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UNIT- V

8. SEMICONDUCTOR PHYSICS

INTRODUCTION:

Semiconductors are materials whose electronic properties are intermediate between those
of conductors and insulators. These electrical properties of a solid depend on its band
structure. A semiconductor has two bands of importance (neglecting bound electrons as they
play no part in the conduction process) the valence and the conduction bands. They are
separated by a forbidden energy gap. At OK the valence band is full and the conduction band
is empty, the semiconductor behaves as an insulator. Semiconductor has both positive (hole)
and negative (electron) carriers of electricity whose densities can be controlled by doping the
pure semiconductor with chemical impurities during crystal growth.
At higher temperatures, electrons are transferred across the gap into the conduction band
leaving vacant levels in the valence band. It is this property that makes the semiconductor a
material with special properties of electrical conduction.
Generally there are two types of semiconductors. Those in which electrons and holes are
produced by thermal activation in pure Ge and Si are called intrinsic semiconductors. In other
type the current carriers, holes or free electrons are produced by the addition of small
quantities of elements of group III or V of the periodic table, and are known as extrinsic

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semiconductors. The elements added are called the impurities or dopants.

Intrinsic semiconductors:

A pure semiconductor which is not doped is termed as intrinsic semiconductor. In Si crystal,

the four valence electrons of each Si atom are shared by the four surrounding Si atoms. An
electron which may break away from the bond leaves deficiency of one electron in the bond.
The vacancy created in a bond due to the departure of an electron is called a hole. The
vacancy may get filled by an electron from the neighboring bond, but the hole then shifts to
the neighboring bond which in turn may get filled by electron from another bond to whose
place the hole shifts, and so on thus in effect the hole also undergoes displacement inside a
crystal. Since the hole is associated with deficiency of one electron, it is equivalent for a
positive charge of unit magnitude. Hence in a semiconductor, both the electron and the hole
act as charge carriers.

In an intrinsic semiconductor, for every electron freed from the bond, there will be one hole
created. It means that, the no of conduction electrons is equal to the no of holes at any given
temperature. Therefore there is no predominance of one over the other to be particularly
designated as charge carriers.

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Carriers Concentration in intrinsic semiconductors:

A broken covalent bond creates an electron that is raised in energy, so as to occupy

the conduction bond, leaving a hole in the valence bond. Both electrons and holes contribute
to overall conduction process.

In an intrinsic semiconductor, electrons and holes are equal in numbers. Thus

n = p = ni

Where n is the number of electrons in the conduction band in a unit volume of the material
(concentration), p is the number of holes in the valance band in a unit volume of the material.
And n i , the number density of charge carriers in an intrinsic semi conductor. It is called
intrinsic density.

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For convenience, the top of the valence bond is taken as a zero energy reference level
arbitrarily.

The number of electrons in the conduction bond is

n = N P(Eg)

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Where P(Eg) is the probability of an electron having energy Eg. It is given by Fermi Dirac
function eqn., and N is the total number of electrons in both bands.
Thus,
N
n = -----------------------------------
1 + exp [(Eg – E F )/KT]

Where E F is the Fermi Level

The probability of an electron being in the valence bond is given by putting Eg = 0 in eqn.
Hence, the number of electrons in the valence bond is given by

N
n v = ------------------------------
1 + exp(-E F /KT)

The total number of electrons in the semiconductor. N is the sum of those in the conduction
band n and those in the valence bond n v . Thus,

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N N
N = -------------------------------- + --------------------------
1 + exp [ (Eg – EF) / KT ] 1 + exp(-E F /KT)

For semiconductors at ordinary temperature, Eg >> KT as such in equation one may be

neglected when compared with exp Eg – E F Then
RT

1 1
1 = +
exp Eg – E F 1 + exp – EF
RT RT

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Rearranging the terms, we get

- Eg + E F exp (-E F /RT)

exp =
RT 1 + exp (-E F /RT)

-E F
 exp
RT

2 E F - Eg
or exp =1
RT

This leads to

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E F = Eg/2

Thus in an intrinsic semiconductor, the Fermi level lies mid way between the conduction and
the valence bonds. The number of conduction electrons at any temperature T is given by
N
n= ( E F = Eg/2)
1 + exp(Eg/2KT)

In eqn may be approximated as

n  N exp(-Eg / 2RT)

From the above discussion, the following conclusions may be drawn.

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a) The number of conduction electrons and hence the number of holes in an intrinsic
semiconductor, decreases exponentially with increasing gap energy Eg this accounts for
lack of charge carries in insulator of large forbidden energy gap.
b) The number of available charge carries increases exponentially with increasing
temperature.

The above treatment is only approximate as we have assumed that all states in a bond have
the same energy. Really it is not so. A more rigorous analysis must include additions terms
in eqn.

The no of conduction bond, in fact is given by

n =  S(E) P(E) dE

Where S(E) is the density of available states in the energy range between E and E + dE, and
P(E) is the probability, that an electron can occupy a state of energy E.

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S(E) 82  m3/2 E1/2
n3

Inclusion of S(E) and integration over the conduction bond leads to

n = N e exp [(-Eg-E F )/RT]

In a similar way, we arrive at

p = N V exp [ -E F /RT]

If we multiply eq: we get

np = n i 2 = N e N V exp(-Eg/RT)

For the intrinsic material

Ni = 2 (2RT)3/2 (m e * m n *)3/4 exp(-Eg/2RT)

h2

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Notice that this expression agress with the less rigorous one derived earlier since the
temperature dependence is largely controlled by the rapidly varying exponential term.

EXTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTORS:

Intrinsic Semiconductors are rarely used in semiconductor devices as their

conductivity is not sufficiently high. The electrical conductivity is extremely sensitive to
certain types of impurity. It is the ability to modify electrical characteristics of the material
by adding chosen impurities that make extrinsic semiconductors important and interesting.

Addition of appropriate quantities of chosen impurities is called doping, usually, only minute
quantities of dopants (1 part in 103 to 1010) are required. Extrinsic or doped semiconductors
are classified into main two main types according to the type of charge carries that
predominate. They are the n-type and the p-type.

N-TYPE SEMICONDUCTORS:

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Doping with a pentavalent impurity like phosphorous, arsenic or
antimony the semiconductor becomes rich in conduction electrons. It is called n-type the
bond structure of an n-type semiconductor is shown in Fig below.

Even at room temperature, nearby all impurity atoms lose an electron into the conduction
bond by thermal ionization. The additional electrons contribute to the conductivity in the
same way as those excited thermally from the valence bond. The essential difference beam

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the two mechanisms is that ionized impurities remain fixed and no holes are produced. Since
penta valent impurities denote extra carries elections, they are called donors.

P-TYPE SEMICONDUCTORS:-

p-type semiconductors have holes as majority charge carries. They are

produced by doping an intrinsic semiconductor with trivalent impurities.(e.g. boron,
aluminium, gallium, or indium). These dopants have three valence electrons in their outer
shell. Each impurity is short of one electron bar covalent bonding. The vacancy thus created
is bound to the atom at OK. It is not a hole. But at some higher temperature an electron from
a neighbouring atom can fill the vacancy leaving a hole in the valence bond for conduction.
It behaves as a positively charge particle of effective mass m h *. The bond structure of a p-
type semiconductor is shown in Fig below.

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Dopants of the trivalent type are called acceptors, since they accept electrons to create holes
above the tope of the valence bond. The acceptor energy level is small compared with
thermal energy of an electron at room temperature. As such nearly all acceptor levels are
occupied and each acceptor atom creates a hole in the valence bond. In extrinsic
semiconductors, there are two types of charge carries. In n-type, electrons are more than
holes. Hence electrons are majority carriers and holes are minority carries. Holes are
majority carries in p-type semiconductors; electrons are minority carriers.

CARRIER CONCENTRATION IN EXTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTORS:

Equation gives the relation been electron and hole concentrations in a semiconductor.
Existence of charge neutrality in a crystal also relates n and p. The charge neutrality
may be stated as

ND + p = NA + n

Since donors atoms are all ionized, N D positive charge per cubic meter are
contributed by N D donor ions. Hence the total positive charge density = N D + p.
Similarly if N A is the concentration of the acceptor ions, they contribute N A negative
charge per cubic meter. The total negative charges density = N A + n. Since the

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semiconductor is electrically neutral the magnitude of the positive charge density

must be equal to the magnitude of the total negative charge density.

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n-type material : N A = 0 Since n >> p, eqn reduces to n  N D i.e., in an n-type
material the where subscript n indicates n-type material. The concentration p n of
holes in the n-type semiconductor is obtained from eqn i.e.,

n n p n = n2 i

Thus p n  n2 i
ND

Similarly, for a p-type semiconductor p p  N A and n p  n2 i

NA

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Expression for electrical conductivity:

There are two types of carries in a Semiconductor electrons and holes. Both these
carries contribute to conduction. The general expression for conductivity can be written
down as
 = e (n e +   h )

Where  e and  h are motilities of electrons and holes respectively.

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A. Intrinsic Semiconductor; For an intrinsic Semiconductor
n = p = ni

eqn becomes

 i = en i ( n +  p )

If the scattering is predominantly due to lattice vibrations.

 e = AT3/2
 h = BT3/2

We may put  e +  h = (A + B)T3/2 = CT3/2

 i = n i CT3/2
Substituting for n i from eq we get

3/2
 i = 2 2RT CT3/2 (m e * m h *)3/4 exp -Eg .
h2 2RT

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log  i = log x - Eg
2RT

A graph of log  i Vs 1/T gives a straight line shown in fig below:

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LIFE TIME OF MINORITY CARRIER:

In Semiconductor devices electron and hole concentrations are very often disturbed
from their equilibrium values. This may happen due to thermal agitation or incidence of
optical radiation. Even in a pure Semiconductor there will be a dynamic equilibrium. In a
pure Semiconductor the number of holes is equal to the number of free electrons. Thermal
agitation continuously produces of new EHP per unit volume per second while other EHP
disappear due to recombination. On the average a hole exists for a time period of Tp while an
electron exists for a time period Tn before recombination take place. This time is called the
mean life time. If we are dealing with holes in an n-type Semiconductor, Tp is called the
minority carrier life time. These parameters are important in Semiconductor devices as they
indicate the time required for electron and hole concentration to return to their equilibrium
values after they are disturbed.

