.
If early token release is supported, a new token can be released when
frame transmission is complete.
Frame Format
Token Ring and IEEE 802.5 support two basic frame types: tokens and data/command
frames.
Figure: IEEE 802.5 and Token Ring Specify Tokens and Data/Command Frames.
IEEE 802.6
 IEEE 802.6 is a standard governed by the ANSI for Metropolitan Area
Networks (MAN). It is an improvement of an older standard (also created by
ANSI) which used the Fiber distributed data interface (FDDI) network
structure. The FDDI-based standard failed due to its expensive implementation
and lack of compatibility with current LAN standards.

 The IEEE 802.6 standard uses the Distributed Queue Dual Bus (DQDB)
network form. This form supports 150 Mbit/s transfer rates. It consists of two
unconnected unidirectional buses. DQDB is rated for a maximum of 160 km
before significant signal degradation over fiber optic cable with an optical
wavelength of 1310 nm.

 This standard has also failed, mostly for the same reasons that the FDDI
standard failed. Most MANs now use Synchronous Optical Network (SONET) or
Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) network designs, with recent designs
using native Ethernet or MPLS.
 WIRELESS LAN
TECHNOLOGY

SPREAD NARROWBAND
INFRARED LANs
SPECTRUM LANs MICROWAVE
IEEE 802.11:

In 1990,the IEEE 802 committee formed a new working

group , IEEE 802.11 specifically devoted to wireless LANs ,
with a character to develop a MAC protocol and physical
medium specification.

The demand of the for WANs , at different frequencies and

data rates,has exploded.

Keeping pace with demand ,the IEEE802.11 working group

has issued an ever-expanding list of standards.
Within the IEEE 802.11 Working Group , the following IEEE Standards Association Standard and
Amendments exist:
 IEEE 802.11-1997: The WLAN standard was originally 1 Mbit/s and 2 Mbit/s, 2.4 GHz RF and infrared (IR)
standard (1997), all the others listed below are Amendments to this standard, except for Recommended Practices
802.11F and 802.11T.
 IEEE 802.11a: 54 Mbit/s, 5 GHz standard (1999, shipping products in 2001)
 IEEE 802.11b: Enhancements to 802.11 to support 5.5 Mbit/s and 11 Mbit/s (1999)
 IEEE 802.11c: Bridge operation procedures; included in the IEEE 802.1D standard (2001)
 IEEE 802.11d: International (country-to-country) roaming extensions (2001)
 IEEE 802.11F: Inter-Access Point Protocol (2003) Withdrawn February 2006
 IEEE 802.11g: 54 Mbit/s, 2.4 GHz standard (backwards compatible with b) (2003)
 IEEE 802.11h: Spectrum Managed 802.11a (5 GHz) for European compatibility (2004)
 IEEE 802.11i: Enhanced security (2004)
 IEEE 802.11j: Extensions for Japan (2004)
 IEEE 802.11-2007: A new release of the standard that includes amendments a, b, d, e, g, h, i, and j. (July 2007)
 IEEE 802.11k: Radio resource measurement enhancements (2008)
 BLUETOOTH is a wireless LAN designed to connect devices for different
function such as telephones , computers(desktop and laptop),cameras
,printers , coffee makers and so on.

 It is an ad hoc network which means the network is formed spontaneously

; these devices find each other and make a network called a PICONET.

 Bluetooth technology is a implementation of a protocol defined by the

IEEE 802.15 standard

 Bluetooth was originally started as a project by the Ericson Company . It

is named for HaraldBlaatand , the king of Denmark , later translates to
Bluetooth in English.
ARCHITECTURE :

It defines two types of network

Piconet

Scatternet
 A bluetooth network is called a
piconet/small net.

 It can have up to eight stations , one of

which is called the primary ; the rest are
called secondaries.

 The communication between the

primary and secondary can be one-to-
one or one-to-many.
A piconet is a computer network which links a wireless user group of
devices using Bluetooth technology protocols. A piconet consists of two
or more devices occupying the same physical channel (synchronized to a
common clock and hopping sequence).

It allows one master device to interconnect with up to seven active slave

devices. Up to 255 further slave devices can be inactive, or parked, which
the master device can bring into active status at any time.

Some examples of piconets include a cell phone connected to a

computer, a laptop and a Bluetooth-enabled digital camera, or several
PDAs that are connected to each other
Scatternet (master=red, slave=green, parking=blue)
A scatternet is a type of ad hoc computer network consisting of two or more piconets. The
terms 'scatternet' and 'piconet' are typically applied to Bluetooth wireless technology.
 A scatternet is a number of interconnected piconets that supports
communication between more than 8 devices.

 Scatternets can be formed when a member of one piconet (either the
master or one of the slaves) elects to participate as a slave in a
second, separate piconet. The device participating in both piconets
can relay data between members of both ad hoc networks.

 Using this approach, it is possible to join together numerous piconets

into a large scatternet, and to expand the physical size of the network
beyond Bluetooth's limited range.
 Currently there are very few actual implementations of scatternets
due to limitations of Bluetooth and the MAC address protocol.
 Scatternets have the potential to bring the
interconnectivity of the Internet to the physical world
through wireless devices.

 A number of companies have attempted to launch

social networking and dating services that leverage early
scatternet implementations (see Blue dating).

 Scatternets can also be used to enable ad hoc

communication and interaction between autonomous
robots and other devices.