Introduction to the

Philosophy of the
Human Person
STUDENTS’ MODULE

1
Philosophy: Doing Philosophy and Methods of Philosophizing
The Process of Doing Philosophy
Objectives
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:
 differentiate the meaning of philosophy as a body of knowledge and as an intellectual activity,
 distinguish a holistic perspective from a partial point of view,
 recognize human activities that emanated from deliberate reflection,
 apply a philosophical reflection on a concrete situation from a holistic perspective, and
 realize the value of philosophy in obtaining a broad perspective in life.
In a few years, you will gain new experiences in life that you may have never dreamed of. Such
experiences may excite or challenge you, while some can make you rethink your life and decisions.
At your age, you may have already asked yourself important questions about your life that cannot be
directly answered through research or education, such as “What do I want?” or “What will make me
happy?”
If you have already asked yourself those big questions, then you have already engaged in philosophy.

 What is Philosophy?
 Is it a way of life? Why or why not?
 How do you apply it in everyday life?
Find out the answers in this lesson!
Learn about it!
Doing philosophy helps you think many things, including those that leave you confused or without an
acceptable answer. You can do philosophy by yourself, with a partner, or with a group.
The Meaning of Philosophy and Philosophy of the Human Person
Philosophy, meaning "love of wisdom," is a science where reason and logic are used to understand reality
and answer questions of knowledge, morality, and human nature. It can be described as either a body of
knowledge or an intellectual activity.
Philosophy as a body of knowledge provides methodologies and insights on how societal questions, such
as moral dilemmas of euthanasia or same-sex marriage, can be answered.
On the other hand, philosophy as an intellectual activity is an analytic procedure of addressing individual
thought processes such as resolving conflict and confusion, testing positions, and analyzing beliefs. In all
instances, doing philosophy is prescribed by logic, reason, and ethics leading to wisdom.
Philosophy applied to human experience or everyday life denotes the use of philosophy as an intellectual
activity. Also known as philosophy in life, this concept is important because it serves as the guiding
principle on how one ought to live life.

Learn about it!

Importance of Philosophical Reflection
Philosophical reflection is the process by which a person undergoes a reflective state or evaluates his or
her experiences first before making any related action. The use of philosophical reflection is important as it
enables th ought to be looked into using a deeper, holistic perspective. In effect, actions are directed
towards greater sources of wisdom and truth.
Human Activities Emanated from Deliberate Reflection
In the process, one can learn more about himself or herself, including personal beliefs, ideals, or values.
Previous experiences may be seen as important aspects of making reflections because they facilitate
deeper thinking and understanding of the self. Aside from knowing the self, many other activities also
emanate from reflection.
Examples:
 learning from your previous mistakes and not repeating them again
 evaluating and knowing the best choice from a set of options
 gaining a holistic point of view first before making any conclusion

Learn about it!

Meaning and Process of Doing Philosophy
Doing philosophy means engaging oneself in “matters of utility” and methodologies to eliminate any
practical problem or abstract idea.
In the process of doing philosophy, it is critical to have a holistic point of view—the perception of looking at
all aspects of a situation first before making a conclusion. Some other skills involved in doing philosophy
are critical, logical, and analytical thinking, observation, and communicative skills.
Holistic and Partial Points of View
Before engaging in philosophical inquiry, one must be able to distinguish between a holistic and partial
point of view. This is critical for anyone doing philosophy because it sets a limit in coming up with
conclusions about a given situation.
It is important to remember the following:
Looking at the characteristics of holistic and partial points of view, it can be concluded that using a holistic
perspective is more desirable in doing philosophy than using a partial perspective. Partial points of view
only promote limited knowledge on the situation. This leads to wrong conclusions.
Learning philosophy requires learning to look into all available perspectives and work on their relationship
to come up with sound, logical, and valid conclusions. In the process, doing philosophy helps one to
develop the skill of broadly looking at the situation first before concluding anything.

Learn about it!

Importance of Doing Philosophy
Doing philosophy can be applied in day-to-day activities and life perspectives. Because it involves an
evaluative process, doing philosophy allows a person to make better decisions and act accordingly to
situations with the help of various philosophical skills.
Furthermore, on life perspectives, philosophy enables reflective thinking which greatly influences a person’s
view of life, challenges, and relationships. Doing philosophy directs how a person will perceive these
factors in life and how they will be faced.
In any setting, wisdom is always gained when philosophy is applied to formulate a conclusion about a
certain concern.