Let the equilibrium concentration of electrons and holes in an n-type Semiconductor

be n 0 and p 0 respectively. If the specimen is illuminated at t = t i , additional EHP S are
generated throughout the specimen. The existing equilibrium is disturbed and the new
equilibrium concentrations are p and n. The excess concentration of
holes = p – p 0 – Excess concentration of electrons = n – n 0 Since the radiation creates EHP S .

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p – p0 = n – n0

Due to incident radiation equal no of holes and electrons are created. How ever, the
percentage increase of minority carriers is much more than the percentage of majority carries.
In fact, the majority charge carrier change is negligibly small. Hence it is the minority charge
carrier density that is important. Hence, we shall discuss the behaviour of minority carriers.

As indicated in radiation is removed at t = 0. Let us investigate how the minority

carrier density returns to its original equilibrium value.

The hole concentration decreases as a result of recombination. Decrease in hole

concentration per second due to recombination = p/T p . But the increase in hole
concentration per second due to thermal generation = g Since charge can neither be created
nor destroyed

dp = g - p
dt Tp

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When the radiation is with drawn, the hole concentration p reaches equilibrium value
p 0 Hence g = p0/Tp. Then eqn may be rewritten as

dp = p 0 – p
dt Tp

We define excess carrier concentration. Since p is a function of time.

p = p – p 0 = p(t)
from we may write dp = -p
dt Tp

The solution to the above differential equation is given by

p(t) = p (0) e-t/Tp

The excess concentration decreases exponentially to zero with a time constant T p .

DRIFT CURRENT:

In an electric field E, the drift velocity V d of carriers superposes on the thermal

velocity V th . But the flow of charge carriers results in an electric current, known as the drift
current. Let a field E be applied, in the positive creating drifts currents J nd and J pd of
electrons and holes respectively.

Without E, the carriers move randomly with rms velocity V th . Their mean velocity
is zero. The current density will be zero. But the field E applied, the electrons have the
velocity V de and the holes V dh .

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Consider free electrons in a Semiconductor moving with uniform velocity Vde in the
negative x direction due to an electric field E. Consider a smaller rectangular block of AB of
length V de inside the Semiconductor. Let the area of the side faces each be unity. The total
charge Q in the elements AB is

Q = Volume of the element x density of partially change on each particle

= (V de x 1x 1) x n x –q
Thus Q = -qnV de

Where n is the number density of electrons. The entire charge of the block will cross
the face B, in unit time. Thus the drift current density Jnd due to free electrons at the face B
will be.

J nd = - q nV de

Similarly for holes J pd = q nV dh

but V de = - n E
and V dh =  p E
hence J nd = n q n E
and J pd = p q n E

The total drift current due to both electrons and holes J d is

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J d = J nd + J pd = (nq n + pq  p )E

Even though electrons and holes move in opposite direction the effective direction of current
flow, is the same for both and hence they get added up. Ohm’s Law can be written in terms
of electrical conductivity, as

J d = E

Equating the RHS of eq we have

 = nq n + pq p =  n +  p

For an intrinsic Semiconductor n = p = n i

 i = n i q( n +  p )

DIFFUSION CURRENTS:

1. Diffusion Current: Electric current is Setup by the directed movement of charge

carriers. The movements of charge carriers could be due to either drift or diffusion. Non-
uniform concentration of carriers gives rise to diffusion. The first law of diffusion by Fick
States that the flux F, i.e., the particle current is proportional and is directed to opposite to the
concentration gradient of particles. It can be written mathematically, in terms of
concentration N, as

F = -D V N

Where D stands for diffusion constant.

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In one dimension it is written as

F = -D N
x

In terms of Je and Jp the flux densities of electrons holes and their densities n and p
respectively.
We get J e = -D n N
x

and J n = -D p p
x

Where D n and D p are the electron and hole diffusion constant constants respectively.
Then the diffusion current densities become

J n diff = q D n N
x

J p diff = - q D p p
x

THE EINSTEIN RELATIONS:

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When both the drift and the diffusion currents are present total electron and hole current
densities can be summed up as

J n = J nd + J n diff
n
J n = nq n E + qD n -----
x

p
J p = pq p E - qD p -----
x

Now, let us consider a non uniformly doped n-type slab of the Semiconductor fig shown
below (9) under thermal equilibrium. Let the slab be intrinsic at x = 0 while the donor
concentration, increases gradually upto x = 1, beyond which it becomes a constant. Assume
that the Semiconductor is non-degenerate and that all the donors are ionized. Due to the
concentration gradient, electrons tend to diffuse to the left to x = l. This diffusion leaves
behind a positive charge of ionized donors beyond x = 1 and accumulates electron near x = 0

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plane. This charge imbalance. Sets up an electric field in which the electrons experience fill
towards x = 1.

Fig shows illustrates the equilibrium potential (x) fig shown refers to the bond diagram of
the Semiconductor.

Both E1 and EF coincide till x = 0 when n0 = ni that EF continues to be the same throughout
the slab. But since the bond structure is not changed due to doping, the bond edges bond
with equal separation all along. How ever, the level Ei continues to lie midway between EV
and E.

In thermal equilibrium, the electrons tend to diffuse down the concentration tending to setup
a current from the right to left. The presence of electric field tends to set up drift current of
electrons in the opposite direction. Both the currents add upto zero. Thus we obtain

n
J n = qD n ----- + nq n E = 0
x

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i.e.,
n
D n ----- + n n E = 0
x

For a non degenerate Semi conductor.

E F – E i (x)
n(x) = n i exp -------------
RT

Thus relation is valid at all points in the Semiconductor further. The electronic concentration
is not influenced by the small in balance of charge. Energy is defined in terms of (x) the
potential.
E(x) = -q(x)
Then E F – E i (x) = E i (0)– E i (x) = -q[(0) - (x)]
q(x)
Assuming (0) = 0 we get n(x) = n i exp ------
RT
dn -d

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Substituting ------ from eqn along with E = ----- we get

dx dx

nq d d
Dn ------- ------- =  n n -----
RT dx dx

RT
Simplifying we obtain, D n = ------  n
q

RT
Simplifying for holes D p = -----  p
q

These are known as Einstein relations and the factor (RT/q) as thermal voltage. The above
relations hold good only for non degenerate Semiconductors. For the degenerate case the
Einstein’s relations are complex.

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It is clear from the Einstein’s relation that Dp p and Dn,n are related and they are functions
of temperature also. The relation of diffusion constant D and the mobility  confirms the
fact, that both the diffusion an drift processes arise due to thermal motion and scattering of
free electrons, even though they appear to be different.

EQUATION OF CONTINUITY:

If the equilibrium concentrations of carriers in a Semiconductor are disturbed, the

concentrations of electrons and holes vary with time. How ever the carrier concentration in a
Semiconductor is a function of both time and position.

The fundamental law governing the flow of charge is called the continuity equation. It is
arrived at by assuming law to conservation of charge provided drift diffusion and
recombination processes are taken into account.

Consider a small length x of a Semiconductor sample with area A in the Z plane fig
shown above. The hole current density leaving the volume (x) under consideration is Jp (
x + x) and the current density entering the volume is Jp(x). Jp (x + x) may be smaller or

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larger than Jp(x) depending upon the generation and recombination of carriers in the
element. The resulting change in hole concentration per unit time.

p = hole flux entering per unit time – hole flux leaving per unit

p Jp(x+x) p
----- = Jp(x) - --------------- - ------
t x x+x q x Tp

Where Tp is the recombination life time. According to eqn, the rate of hole build up is equla
to the rate of increase of hole concentration remains the recombination rate. As x
approaches zero, we may write

p  p - 1  Jp p
-----(x,t) = ------ = ----------- - ------
t t q x Tp

The above is called the continuity equation for holes for electrons

n
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1 J n
----- = -------- - -----
n

t q dx Tn

If there is no drift we may write


J n (diff) = qD n ----
x

Substituting the above eqn we get the following diffusion eqn for electrons.

n 2n n
----- = D n -------- - -----
t x2 Tn
For holes we may write

p 2p p
----- = D p -------- - -----
t x2 Tp

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HALL EFFECT:

When a material carrying current is subjected to a magnetic field in a direction

perpendicular to the direction of current, an electric field is developed across the material in a
direction perpendicular to both the direction of the magnetic field and the current direction.
This phenomenon is called Hall Effect.

Hall Effect finds important application in studying the electron properties of semi
conductor, such as determination of carrier concentration and carrier mobility. It also used to
determine whether a semi conductor is n-type, or p- type.

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THEORY:

Consider a rectangular slab of an n-type Semiconductor carrying current in the

positive x-direction. The magnetic field B is acting in the positive direction as indicated in
fig above. Under the influence of the magnetic field, electrons experience a force F L given
by

F L = - Bev --------------- (1)

Where e = magnitude of the charge of the electron

v = drift velocity

Appling the Fleming’s Left Hand Rule, it indicates a force F H acting on the electrons in the
negative y-direction and electron are deflected down wards. As a consequence the lower face
of the specimen gets negatively charged (due to increases of electrons) and the upper face

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positively charged (due to loss of electrons). Hence a potential V H , called the Hall voltage
appears between the top and bottom faces of the specimen, which establishes an electric field
E H , called the Hall field across the conductor in negative y-direction. The field E H exerts an
upward force F H on the electrons. It is given by

F H = - eE H --------------------------------------(2)

F H acts on electrons in the upward direction. The two opposing forces F L and F H establish an
equilibrium under which

|F L = F H

using eqns 1 and 2 -Bev = -eE H

E H = Bv --------------(3)

If ‘d’ is the thickness of the Specimen

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VH
E H = ------
d

V H = E H d = Bvd from eqn (3)------------------------- 4

If  is the width of the specimen in z- direction.

The current density

I
J = -----
d

But J = nev = ρv -------------------- 5

Where n = electron concentration

And ρ = charge density
I
 ρv = ----
d

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I
or v = ------ --------------------------------- 6
ρd

Substitutinf for v, from eqns 6 and 4

V H = BI / ρ

BI
or ρ= --------
VH 

Thus, by measuring V H , I, and  and by knowing B, the charge density ρ can be determined.

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Hall Coefficient:

The Hall field E H , for a given material depends on the current density J, and the
applied field B

i.e., E H  JB

E H = R H JB

Where R H is called the Hall Coefficient

BI
Since V H = --------

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ρ

VH
E H = -----
Jd

I
J = ------
d

BI I
-------- = R H ------- B
Jd d

I
This leads to R H = -----
ρ

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Mobility of charge carriers:

The mobility  is given by  = v

E

But J = E = nev = ρv

 E = ρv

ρv
or E = -----


  = ---- = R H ( 1/ρ = R H )
ρ
σ is the conductivity of the semi conductor.

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(C) Applications

(a) Determination of the type of Semiconductor: The Hall Coefficient R H is

negative for an n-type Semiconductor and positive for a p-type material. Thus,
the sign of the Hall coefficient can be utilized to determine whether a given
Semiconductor is n or p type.
(b) Determination of Carrier Concentration: Equation relates the Hall Coefficient
RH and charge density is

1 -1
R H = ------ = ------ ( for n-type
p ne

1
= ------ ( for p-type
pe
1

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Thus n = ------
eR H

1
and -------
eR H

(c) Determination of mobility: According to equation the mobility of charge carriers

is given by

 = |R H |
Determination of  and R H leads to a value of mobility of charge carriers.

(d) Measurement of Magnetic Induction (B):- The Hall Voltage is proportional to

the flux density B. As such measurement of VH can be used to9 estimate B.

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9. PHYSICS OF SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES

To describe the basic structure and general properties of semiconductor devices. We will not
be showing such devices in working circuits in this set of pages; other pages already under
development will serve that purpose. However, I have received a number of inquiries on the
order of "What is a MOSFET?" and "What's inside a transistor?" This set of pages is intended
to answer such questions.In some cases we'll be dealing with some rather technical terms, and
we will sometimes have to deal with some essential concepts involved in physics. More
general explanations and definitions will also be given, so if you don't need the technical
definitions, don't worry about them. The terms are present in case you actually need them.
These pages will begin with basic semiconductor structure and what happens when impurities
are added to a pure silicon crystal through a process known as "doping." We'll look at what
happens when two or three different regions are created within a single silicon crystal. Then
we'll start to look at variations: field-effect devices, devices with four and even five different
regions, and finally the kinds of effects we can get when we change the amount of impurities
within the crystal.

Semiconductor diodes are normally one of the following types:

1. Grown junction diode
2. Alloy type or fused junction diode
3. Diffused junction diode
4. Epitaxial grown or planar diffused diode
5. Point contact diode

Semiconductor diode fabrication types

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Fabrication techniques of a P-N junction diode
1. Grown Junction Diode: Diodes of this type are formed during the crystal pulling process.
P and N-type impurities can be alternately added to the molten semiconductor material in the
crucible, which results in a P-N junction, as shown when crystal is pulled. After slicing, the
larger area device can then be cut into a large number (say in thousands) of smaller-area
semiconductor diodes. Though such diodes, because of larger area, are capable of handling
large currents but larger area also introduces more capacitive effects, which are undesirable.
Such diodes are used for low frequencies.

2. Alloy Type or Fused Junction Diode: Such a diode is formed by first placing a P- type
impurity (a tiny pellet of aluminium or some other P- type impurity) into the surface of an N-
type crystal and heating the two until liquefaction occurs where the two materials meet. An
alloy will result that on cooling will give a P-N junction at the boundary of the alloy
substrate. Similarly, an N-type impurity may be placed into the surface of a P- type crystal
and the two are heated until liquefaction occurs. Alloy type diodes have a high current rating
and large PIV (peak inverse voltage) rating. The junction capacitance is also large, due to the
large junction area.

3. Diffused Junction Diode: Diffusion is a process by which a heavy concentration of

particles diffuse into a surrounding region of lower concentration. The main difference
between the diffusion and alloy process is the fact that liquefaction is not reached in the diffu-
sion process. In the diffusion process heat is applied only to increase the activity of elements
involved. For formation of such diodes, either solid or gaseous diffusion process can be
employed. The process of solid diffusion starts with formation of layer of an acceptor
impurity on an N- type substrate and heating the two until the impurity diffuses into the
substrate to form the P-type layer, as illustrated in figure. A large P-N junction is divided into
parts by cutting process. Metallic contacts are made for connecting anode and cathode leads.

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In the process of gaseous diffusion instead of layer formation of an acceptor impurity, an N-

type substrate is placed in a gaseous atmosphere of acceptor impurities and then heated. The
impurity diffuses into the substrate to form P- type layer on the N- type substrate. Though,
the diffusion process requires more time than the alloy process but it is relatively
inexpensive, and can be very accurately controlled. The diffusion technique leads itself to the
simultaneous fabrication of many hundreds of diodes on one small disc of semiconductor
material and is most commonly used in the manufacture of semiconductor diodes. This
technique is also used in the production of transistors and ICs (integrated circuits).

4. Epitaxial Growth or Planar Diffused Diode. The term “epitaxial” is derived from the
Latin terms epi meaning ‘upon’ and taxis meaning “arrangement”.To construct an epitaxially
grown diode, a very thin (single crystal) high impurity layer of semiconductor material
(silicon or germanium) is grown on a heavily doped substrate (base) of the same material.
This complete structure then forms the N- region on which P- region is diffused. Si0 2 layer is
thermally grown on the top surface, photo-etched and then aluminium contact is made to the
P- region. A metallic layer at the bottom of the substrate forms the cathode to which lead is
attached.This process is usually employed in the fabrication of IC chips.

5. Point Contact Diode. It consists of an N-type germanium or silicon wafer about 12.5 mm
square by 0.5 mm thick, one face of which is soldered to a metal base by radio-frequency
heating and the other face has a phosphor bronze or tungsten spring pressed against it. A
barrier layer is formed round the point contact by a pulsating current forming process. This
causes a P-region to be formed round the wire and since pure germanium is N-type, a very
small P-N junction in the shape of a hemisphere is formed round the point contact. The
forming process cannot be controlled with precision. Because of small area of the junction,

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point contact diode can be used to rectify only very small currents (of the order of m A). On
the other hand, the shunting capacitance of point contact diodes are very valuable in
equipment operating at super high frequencies (as high as 25,000 MHz).

The PN Junction
We've seen that it is possible to turn a crystal of pure silicon into a moderately good electrical
conductor by adding an impurity such as arsenic or phosphorus (for an N-type
semiconductor) or aluminum or gallium (for a P-type semiconductor). By itself, however, a
single type of semiconductor material isn't very useful. Useful applications start to happen
only when a single semiconductor crystal contains both P-type and N-type regions. Here we
will examine the properties of a single silicon crystal which is half N-type and half P-type.

Consider the silicon crystal represented to the right. Half is N-type while the other half is P-
type. We've shown the two types separated slightly, as if they were two separate crystals. The
free electrons in the N-type crystal are represented by small black circles with a "-" sign
inside to indicate their polarity. The holes in the P-type crystal are shown as small white
circles with a "+" inside.
In the real world, it isn't possible to join two such crystals together usefully. Therefore, a
practical PN junction can only be created by inserting different impurities into different parts
of a single crystal. So let's see what happens when we join the N- and P-type crystals
together, so that the result is one crystal with a sharp boundary between the two types.

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You might think that, left to itself, it would just sit there. However, this is not the case.
Instead, an interesting interaction occurs at the junction. The extra electrons in the N region
will seek to lose energy by filling the holes in the P region. This leaves an empty zone, or
depletion region as it is called, around the junction as shown to the right. This action also
leaves a small electrical imbalance inside the crystal. The N region is missing some electrons
so it has a positive charge. Those electrons have migrated to fill holes in the P region, which
therefore has a negative charge. This electrical imbalance amounts to about 0.3 volt in a
germanium crystal, and about 0.65 to 0.7 volt in a silicon crystal. This will vary somewhat
depending on the concentration of the impurities on either side of the junction.
Unfortunately, it is not possible to exploit this electrical imbalance as a power source; it
doesn't work that way. However, we can apply an external voltage to the crystal and see what
happens in response. Let's take a look at the possibilities.

Suppose we apply a voltage to the outside ends of our PN crystal. We have two choices. In
this case, the positive voltage is applied to the N-type material. In response, we see that the
positive voltage applied to the N-type material attracts any free electrons towards the end of
the crystal and away from the junction, while the negative voltage applied to the P-type end
attracts holes away from the junction on this end. The result is that all available current
carriers are attracted away from the junction, and the depletion region grows correspondingly
larger. There is no current flow through the crystal because all available current carriers are
attracted away from the junction, and cannot cross. (We are here considering an ideal crystal
-- in real life, the crystal can't be perfect, and some leakage current does flow.) This is known
as reverse bias applied to the semiconductor crystal.

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Here the applied voltage polarities have been reversed. Now, the negative volatge applied to
the N-type end pushes electrons towards the junction, while the positive voltage at the P-type
end pushes holes towards the junction. This has the effect of shrinking the depletion region.
As the applied voltage exceeds the internal electrical imbalance, current carriers of both types
can cross the junction into the opposite ends of the crystal. Now, electrons in the P-type end
are attracted to the positive applied voltage, while holes in the N-type end are attracted to the
negative applied voltage. This is the condition of forward bias.
Because of this behavior, an electrical current can flow through the junction in the forward
direction, but not in the reverse direction. This is the basic nature of an ordinary
semiconductor diode.

It is important to realize that holes exist only within the crystal. A hole reaching the negative
terminal of the crystal is filled by an electron from the power source and simply disappears.
At the positive terminal, the power supply attracts an electron out of the crystal, leaving a
hole behind to move through the crystal toward the junction again.
In some literature, you might see the N-type connection designated the cathode of the diode,
while the P-type connection is called the anode. These designations come from the days of
vacuum tubes, but are still in use. Electrons always move from cathode to anode inside the
diode.
One point that needs to be recognized is that there is a limit to the magnitude of the reverse
voltage that can be applied to any PN junction. As the applied reverse voltage increases, the
depletion region continues to expand. If either end of the depletion region approaches its
electrical contact too closely, the applied voltage has become high enough to generate an
electrical arc straight through the crystal. This will destroy the diode.