Explore!
Philosophy has opened doors for debates over many concerns such as the purpose of life, the existence of
good and evil, and the way to the truth. Even as a young student, you have already been introduced to
philosophy as a discipline. As you proceed to higher levels of your study, you will encounter more
philosophical issues that are more advanced and complicated to resolve. In your perspective, what other
issues may be dealt with using philosophy?

Try it!
You may already know that philosophy as a discipline has been present in society for centuries. Different
perspectives on various issues rose and were given defense by various philosophers. As a student, think of
a relevant issue faced by society nowadays. Look for at least two philosophical theories that can explain
your chosen topic. After reading on these views, make your decision on which theory to side with based on
the philosophical concepts you have learned from your readings.

What do you think?

Is doing philosophy possible without engaging in philosophical reflection?

Tips
 In doing philosophy, a holistic perspective on the subject is always required. Failure to do so or only
using a partial point of view may lead to illogical or incorrect conclusions.
 In the process of doing philosophy, it is critical to have a holistic perspective—the perception of
looking at all aspects of a situation first before making a conclusion. This point of view is different
from holistic thinking which is a mental activity of recognizing the interconnectedness of systems
and procedures to form a general picture of an issue.
 The process of doing philosophy should not be mistaken for the Filipino activity of pamimilosopo or
pedantry where a person displays useless knowledge or minute observances of small details.

Keypoints

3
  Philosophy, meaning "love of wisdom," is a science where reason and logic are used to
understand reality and answer questions of knowledge, morality, and human nature.
 Philosophy may be a body of knowledge or an intellectual activity.
 A holistic point of view looks at all aspects of the given problem or situation. Meanwhile, a partial
point of view looks at only a limited number of aspects of the given problem or situation.
 Philosophical reflection allows a person to look back on previous experiences and evaluate the
meaning or significance of his or her life.

Topic: Methods of Philosophizing: Socratic

Objectives
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:
 define and explain the Socratic method of philosophizing,
 analyze expressions and statements that show the differences of opinion, fact, and truth, and
 justify the validity of the statement “The Socratic method of philosophizing leads to wisdom and
truth.”
Your teacher asked you to give a concrete definition of love. You confidently answered the question: “Love
is kind. Love is patient.”
However, instead of accepting your answer, she responded to you with another question: “Yes, but what do
you mean by kindness and patience?”
Surprised, you answered her question again, this time giving some examples to raise your point. Your
teacher continued to ask you further questions as responses to your statements.

 Why did your teacher do that?

 What was she doing?
 What did she want to get from you in doing so?
Find out the answer in this lesson!
Learn about it!
In the given scenario, the teacher kept on asking about your responses to the questions. What she did is
called Socratic questioning−−a type of interrogative statement that clarifies points through understanding
the deeper meaning of a claim.
Methods of Philosophizing
A method of philosophizing is a process of determining the truth or drawing a conclusion from a
statement using various philosophical methods, such as:

 Socratic,
 dialectic,
 scientific, and
 historical.

Learn about it!

Socratic Method of Philosophizing
The Socratic method, also known by the Greek term elenchus that means "to inquire or to cross-
examine", is an exchange of ideas using Socratic questioning.
 It was developed by Socrates, a Greek philosopher and teacher, who laid the groundwork for
Western systems of philosophy and logic.
 In this process, statements are deconstructed or questioned to come up with the actual truth that is
believed to rest on the roots of the argument.
 Conflicting ideas are seen as invalid sources of the truth, and probing questions are immediately
derived from the given statements.
 In a classroom setting, this method is used not to intimidate students, but to produce a deeper
understanding of thoughts and ideas through further questioning statements or claims.
 There is no particular end goal aside from reaching an absolute truth from probing statements and,
in the process, eliminating ideas that are questionable or contradicting.
Examples:
 A psychologist is trying to dig deeper into the story of his patient who only mentions vague and
general ideas.
 A lawyer is asking further questions about the suspect’s whereabouts during the crime because she
is not entirely convinced by his alibi.
 A mother is questioning her son’s real reason for his excessive absences from school.

Learn about it!