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It is also possible to allow too much current to flow through the diode in the forward
direction. The crystal is not a perfect conductor, remember; it does exhibit some resistance.
Heavy current flow will generate some heat within that resistance. If the resulting
temperature gets too high, the semiconductor crystal will actually melt, again destroying its
usefulness.

Drift-Diffusion Current Equations

The popular drift-diffusion model can be derived directly from Boltzmann's transport
equation by the method of moments [104] or from the basic principles of irreversible
thermodynamics [105]. In this model the electron current density is expressed as a sum of
two components: The drift component which is driven by the electric field and the diffusion
component caused by the gradient of the electron concentration
(3.13)

where and are the mobility and the diffusivity of the electron gas, respectively. It is

clear from the above reasoning that for anisotropic materials and are all tensors of
second rank and have the same form as the representative tensor in (3.2). They are related
by the Einstein relation

(3.14)

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is the Boltzmann constant and the lattice temperature which is constant
as the electron gas at drift diffusion is assumed to be in thermal equilibrium.
The current relation (3.13) is inserted into the continuity (3.11) and (3.12) to give a second
order parabolic differential equation which is then solved together with POISSON's
equation (3.10). More generally, according to the phenomenological equations of drift-

diffusion the electron and hole current densities and can be expressed as

(3.15)

(3.16)

These current relations account for position-dependent band edge energies, and , and
position-dependent effective masses, which are included in the effective density of states,

and . The index 0 indicates that and are evaluated at some (arbitrary)

reference temperature, , which is constant in real space regardless of what the local values
of the lattice and carrier temperatures are.

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Current–voltage characteristic
A semiconductor diode’s behavior in a circuit is given by its current–voltage characteristic, or
I–V graph (see graph at right). The shape of the curve is determined by the transport of
charge carriers through the so-called depletion layer or depletion region that exists at the p-n
junction between differing semiconductors. When a p-n junction is first created, conduction
band (mobile) electrons from the N-doped region diffuse into the P-doped region where there
is a large population of holes (places for electrons in which no electron is present) with which
the electrons “recombine”. When a mobile electron recombines with a hole, both hole and
electron vanish, leaving behind an immobile positively charged donor (the dopant) on the N-
side and negatively charged acceptor (the dopant) on the P-side. The region around the p-n
junction becomes depleted of charge carriers and thus behaves as an insulator. However, the
width of the depletion region (called the depletion width) cannot grow without limit. For each
electron-hole pair that recombines, a positively-charged dopant ion is left behind in the N-
doped region, and a negatively charged dopant ion is left behind in the P-doped region. As
recombination proceeds and more ions are created, an increasing electric field develops
through the depletion zone which acts to slow and then finally stop recombination. At this
point, there is a “built-in” potential across the depletion zone.If an external voltage is placed
across the diode with the same polarity as the built-in potential, the depletion zone continues
to act as an insulator, preventing any significant electric current flow (unless electron/hole
pairs are actively being created in the junction by, for instance, light. see photodiode). This is
the reverse bias phenomenon. However, if the polarity of the external voltage opposes the
built-in potential, recombination can once again proceed, resulting in substantial electric
current through the p-n junction (i.e. substantial numbers of electrons and holes recombine at

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the junction).. For silicon diodes, the built-in potential is approximately 0.6 V. Thus, if an
external current is passed through the diode, about 0.6 V will be developed across the diode
such that the P-doped region is positive with respect to the N-doped region and the diode is
said to be “turned on” as it has a forward bias.

Figure 5: I–V characteristics of a P-N junction diode

A diode’s I–V characteristic can be approximated by four regions of operation (see the figure
at right).
At very large reverse bias, beyond the peak inverse voltage or PIV, a process called reverse
breakdown occurs which causes a large increase in current (i.e. a large number of electrons
and holes are created at, and move away from the pn junction) that usually damages the
device permanently. The avalanche diode is deliberately designed for use in the avalanche
region. In the zener diode, the concept of PIV is not applicable. A zener diode contains a
heavily doped p-n junction allowing electrons to tunnel from the valence band of the p-type

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material to the conduction band of the n-type material, such that the reverse voltage is
“clamped” to a known value (called the zener voltage), and avalanche does not occur. Both
devices, however, do have a limit to the maximum current and power in the clamped reverse
voltage region. Also, following the end of forward conduction in any diode, there is reverse
current for a short time. The device does not attain its full blocking capability until the
reverse current ceases.The second region, at reverse biases more positive than the PIV, has
only a very small reverse saturation current. In the reverse bias region for a normal P-N
rectifier diode, the current through the device is very low (in the µA range). However, this is
temperature dependent, and at suffiently high temperatures, a substantial amount of reverse
current can be observed (mA or more).
The third region is forward but small bias, where only a small forward current is conducted.
As the potential difference is increased above an arbitrarily defined “cut-in voltage” or “on-
voltage” or “diode forward voltage drop (V d )”, the diode current becomes appreciable (the
level of current considered “appreciable” and the value of cut-in voltage depends on the
application), and the diode presents a very low resistance. The current–voltage curve is
exponential. In a normal silicon diode at rated currents, the arbitrary “cut-in” voltage is
defined as 0.6 to 0.7 volts.
The junction is biased with a voltage V a as shown in Figure 4.2.1. We will call the junction
forward-biased if a positive voltage is applied to the p-doped region and reversed-biased if
a negative voltage is applied to the p-doped region. The contact to the p-type region is also
called the anode, while the contact to the n-type region is called the cathode, in reference
to the anions or positive carriers and cations or negative carriers in each of these regions.

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Figure 4.2.2 : Energy band diagram of a p-n junction (a) before and (b) after merging the n-type
and p-type regions
Note that this does not automatically align the Fermi energies, E F,n and E F,p . Also, note that this
flatband diagram is not an equilibrium diagram since both electrons and holes can lower their
energy by crossing the junction. A motion of electrons and holes is therefore expected before
thermal equilibrium is obtained. The diagram shown in Figure 4.2.2 (b) is called a flatband
diagram. This name refers to the horizontal band edges. It also implies that there is no field and no
net charge in the semiconductor.
4.2.2. Thermal equilibrium
To reach thermal equilibrium, electrons/holes close to the metallurgical junction diffuse across the
junction into the p-type/n-type region where hardly any electrons/holes are present. This process
leaves the ionized donors (acceptors) behind, creating a region around the junction, which is
depleted of mobile carriers. We call this region the depletion region, extending from x = -x p to x =
x n . The charge due to the ionized donors and acceptors causes an electric field, which in turn
causes a drift of carriers in the opposite direction. The diffusion of carriers continues until the drift
current balances the diffusion current, thereby reaching thermal equilibrium as indicated by a

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constant Fermi energy. This situation is shown in Figure 4.2.3:

Figure 4.2.3 : Energy band diagram of a p-n junction in thermal equilibrium

While in thermal equilibrium no external voltage is applied between the n-type and p-type
material, there is an internal potential,  i , which is caused by the workfunction difference
between the n-type and p-type semiconductors. This potential equals the built-in potential,
which will be further discussed in the next section.
4.2.3. The built-in potential

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The built-in potential in a semiconductor equals the potential across the depletion region in
thermal equilibrium. Since thermal equilibrium implies that the Fermi energy is constant
throughout the p-n diode, the built-in potential equals the difference between the Fermi energies,
E Fn and E Fp , divided by the electronic charge. It also equals the sum of the bulk potentials of
each region,  n and  p , since the bulk potential quantifies the distance between the Fermi energy
and the intrinsic energy. This yields the following expression for the built-in potential.

(4.2.1)

Example 4.1 An abrupt silicon p-n junction consists of a p-type region containing 2 x 1016 cm-
3
acceptors and an n-type region containing also 1016 cm-3 acceptors in addition
to 1017 cm-3 donors.

a. Calculate the thermal equilibrium density of electrons and holes in the p-

type region as well as both densities in the n-type region.
b. Calculate the built-in potential of the p-n junction
c. Calculate the built-in potential of the p-n junction at 400 K.

Solution a. The thermal equilibrium densities are:

In the p-type region:

p = N a = 2 x 1016 cm-3
n = n i 2/p = 1020/2 x 1016 = 5 x 103 cm-3

In the n-type region

n = N d - N a = 9 x 1016 cm-3

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p = n i 2/n = 1020/(1 x 1016) = 1.11 x 103 cm-3

b. The built-in potential is obtained from:

c. Similarly, the built-in potential at 400 K equals:

where the instrinsic carrier density at 400 K was obtained from example
2.4.b
4.2.4. Forward and reverse bias
We now consider a p-n diode with an applied bias voltage, V a . A forward bias corresponds to
applying a positive voltage to the anode (the p-type region) relative to the cathode (the n-type
region). A reverse bias corresponds to a negative voltage applied to the cathode. Both bias
modes are illustrated with Figure 4.2.4. The applied voltage is proportional to the difference
between the Fermi energy in the n-type and p-type quasi-neutral regions.
As a negative voltage is applied, the potential across the semiconductor increases and so does
the depletion layer width. As a positive voltage is applied, the potential across the

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semiconductor decreases and with it the depletion layer width. The total potential across the
semiconductor equals the built-in potential minus the applied voltage, or:
(4.2.1)

Figure 4.2.4: Energy band diagram of a p-n junction under reverse and forward bias

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Introduction to Light Emitting Diodes

The past few decades have brought a continuing and rapidly evolving sequence of technological
revolutions, particularly in the digital arena, which has dramatically changed many aspects of our daily
lives. The developing race among manufacturers of light emitting diodes (LEDs) promises to produce,
literally, the most visible and far-reaching transition to date. Recent advances in the design and
manufacture of these miniature semiconductor devices may result in the obsolescence of the common light
bulb, perhaps the most ubiquitous device utilized by modern society.