Opinion, Fact, and Truth
In using the Socratic method, it is important to analyze expressions and statements that show the
differences of opinion, fact, and truth.
Opinion
An opinion is an expression of one’s feelings based on facts, emotions, beliefs, or views. It is not based on
evidence.
Examples:
 Filipinos are the most resilient and hospitable people in the world.
 Manny Pacquiao is the best Filipino boxer.
Fact
A fact is a statement that can be checked and backed up with evidence. It is often used in conjunction with
research and study.
Examples:
 Based on the Miss World Organization records, Megan Young was the first Filipina to be crowned
as Miss World. She won the title in 2013 in Bali, Indonesia.
 According to the Philippine Statistics Authority, the country's total population is 92,337,852. It is
based on the recent May 2010 census.
Truth
A truth is something that has actual and proven existence scientifically and spiritually regardless of one’s
opinion and beliefs. It is undisputed, objective, universal, constant, exact, and factual.
Examples:
 All things that can be seen are temporal. (undisputed)
 Two plus two equals four (2 + 2 = 4). (exact)
 The Philippines, as proven in geographical and anthropological properties, is a country in Southeast
Asia. (factual)
Opinion is what someone believes or thinks. A fact is firmly planted in the material world, while truth
extends to the spiritual realm.

Learn about it!

Socratic Method Leads to Wisdom and Truth
The Socratic method has been emphasized to use statement deconstructions and creative questioning to
delve deeper into an issue. It is a systematic process whereby random and ambiguous ideas are eliminated
to reach a sound conclusion. Reaching an endpoint, therefore, would only mean that truth has been
realized, and new knowledge has been acquired.

Explore!
Some students dread it when teachers involve the class in the discussion by asking them to explain a
certain topic or concept. Usually, students do not immediately answer in fear that they might be called upon
to explain their thoughts further—an activity they do not like or are not prepared to do. Still, teachers
continue to do this method despite the minimal responses they get from their students. Before this lesson,

5
have you ever wondered why your teachers do that technique? Do you now understand their goals in doing
so?

Try it!
During a class discussion, try to engage in a Socratic questioning exercise with your teacher. You may be
the one to initiate the process by asking your teacher any relevant topic about the discussion. From there,
you may further ask questions related to your teacher's responses. Continue to clarify your the responses
until you have fully grasped the idea presented. This activity may also be done alternatively, with the
teacher probing you for your answers.

Tip
Regardless of how deep the probing process has been, the primary area of focus during the Socratic
method would be the first statement. All succeeding statements are brought about to support or refute the
claim of the initial argument.

Keypoints
 A method of philosophizing is a process of determining a truth or conclusion from a statement
through the use of various philosophical methods such as Socratic, dialectic, historical, and
scientific.
 Socrates was a Greek philosopher and teacher who laid the groundwork for Western systems of
philosophy and logic.
 Socratic questioning is a type of interrogative process that clarifies points through understanding
the deeper meaning of a claim.
 The process of deconstructing or questioning statements to come up with the actual truth is called
the Socratic Method.
 Opinion is what someone believes or thinks. A fact is firmly planted in the material world,
while truth extends to the spiritual realm.
 The Socratic method of philosophizing leads to wisdom and truth.

Methods of Philosophizing: Dialectic

Objectives
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:
 define and explain the dialectic method of philosophizing,
 compare the dialectic and Socratic methods of philosophizing;
 distinguish an opinion from truth by analyzing the given situations, and
 justify the validity of the statement "The dialectic method leads to wisdom and truth.”
While waiting for your teacher, you overhear your two classmates debating on which part of the day is
better for studying for an exam. One of them said that she prefers to study at night because it is quiet, while
the other stated that he likes to study in the morning because it is when he feels most active. After an
exchange of factual knowledge about their study habits, your classmates both agreed that studying during
the morning is better than studying at night.

 How did your two classmates come up with that conclusion?

 What do you call the process that led them to do so?
Find out the answers in this lesson!

Review!
Methods of Philosophizing
A method of philosophizing is a process of determining the truth or drawing conclusions from a statement
using various philosophical methods, such as:

 Socratic,
 dialectic,
 scientific, and
 historical.

Learn about it!

Dialectic Method
In the previous example, your two classmates were able to conclude that it is better to study in the morning
after having analyzed the facts that they presented to each other. To come up with that, they used a
process called dialectics or the dialectic method.
 The term 'dialectic' comes from the Greek word dialektike which means 'the art of conversation.'
 It is the act of talking back and forth, disagreeing with one another, and arguing about contentious
issues.
 In philosophy, it is a method of coming up with a conclusion from an exchange of contradicting
logical arguments.
 The aim of dialectics, as a process of the dialogue, is the clarification of controversial notions and
arguments with other people. In this process, personal and shared conceptions should be
considered and corrected.
 Many philosophers, such as Hegel, Aristotle, and Socrates, had their own beliefs and explanations
about this approach; however, the basic concept remains to be the same.
Examples:
 discussing the pros and cons of a variety of human resource strategies as forms of managing
employees in the workplace, then choosing the best option
 evaluating two physical activities regarding their ability to increase work performance

Learn about it!