The incandescent lamp is the best known of

Thomas Edison's major inventions, and the only one to have persisted in use (and in nearly its
original form) to the present day, now more than a century after its introduction. The
phonograph, tickertape, and mimeograph machines have been replaced by digital
technologies in the last few decades, and recently, full-spectrum light emitting diode devices
are becoming widespread, and could force incandescent and fluorescent lamps into
extinction. While some applications of LED technology may be as straightforward as
replacing one light bulb with another, far more visionary changes may involve dramatic new

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mechanisms for utilizing light. As a result of the predicted evolution, walls, ceilings, or even
entire buildings could become the targets for specialized lighting scenarios, and interior
design changes might be accomplished through illumination effects rather than by repainting
or refurnishing. At the very least, a widespread change from incandescent to LED
illumination would result in enormous energy savings. Although light emitting diodes are in
operation all around us in videocassette recorders, clock radios, and microwave ovens, for
example, their use has been limited mainly to display functions on electronic appliances. The
tiny red and green indicator lights on computers and other devices are so familiar, the fact
that the first LEDs were limited to a dim red output is probably not widely recognized. In
fact, even the availability of green-emitting diodes represented a significant developmental
step in the technology. In the past 15 years or so, LEDs have become much more powerful,
and available in a wide spectrum of colors. A breakthrough that enabled fabrication of the
first blue LED in the early 1990s, emitting light at the opposite end of the visible light
spectrum from red, opened up the possibility to create virtually any color of light. More
important, the discovery made it technically feasible to produce white light from the tiny
semiconductor devices. An inexpensive, mass-market version of white LED is the most
sought-after goal of researchers and manufacturers, and is the device most likely to end a
hundred-year reliance on inefficient incandescent lamps. The widespread utilization of diode
devices for general lighting is still some years away, but LEDs are beginning to replace
incandescent lamps in many applications. There are a number of reasons for replacing
conventional incandescent light sources with modern semiconductor alternatives. Light
emitting diodes are far more efficient than incandescent bulbs at converting electricity into
visible light, they are rugged and compact, and can often last 100,000 hours in use, or about
100 times longer than incandescent bulbs. LEDs are fundamentally monochromatic emitters,
and applications requiring high-brightness, single-color lamps are experiencing the greatest
number of applications within the current generation of improved devices. The use of LEDs
is increasing for automotive taillights, turn signals, and side marker lights. As one of the first
automotive applications, the high-mount brake light on cars and trucks is a particularly

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appealing location for incorporating LEDs. Long LED lifespans allow manufacturers more
freedom to integrate the brake light into the vehicle design without the necessity of providing
for frequent (and easy) replacement, as is required when incandescent bulbs are used.
Approximately 10 percent of the red traffic lights in the United States have now been
replaced with LED-based lamps. The higher initial cost of the LEDs can be recovered in as
little as one year, due to their higher efficiency in producing red light, which is accomplished
without the need for filtering. The LEDs in a red traffic light consume about 10 to 25 watts,
compared with 50 to 150 for a red-filtered incandescent light of similar brightness. The
longevity of the LEDs is an obvious advantage in reducing expensive maintenance of the
signals. Single-color LEDs are also being utilized as runway lights at airports and as warning
lights on radio and television transmission towers. As improvements have been made in
manufacturing efficiency and toward the ability to produce light emitting diodes with
virtually any output color, the primary focus of researchers and industry has become the
white light diode. Two primary mechanisms are being employed to produce white light from
devices that are fundamentally monochromatic, and both techniques will most likely continue
to be utilized for different applications. One method involves mixing different colors of light
from multiple LEDs, or from different materials in a single LED, in proportions that result in
light that appears white. The second technique relies on using LED emission (commonly non-
visible ultraviolet) to provide energy for excitation of another substance, such as a phosphor,
which in turn produces white light. Each method has both advantages and disadvantages that
are likely to be in constant flux as further developments occur in LED technology.
Fundamentals of Semiconductor Diodes Details of the fundamental processes underlying the
function of light emitting diodes, and the materials utilized in their construction, are
presented in the ensuing discussion. The basic mechanism by which LEDs produce light can
be summarized, however, by a simple conceptual description. The familiar light bulb relies

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upon temperature to emit visible light (and significantly more invisible radiation in the form
of heat) through a process known as incandescence. In contrast, the light emitting diode
employs a form of electroluminescence, which results from the electronic excitation of a
semiconductor material. The basic LED consists of a junction between two different
semiconductor materials (illustrated in Figure 2), in which an applied voltage produces a
current flow, accompanied by the emission of light when charge carriers injected across the
junction are recombined.

The fundamental element of the

LED is a semiconductor chip (similar to an integrated circuit), which is mounted in a reflector
cup supported by a lead frame connected to two electrical wires, and then embedded in a
solid epoxy lens (see Figure 1). One of the two semiconductor regions that comprise the
junction in the chip is dominated by negative charges (n-type region; Figure 2)), and the other
is dominated by positive charges (p-type region). When a sufficient voltage is applied to the
electrical leads, current flows and electrons move across the junction from the n region into
the p region where the negatively charged electrons combine with positive charges. Each
combination of charges is associated with an energy level reduction that may release a

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quantum of electromagnetic energy in the form of a light photon. The frequency, and
perceived color, of emitted photons is characteristic of the semiconductor material, and
consequently, different colors are achieved by making changes in the semiconductor
composition of the chip. The functional details of the light emitting diode are based on
properties common to semiconductor materials, such as silicon, which have variable
conduction characteristics. In order for a solid to conduct electricity, its resistance must be
low enough for electrons to move more or less freely throughout the bulk of the material.
Semiconductors exhibit electrical resistance values intermediate between those of conductors
and insulators, and their behavior can be modeled in terms of the band theory for solids. In a
crystalline solid, electrons of the constituent atoms occupy a large number of energy levels
that may differ very little either in energy or in quantum number. The wide spectrum of
energy levels tend to group together into nearly continuous energy bands, the width and
spacing of which differ considerably for different materials and conditions. At progressively
higher energy levels, proceeding outward from the nucleus, two distinct energy bands can be
defined, which are termed the valence band and the conduction band (Figure 3). The valence
band consists of electrons at a higher energy level than the inner electrons, and these have
some freedom to interact in pairs to form a type of localized bond among atoms of the solid.
At still-higher energy levels, electrons of the conduction band behave similarly to electrons in
individual atoms or molecules that have been excited above ground state, with a high degree
of freedom to move about within the solid. The difference in energy between the valence and
conduction bands is defined as the band gap for a particular material. In conductors, the
valence and conduction bands partially overlap in energy (see Figure 3), so that a portion of
the valence electrons always resides in the conduction band. The band gap is essentially zero
for these materials, and with part of the valence electrons moving freely into the conduction
band, vacancies or holes occur in the valence band. Electrons move, with very little energy

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input, into holes in bands of adjacent atoms, and the holes migrate freely in the opposite
direction. In contrast to these materials, insulators have fully occupied valence bands and
larger band gaps, and the only mechanism by which electrons can move from atom to atom is
for a valence electron to be displaced into the conduction band, requiring a large energy
expenditure.
Semiconductors have band gaps that are small but finite, and at normal temperatures, thermal
agitation is sufficient to move some electrons into the conduction band where they can
contribute to electrical conduction. Resistance can be reduced by increasing the temperature,
but many semiconductor devices are designed in such a manner that the application of a
voltage produces the required changes in electron distribution between the valence and
conduction bands to enable current flow. Although the band arrangement is similar for all
semiconductors, there are large differences in the band gap (and in the distribution of
electrons among the bands) at specific temperature conditions.

The element silicon is the simplest intrinsic semiconductor, and is often used as a model for
describing the behavior of these materials. In its pure form, silicon does not have sufficient
charge carriers, or appropriate band gap structure, to be useful in light emitting diode
construction, but is widely used to fabricate other semiconductor devices. The conduction

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characteristics of silicon (and other semiconductors) can be improved through the

introduction of impurities in small quantities to the crystal, which serve to provide either
additional electrons or vacancies (holes) in the structure. Through this process, referred to as
doping, producers of integrated circuits have developed considerable ability to tailor the
properties of semiconductors to suit specific applications.The process of doping to modify the
electronic properties of semiconductors is most easily understood by considering the
relatively simple silicon crystal structure. Silicon is a Group IV member of the periodic table,
having four electrons that may participate in bonding with neighboring atoms in a solid. In
pure form, each silicon atom shares electrons with four neighbors, with no deficit or excess of
electrons beyond those required in the crystal structure. If a small amount of a Group III
element (those having three electrons in their outermost energy level) is added to the silicon
structure, an insufficient number of electrons exist to satisfy the bonding requirements. The
electron deficiency creates a vacancy, or hole, in the structure, and the resulting positive
electrical character classifies the material as p-type. Boron is one of the elements that is
commonly utilized to dope pure silicon to achieve p-type characteristics.
Doping in order to produce the opposite type of material, having a negative overall charge
character (n-type), is accomplished through the addition of Group V elements, such as
phosphorus, which have an "extra" electron in their outermost energy level. The resulting
semiconductor structure has an excess of available electrons over the number required for
covalent silicon bonding, which bestows the ability to act as an electron donor (characteristic
of n-type material).Although silicon and germanium are commonly employed in
semiconductor fabrication, neither material is suitable for light emitting diode construction
because junctions employing these elements produce a significant amount of heat, but only a
small quantity of infrared or visible light emission. Photon-emitting diode p-n junctions are
typically based on a mixture of Group III and Group V elements, such as gallium arsenide,

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gallium arsenide phosphide, and gallium phosphide. Careful control of the relative
proportions of these compounds, and others incorporating aluminum and indium, as well as
the addition of dopants such as tellurium and magnesium, enables manufacturers and
researchers to produce diodes that emit red, orange, yellow, or green light. Recently the use
of silicon carbide and gallium nitride has permitted blue-emitting diodes to be introduced,
and combining several colors in various combinations provides a mechanism to produce
white light. The nature of materials comprising p-type and n-type sides of the device junction,
and the resulting energy band structure, determines the energy levels that are available during
charge recombination in the junction region, and therefore, the magnitude of the energy
quanta released as photons. As a consequence, the color of light emitted by a particular diode
depends upon the structure and composition of the p-n junction.The fundamental key to
manipulating properties of solid-state electronic devices is the nature of the p-n junction.
When dissimilar doped materials are placed in contact with each other, the flow of current in
the region of the junction is different than it is in either of the two materials alone. Current
will readily flow in one direction across the junction, but not in the other, constituting the
basic diode configuration. This behavior can be understood in terms of the movement of
electrons and holes in the two material types and across the junction. The extra free electrons
in the n-type material tend to move from the negatively charged area to a positively charged
area, or toward the p-type material. In the p-type region, which has vacant electron sites
(holes), lattice electrons can jump from hole to hole, and will tend to move away from the
negatively charged area. The result of this migration is that the holes appear to move in the
opposite direction, or away from the positively charged region and toward the negatively
charged area (Figure 4). Electrons from the n-type region and holes from the p-type region
recombine in the vicinity of the junction to form a depletion zone (or layer), in which no
charge carriers remain. In the depletion zone, a static charge is established that inhibits any
additional electron transfer, and no appreciable charge can flow across the junction unless
assisted by an external bias voltage.

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In a diode configuration, electrodes on opposite ends of the

device enable a voltage to be applied in a manner that can overcome the effect of the
depletion region. Connecting the n-type region of the diode to the negative side of an
electrical circuit, and the p-type region to the positive side will cause electrons to move from
the n-type material toward the p-type, and holes to move in the opposite direction. With
application of a sufficiently high voltage, the electrons in the depletion region are elevated in
energy to dissociate with the holes, and to begin moving freely again. Operated with this
circuit polarity, referred to as forward biasing of the p-n junction, the depletion zone
disappears and charge can move across the diode. Holes are driven to the junction from the p-
type material and electrons are driven to the junction from the n-type material. The
combination of holes and electrons at the junction allows a continuous current to be
maintained across the diode.

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If the circuit polarity is reversed with respect to the p-type and n-type regions, electrons and
holes will be pulled in opposite directions, with an accompanying widening of the depletion
region at the junction. No continuous current flow occurs in a reverse-biased p-n junction,
although initially a transient current will flow as the electrons and holes are pulled away from
the junction. Current flow will cease as soon as the growing depletion zone creates a potential
that is equal to the applied voltage.
Light Emitting Diode Construction
Manipulation of the interaction between electrons and holes at the p-n junction is
fundamental in the design of all semiconductor devices, and for light emitting diodes, the
primary design goal is the efficient generation of light. Injection of carriers across the p-n
junction is accompanied by a drop in electron energy levels from the conduction band to
lower orbitals. This process takes place in any diode, but only produces visible light photons
in those having specific material compositions. In a standard silicon diode, the energy level
difference is relatively small, and only low frequency emission occurs, predominately in the
infrared region of the spectrum. Infrared diodes are useful in many devices, including remote
controls, but the design of visible-light emitting diodes requires fabrication with materials
exhibiting a wider gap between the conduction band and orbitals of the valence band. All
semiconductor diodes release some form of light, but most of the energy is absorbed into the
diode material itself unless the device is specifically designed to release the photons
externally. In addition, to be useful as a light source, diodes must concentrate light emission
in a specific direction. Both the composition and construction of the semiconductor chip, and
the design of the LED housing, contribute to the nature and efficiency of energy emission
from the device. The basic structure of a light emitting diode consists of the semiconductor
material (commonly referred to as a die), a lead frame on which the die is placed, and the
encapsulation epoxy surrounding the assembly (see Figure 1). The LED semiconductor chip
is supported in a reflector cup coined into the end of one electrode (the cathode), and, in the
typical configuration, the top face of the chip is connected with a gold bonding wire to a
second electrode (anode). Several junction structure designs require two bonding wires, one

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to each electrode. In addition to the obvious variation in the radiation wavelength of different
LEDs, there are variations in shape, size, and radiation pattern. The typical LED
semiconductor chip measures approximately 0.25 millimeter-square, and the epoxy body
ranges from 2 to about 10 millimeters in diameter. Most commonly, the body of the LED is
round, but they may be rectangular, square, or triangular.

Although the color of light emitted from a semiconductor die is determined by the
combination of chip materials, and the manner in which they are assembled, certain optical
characteristics of the LED can be controlled by other variables in the chip packaging. The
beam angle can be narrow or wide (see Figure 5), and is determined by the shape of the
reflector cup, the size of the LED chip, the distance from chip to the top of the epoxy housing
or lens, and the geometry of the epoxy lens. The tint of the epoxy lens does not determine the
emission color of the LED, but is often used as a convenient indicator of the lamp's color
when it is inactive. LEDs intended for applications that require high intensity, and no color in
the off-state, have clear lenses with no tint or diffusion. This type produces the greatest light

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output, and may be designed to have the narrowest beam, or viewing angle. Non-diffused
lenses typically exhibit viewing angles of plus or minus 10 to 12 degrees (Figure 5). Their
intensity allows them to be utilized for backlighting applications, such as the illumination of
display panels on electronic devices. For creation of diffused LED lenses, minute glass
particles are embedded in the encapsulating epoxy. The diffusion created by inclusion of the
glass spreads light emitted by the diode, producing a viewing angle of approximately 35
degrees on either side of the central axis. This lens style is commonly employed in
applications in which the LED is viewed directly, such as for indicator lamps on equipment
panels. The choice of material systems and fabrication techniques in LED construction is
guided by two primary goals—maximization of light generation in the chip material, and the
efficient extraction of the generated light. In the forward-biased p-n junction, holes are
injected across the junction from the p region into the n region, and electrons are injected
from the n region into the p region. The equilibrium charge carrier distribution in the material
is altered by this injection process, which is referred to as minority-carrier injection.
Recombination of minority carriers with majority carriers takes place to reestablish thermal
equilibrium, and continued current flow maintains the minority-carrier injection. When the
recombination rate is equal to the injection rate, a steady-state carrier distribution is
established. Minority-carrier recombination can take place in a radiative fashion, with the
emission of a photon, but for this to occur the proper conditions must be established for
energy and momentum conservation. Meeting these conditions is not an instantaneous
process, and a time delay results before radiative recombination of the injected minority
carrier can take place. This delay, the minority carrier lifetime, is one of the primary variables
that must be considered in LED material design. Although the radiative recombination
process is desirable in LED design, it is not the only recombination mechanism that is
possible in semiconductors. Semiconductor materials cannot be produced without some
impurities, structural dislocations, and other crystalline defects, and these can all trap injected
minority carriers. Recombinations of this type may or may not produce light photons.
Recombinations that do not produce radiation are slowed by the diffusion of the carriers to

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suitable sites, and are characterized by a nonradiative process lifetime, which can be
compared to the radiative process lifetime. An obvious goal in LED design, given the factors
just described, is to maximize the radiative recombination of charge carriers relative to the
nonradiative. The relative efficiency of these two processes determines the fraction of
injected charge carriers that combine radiatively compared to the total number injected,
which can be stated as the internal quantum efficiency of the material system. The choice of
materials for LED fabrication relies upon an understanding of semiconductor band structure
and the means by which the energy levels can be chosen or manipulated to produce favorable
quantum efficiency values. Interestingly, certain groups of III-V compounds have internal
quantum efficiencies of nearly 100 percent, while other compounds utilized in
semiconductors may have internal quantum efficiencies as low as 1 percent. The radiative
lifetime for a particular semiconductor largely determines whether radiative recombinations
occur before nonradiative. Most semiconductors have similar simple valence band structure
with an energy peak situated around a particular crystallographic direction, but with much
more variation in the structure of the conduction band. Energy valleys exist in the conduction
band, and electrons occupying the lowest-energy valleys are positioned to more easily
participate in recombination with minority carriers in the valence band. Semiconductors can
be classified as direct or indirect depending upon the relative positioning of the conduction
band energy valleys and the energy apex of the valence band in energy/momentum space.
Direct semiconductors have holes and electrons positioned directly adjacent at the same
momentum coordinates, so that electrons and holes can recombine relatively easily while
maintaining momentum conservation. In an indirect semiconductor, the match between
conduction band energy valleys and holes that would allow momentum conservation is not
favorable, most of the transitions are forbidden, and the resulting radiative lifetime is long.

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Silicon and germanium are examples of indirect

semiconductors, in which radiative recombination of injected carriers is extremely unlikely.
The radiative lifetime in such materials occurs in the range of seconds, and nearly all injected
carriers combine nonradiatively through defects in the crystal. Direct semiconductors, such as
gallium nitride or gallium arsenide, have short radiative lifetimes (approximately 1 to 100
nanoseconds), and materials can be produced with sufficiently low defect density that
radiative processes are as likely as nonradiative. For a recombination event to occur in
indirect gap materials, an electron must change its momentum before combining with a hole,
resulting in a significantly lower recombination probability for the occurrence of a band-to-
band transition. The quantum efficiencies exhibited by LEDs constructed of the two types of
semiconductor material clearly reflect this fact. Gallium nitride LEDs have quantum
efficiencies as high as 12 percent, compared to the 0.02 percent typical of silicon carbide
LEDs. Figure 6 presents an energy band diagram for direct band gap GaN and indirect band
gap SiC that illustrates the nature of the band-to-band energy transition for the two types of
material. The wavelength (and color) of light emitted in a radiative recombination of carriers
injected across a p-n junction is determined by the difference in energy between the
recombining electron-hole pair of the valence and conduction bands. The approximate
energies of the carriers correspond to the upper energy level of the valence band and the

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lowest energy of the conduction band, due to the tendency of the electrons and holes to
equilibrate at these levels. Consequently, the wavelength () of an emitted photon is
approximated by the following expression:
 = hc/E bg where h represents Planck's constant, c is the velocity of light, and E(bg) is the
band gap energy. In order to change the wavelength of emitted radiation, the band gap of the
semiconducting material utilized to fabricate the LED must be changed. Gallium arsenide is a
common diode material, and may be used as an example illustrating the manner in which a
semiconductor's band structure can be altered to vary the emission wavelength of the device.
Gallium arsenide has a band gap of approximately 1.4 electron-volts, and emits in the
infrared at a wavelength of 900 nanometers. In order to increase the frequency of emission
into the visible red region (about 650 nanometers), the band gap must be increased to
approximately 1.9 electron-volts. This can be achieved by mixing gallium arsenide with a
compatible material having a larger band gap. Gallium phosphide, having a band gap of 2.3
electron-volts, is the most likely candidate for this mixture. LEDs produced with the
compound GaAsP (gallium arsenide phosphide) can be customized to produce band gaps of
any value between 1.4 and 2.3 electron-volts, through adjustment of the content of arsenic to
phosphorus. As previously discussed, maximization of light generation in the diode
semiconductor material is a primary design goal in LED fabrication. Another requirement is
the efficient extraction of the light from the chip. Because of total internal reflection, only a
fraction of the light that is generated isotropically within the semiconductor chip can escape
to the outside. According to Snell's law, light can travel from a medium of higher refractive
index into a medium of lower refractive index only if it intersects the interface between the
two media at an angle less than the critical angle for the two media. In a typical light-emitting
semiconductor having cubic shape, only about 1 to 2 percent of the generated light escapes
through the top surface of the LED (depending upon the specific chip and p-n junction

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geometry), the remainder being absorbed within the semiconductor materials.

Figure 7 illustrates the escape of light from a layered

semiconductor chip of refractive index n(s) into epoxy of lower index (n(e)). The angle
subtended by the escape cone is defined by the critical angle, (c), for the two materials. Light
rays emerging from the LED at angles less than (c) escape into the epoxy with minimal
reflection loss (dashed ray lines), while those rays propagating at angles greater than (c)
undergo total internal reflection at the boundary, and do not escape the chip directly. Because
of the curvature of the epoxy dome, most light rays leaving the semiconductor material meet
the epoxy/air interface at nearly right angles, and emerge from the housing with little
reflection loss.
The proportion of light emitted from an LED chip into the surroundings is dependent upon
the number of surfaces through which light can be emitted, and how effectively this occurs at
each surface. Nearly all LED structures rely on some form of layered arrangement in which
epitaxial growth processes are utilized to deposit several lattice-matched materials on top of
one another to tailor the properties of the chip. A wide variety of structures is employed, with
each material system requiring different layer architecture in order to optimize performance
properties.

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Most of the LED structural arrangements rely on a secondary growth step to deposit a single-
crystal layer on top of a single-crystal bulk-grown substrate material. Such a multilayering
approach enables designers to satisfy seemingly contradictory or inconsistent requirements. A
common feature of all of the structural types is that the p-n junction, where the light emission
occurs, is almost never located in the bulk-grown substrate crystal. One reason for this is that
bulk-grown material generally has a high defect density, which lowers the light generation
efficiency. In addition, the most common bulk-grown materials, including gallium arsenide,
gallium phosphide, and indium phosphide, do not have the appropriate band gap for the
desired emission wavelengths. Another requirement in many LED applications is for a low
series resistance that can be met by appropriate substrate choice, even in cases in which the
low doping required in the p-n junction region would not provide adequate conduction.
The techniques of epitaxial crystal growth involve deposition of one material on another,
which is closely matched in atomic lattice constants and thermal expansion coefficient to
reduce defects in the layered material. A number of techniques are in use to produce epitaxial
layers. These include Liquid Phase Epitaxy (LPE), Vapor Phase Epitaxy (VPE), Metal-
Organic Epitaxial Chemical Vapor Deposition (MOCVD), and Molecular Beam Epitaxy
(MBE). Each of the growth techniques has advantages in particular materials systems or
production environments, and these factors are extensively discussed in the literature.
The details of the various epitaxial structures employed in LED fabrication are not presented
here, but are discussed in a number of publications. Generally, however, the most common
categories of such structures are grown and diffused homojunctions, and single confinement
or double confinement heterojunctions. The strategies behind the application of the various
layer arrangements are numerous. These include structuring of p and n regions and reflective
layers to increase the internal quantum efficiency of the system, graded-composition buffer
layers to overcome lattice mismatch between layers, locally varying energy band gap to

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accomplish carrier confinement, and lateral constraint of carrier injection to control light
emission area or to collimate the emission. Even though it does not typically contain the p-n
junction region, the LED substrate material becomes an integral part of the function, and is
chosen to be appropriate for deposition of the desired epitaxial layers, as well as for its light
transmission and other properties. As previously stated, the fraction of generated light that is
actually emitted from an LED chip is a function of the number of surfaces that effectively
transmit light. Most LED chips are categorized as absorbing substrate (AS) devices, where
the substrate material has a narrow band gap and absorbs all emission having energy greater
than the band gap. Therefore, light traveling toward the sides or downward is absorbed, and
such chips can only emit light through their top surfaces. The transparent substrate (TS) chip
is designed to increase light extraction by incorporating a substrate that is transparent to the
wavelength of emitted light. In some systems, transparency in the upper epitaxial layers will
allow light transmitted toward the side surfaces, within certain angles, to be extracted as well.
Hybrid designs, having substrate properties intermediate between AS and TS devices, are
also utilized, and significant increases in extraction efficiency can be achieved by
employment of a graded change in refractive index from the LED chip to air. There remain
numerous other absorption mechanisms in the LED structure that reduce emission and are
difficult to overcome, such as the front and back contacts on the chip, and crystal defects.
However, chips made on transparent, as opposed to absorbing, substrates can exhibit a
nearly-fivefold improvement in extraction efficiency.

Dyes are another suitable type of wavelength converter for white diode applications, and can be
incorporated into the epoxy encapsulant or in transparent polymers. The commercially available
dyes are generally organic compounds, which are chosen for a specific LED design by
consideration of their absorption and emission spectra. The light generated by the diode must
match the absorption profile of the converting dye, which in turn emits light at the desired longer
wavelength. The quantum efficiencies of dyes can be near 100 percent, as in phosphor
conversion, but they have the disadvantage of poorer long-term operational stability than
phosphors. This is a serious drawback, as the molecular instability of the dyes causes them to

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lose optical activity after a finite number of absorptive transitions, and the resulting change in
light emitting diode color will limit its lifetime. White light LEDs based on semiconductor
wavelength converters have been demonstrated that are similar in principle to the phosphor
conversion types, but which employ a second semiconductor material that emits a different
wavelength in response to the emission from the primary source wafer. These devices have
been referred to as photon recycling semiconductors (or PRS-LEDs), and incorporate a blue-
emitting LED die bonded to another die that responds to the blue light by emitting light of a
complementary wavelength. The two wavelengths then combine to produce white. One possible
structure for this type of device utilizes a GaInN diode as a current-injected active region coupled
to an AlGaInP optically-excited active region. The blue light emitted by the primary source is
partially absorbed by the secondary active region, and "recycled" as reemitted photons of lower
energy. The structure of a photon recycling semiconductor is illustrated schematically in Figure
11. In order for the combined emission to produce white light, the intensity ratio of the two
sources must have a specific value that can be calculated for the particular dichromatic
components. The choice of materials and the thickness of the various layers in the structure can
be modified to vary the color of the device output.

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Because white light can be created by several different mechanisms, utilizing white LEDs in a
particular application requires consideration of the suitability of the method employed to generate
the light. Although the perceived color of light emitted by various techniques may be similar, its
effect on color rendering, or the result of filtration of the light, for example, may be entirely
different. White light created through broadband emission, through mixing of two complementary
colors in a dichromatic source, or by mixing of three colors in a trichromatic source, can be
located at different coordinates on the chromaticity diagram and have different color
temperatures with respect to illuminants designated as standards by the CIE.

Photodiode

Photodetector from a CD-ROM Drive. 3 photodiodes are visible.

A photodiode is a type of photodetector capable of converting light into either current or
voltage, depending upon the mode of operation.

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Photodiodes are similar to regular semiconductor diodes except that they may be either
exposed (to detect vacuum UV or X-rays) or packaged with a window or optical fiber
connection to allow light to reach the sensitive part of the device. Many diodes designed for
use specifically as a photodiode will also use a PIN junction rather than the typical PN
junction.
Polarity

Photodiode schematic symbol

Some photodiodes will look like the picture to the right, that is, similar to a light emitting
diode. They will have two leads, or wires, coming from the bottom. The shorter end of the
two is the cathode, while the longer end is the anode. See below for a schematic drawing of
the anode and cathode side. Under forward bias, conventional current will pass from the
anode to the cathode, following the arrow in the symbol. Photocurrent flows in the opposite
direction.

Principle of operation
A photodiode is a PN junction or PIN structure. When a photon of sufficient energy strikes
the diode, it excites an electron, thereby creating a mobile electron and a positively charged
electron hole. If the absorption occurs in the junction's depletion region, or one diffusion
length away from it, these carriers are swept from the junction by the built-in field of the
depletion region. Thus holes move toward the anode, and electrons toward the cathode, and a
photocurrent is produced.
Photovoltaic mode When used in zero bias or photovoltaic mode, the flow of
photocurrent out of the device is restricted and a voltage builds up. The diode becomes

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forward biased and "dark current" begins to flow across the junction in the direction opposite
to the photocurrent. This mode is responsible for the photovoltaic effect, which is the basis
for solar cells—in fact, a solar cell is just a large area photodiode.
Photoconductive mode
In this mode the diode is often reverse biased, dramatically reducing the response time at the
expense of increased noise. This increases the width of the depletion layer, which decreases
the junction's capacitance resulting in faster response times. The reverse bias induces only a
small amount of current (known as saturation or back current) along its direction while the
photocurrent remains virtually the same. The photocurrent is linearly proportional to the
illuminance. Although this mode is faster, the photoconductive mode tends to exhibit more
electronic noiseThe leakage current of a good PIN diode is so low (< 1nA) that the Johnson–
Nyquist noise of the load resistance in a typical circuit often dominates.

Applications
P-N photodiodes are used in similar applications to other photodetectors, such as
photoconductors, charge-coupled devices, and photomultiplier tubes.
Photodiodes are used in consumer electronics devices such as compact disc players, smoke
detectors, and the receivers for remote controls in VCRs and televisions.
In other consumer items such as camera light meters, clock radios (the ones that dim the
display when it's dark) and street lights, photoconductors are often used rather than
photodiodes, although in principle either could be used.Photodiodes are often used for
accurate measurement of light intensity in science and industry. They generally have a better,
more linear response than photoconductors.They are also widely used in various medical
applications, such as detectors for computed tomography (coupled with scintillators) or
instruments to analyze samples (immunoassay). They are also used in pulse oximeters.
PIN diodes are much faster and more sensitive than ordinary p-n junction diodes, and hence
are often used for optical communications and in lighting regulation.P-N photodiodes are not
used to measure extremely low light intensities. Instead, if high sensitivity is needed,

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avalanche photodiodes, intensified charge-coupled devices or photomultiplier tubes are used

for applications such as astronomy, spectroscopy, night vision equipment and laser
rangefinding.

Comparison with photomultipliers Advantages compared to photomultipliers:

Excellent linearity of output current as a function of incident light
Spectral response from 190 nm to 1100 nm (silicon), longer wavelengths with other
semiconductor materials Low noise Ruggedized to mechanical stress Low cost
Compact and light weight Long lifetime High quantum efficiency, typically 80%
No high voltage required

Disadvantages compared to photomultipliers:

Small area No internal gain (except avalanche photodiodes, but their gain is typically 10²–10³
compared to up to 108 for the photomultiplier) Much lower overall sensitivity
Photon counting only possible with specially designed, usually cooled photodiodes, with
special electronic circuits Response time for many designs is slower
P-N vs. P-I-N photodiodes
Due to the intrinsic layer, a PIN photodiode must be reverse biased (Vr). The Vr increases the
depletion region allowing a larger volume for electron-hole pair production, and reduces the
capacitance thereby increasing the bandwidth. The Vr also introduces noise current, which
reduces the S/N ratio. Therefore, a reverse bias is recommended for higher bandwidth
applications and/or applications where a wide dynamic range is required. A PN photodiode
is more suitable for lower light applications because it allows for unbiased operation.

A simple model of a photodiode

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The PD can be connected directly to an ammeter, permitting the most sensitive measurement
of the light power.

The diode can also be reverse biased to measure higher powers at faster speeds.
In either mode of operation, the photocurrent I is proportional to the power P of the light
illuminating the photodiode. I = K PD P, where K PD is the responsivity of the photodiode.
K PD depends on the diode construction, the wavelength of the light, and on the temperature.
The photodiode is a quantum device. Almost every incident photon generates an electron-
hole charge pair. We therefore have I = e N Q where Q is the quantum efficiency and e is
the magnitude of the electron's charge. Q is less than or equal to 100 %. The optical power is
equal to the number of photons per second, N, times the energy per photon, E = hc/λ.
P = N E = Nhc/λ The PD responsivity therefore is given by K PD = Qeλ/(hc).

Introduction to Liquid Crystal Displays

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The most common application of liquid crystal technology is in liquid

crystal displays (LCDs). From the ubiquitous wrist watch and pocket calculator to an
advanced VGA computer screen, this type of display has evolved into an important and
versatile interface.A liquid crystal display consists of an array of tiny segments (called pixels)
that can be manipulated to present information. This basic idea is common to all displays,
ranging from simple calculators to a full color LCD television.Why are liquid crystal displays
important? The first factor is size. As will be shown in the following sections, an LCD
consists primarily of two glass plates with some liquid crystal material between them. There
is no bulky picture tube. This makes LCDs practical for applications where size (as well as
weight) are important. In general, LCDs use much less power than their cathode-ray tube
(CRT) counterparts. Many LCDs are reflective, meaning that they use only ambient light to
illuminate the display. Even displays that do require an external light source (i.e. computer
displays) consume much less power than CRT devices.Liquid crystal displays do have
drawbacks, and these are the subject of intense research. Problems with viewing angle,
contrast ratio, and response time still need to be solved before the LCD replaces the cathode-
ray tube. However with the rate of technological innovation, this day may not be too far into
the future.
We will restrict this discussion to traditional nematic LCDs since the major technological
advances have been developed for this group of devices. Other LC applications, such as those

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employing polymer stabilization of LC structure, are discussed in the appropriate section
covering those materials.

Liquid Crystal
Ordinary fluids are isotropic in nature: they appear optically, magnetically, electrically, etc. to
be the same from any perspective. Although the molecules which comprise the fluid are
generally anisometric in shape, this anisometry generally plays little role in anisotropic
macroscopic behavior (aside from viscosity). Nevertheless, there exists a large class of highly
anisometric molecules which gives rise to unusual, fascinating, and potentially
technologically relevant behavior. There are many interesting candidates for study, including
polymers, micelles, microemulsions, and materials of biological significance, such as DNA
and membranes. Although at times we have investigated all of these materials, our primary
effort centers on liquid crystals. Liquid crystals are composed of moderate size organic
molecules which tend to be elongated and shaped like a cigar, although we have studied, and
the literature is full of variety of other, highly exotic shapes as well. Because of their
elongated shape, under appropriate conditions the molecules can exhibit orientational order,
such that all the axes line up in a particular direction. In consequence, the bulk order has
profound influences on the way light and electricity behave in the material. For example, if
the direction of the orientation varies in space, the orientation of the light (i.e., the
polarization) can follow this variation. A well-known application of this phenomenon is the
ubiquitous liquid crystal display, now comprising a $15b annual industry world-wide. Under
other conditions the molecules may form a stack of layers along one direction, but remain
liquid like (in terms of the absence of translational order) within the layers. As the system
changes from one of these phases to another, a variety of physical parameters such as
susceptibility and heat capacity, will exhibit "pretransitional behavior." Based solely on
symmetry, this behavior may be related to other physical systems, such as superconductivity,
magnetism, or superfluidity; this is the so-called "universality" of these phase transitions.

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Using a battery of optical techniques, in addition to dielectric and certain surface probes, our
research centers on the role of symmetry on liquid crystalline phases and phase transitions,
how these systems behave in the presence of intense magnetic and electric fields, and the
effects of confining these materials in spaces not much larger than the molecules themselves.
By observing this behavior, we learn not only about the particular material under
consideration, but about the global properties of anisotropic fluids and their relationships to
other physical systems. Finally, we should point out that although our research is primarily
fundamental in nature, determining critical exponents, surface potentials, induced
polarizations, etc., a small but important component of our effort involves technology. For
example, we have developed a new liquid crystal display architecture which is being
developed for commercialization by American industry. This is a symbiotic approach to
research, and has been an intellectual stimulation to our effort.

Liquid crystal display

Reflective twisted nematic liquid crystal display.

Polarizing filter film with a vertical axis to polarize light as it enters.
Glass substrate with ITO electrodes. The shapes of these electrodes will determine the shapes
that will appear when the LCD is turned ON. Vertical ridges etched on the surface are
smooth.
Twisted nematic liquid crystal. Glass substrate with common electrode film (ITO) with

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horizontal ridges to line up with the horizontal filter. Polarizing filter film with a horizontal
axis to block/pass light. Reflective surface to send light back to viewer. (In a backlit LCD,
this layer is replaced with a light source.)

A liquid crystal display (LCD) is a thin, flat panel used for electronically displaying
information such as text, images, and moving pictures. Its uses include monitors for
computers, televisions, instrument panels, and other devices ranging from aircraft cockpit
displays, to every-day consumer devices such as video players, gaming devices, clocks,
watches, calculators, and telephones. Among its major features are its lightweight
construction, its portability, and its ability to be produced in much larger screen sizes than are
practical for the construction of cathode ray tube (CRT) display technology. Its low electrical
power consumption enables it to be used in battery-powered electronic equipment. It is an
electronically-modulated optical device made up of any number of pixels filled with liquid
crystals and arrayed in front of a light source (backlight) or reflector to produce images in
color or monochrome. The earliest discovery leading to the development of LCD technology,
the discovery of liquid crystals, dates from 1888. By 2008, worldwide sales of televisions
with LCD screens had surpassed the sale of CRT units.

LCD alarm clock

Each pixel of an LCD typically consists of a layer of molecules aligned between two
transparent electrodes, and two polarizing filters, the axes of transmission of which are (in
most of the cases) perpendicular to each other. With no actual liquid crystal between the
polarizing filters, light passing through the first filter would be blocked by the second

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(crossed) polarizer.The surface of the electrodes that are in contact with the liquid crystal
material are treated so as to align the liquid crystal molecules in a particular direction. This
treatment typically consists of a thin polymer layer that is unidirectionally rubbed using, for
example, a cloth. The direction of the liquid crystal alignment is then defined by the direction
of rubbing. Electrodes are made of a transparent conductor called Indium Tin Oxide (ITO).
Before applying an electric field, the orientation of the liquid crystal molecules is determined
by the alignment at the surfaces of electrodes. In a twisted nematic device (still the most
common liquid crystal device), the surface alignment directions at the two electrodes are
perpendicular to each other, and so the molecules arrange themselves in a helical structure, or
twist. This reduces the rotation of the polarization of the incident light, and the device
appears grey. If the applied voltage is large enough, the liquid crystal molecules in the center
of the layer are almost completely untwisted and the polarization of the incident light is not
rotated as it passes through the liquid crystal layer. This light will then be mainly polarized
perpendicular to the second filter, and thus be blocked and the pixel will appear black. By
controlling the voltage applied across the liquid crystal layer in each pixel, light can be
allowed to pass through in varying amounts thus constituting different levels of gray.

Energy efficiency
Among newer TV models, LCDs require less energy on average than their plasma
counterparts. A 42-inch LCD consumes 203 watts on average compared to 271 watts
consumed by a 42-inch plasma display. (This information is outdated - current plasma tv's

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such as the panasonic TH-42 X10 consume between 80-200W. When measuring the average
powerconsumption, it is usually between 120W and 150W.) Energy use per inch is another
metric for comparing different display technologies. CRT technology is more efficient per
square inch of display area, using 0.23 watts/square inch, while LCDs require 0.27
watts/square inch. Plasma displays are on the high end at 0.36 watts/square inch and
DLP/rear projection TVs represent the low end at 0.14 watts/square inch.
Bistable displays do not consume any power when displaying a fixed image, but require a
notable amount of power for changing displayed image.

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