Dialectic or Socratic
Both the Socratic method and the dialectic method are based on a dialogue between two or more people
who may hold differing views but wish to pursue the truth by seeking agreement with one another. To avoid
confusions between the two methods, study the chart of comparison below.

Now, how do you compare and contrast the dialectic method and Socratic method as methods of
philosophizing?

Learn about it!

Opinion and Truth
The dialectic method may involve both opinions and facts as long as they are logical and lead to the truth. It
is therefore important to distinguish opinion from truth.
 An opinion is a personal view formed about a particular matter, such as your perception of using e-
books rather than actual books.
 Truth is something that has real and proven existence regardless of one’s opinion, such as the fact
that the heart is a muscle.
Read the statements below, then distinguish the opinion from the truth.

Statement A is an opinion since there is no proof or evidence that the president is indeed the most
intelligent person in the country.
Statement B is a truth because the president is the head of the state and the chief officer of the country.
Thus, he is the most powerful leader of the country.

Learn about it!

The Dialectic Method Leads to Wisdom and Truth
The dialectic method can easily be seen in the day-to-day interactions of people. It is much like a debate
that poses two clashing but valid arguments to determine an endpoint that is correct and true. In this sense,
the truth of both arguments is always expected to rise from each conversation.

Explore!
In recent years, technology has played a significant role in education. Electronic resources such as e-books
have begun to replace actual books as primary learning resources. Some academicians are arguing
against the reliability of this tool as an appropriate medium of instruction, while some are promoting it for
practicality issues. Both sides have valid points, but if you were to observe your fellow students, what type
of resources would they prefer? What other points did you realize that made you choose that decision?

Try it!
7
Engage your friend in a non-aggressive discussion about any topic that you disagree on. Before the start of
your conversation, explain to your friend the activity’s purpose and premises. Make sure that throughout the
discussion, both of you share logical points about your chosen topic. As you go through the discussion, you
may try to categorize all your statements as opinion or truth. In coming up with your conclusion, see to it
that all points are taken into consideration. You may do this activity for some time with different people.

What do you think?

Can the dialectic method be used to arrive at a conclusion for three or more conflicting points? Why? Why
not?

Tips
 The dialectic method deals largely with logical ideas. Opinionated points are allowed as long as they
are logical and they help in coming up with the truth; however, the endpoint should always be the
truth.
 Dialectics, as a philosophical method, should not be mistaken for dialectical materialism. Although
both concepts fall under philosophy, dialectical materialism is a Marxian topic that caters to a more
liberal readership.

Keypoints
 Dialectics is a method of coming up with a true conclusion based on contradicting logical ideas.
 The dialectic method may involve both opinions and facts as long as they are logical and lead to
the truth.
 An opinion is an expression of a person’s feelings based on facts, emotions, and beliefs, while
the truth is something that has actual and proven existence scientifically and historically regardless
of one’s opinion and beliefs.
 Hegel, Aristotle, and Socrates were so convinced in the validity of the dialectic method that they
postulated their own versions and explanations of the whole process.
 The dialectic method of philosophizing leads to wisdom and truth.

Methods of Philosophizing: Scientific

Objectives
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:
 define and discuss the scientific method of philosophizing,
 compare the Socratic method, dialectic method, and scientific method as methods of philosophizing,
 distinguish opinions from truths by analyzing given situations, and
 justify the validity of the statement “The scientific method leads to wisdom and truth.”
In your science class, you already know that when salt and sugar are dissolved in water, they form a
homogeneous solution. On the other hand, sand combined with water forms a heterogeneous mixture.
What process led you to know that?
Find out the answer in this lesson!

Review!
Methods of Philosophizing
A method of philosophizing is a process of determining the truth or drawing conclusions from a statement
using various philosophical methods, such as:

 Socratic,
 dialectic,
 scientific, and
 historical.

Learn about it!

Doing experiments are standard in science classes. In the previous example, knowing whether a mixture is
heterogeneous or homogeneous can easily be done just by performing a simple test. This lesson involves
the process of experimentation and observation referred to as the scientific method of philosophizing.
The Scientific Method
 The term "science" is derived from the Latin word scientia that means “to produce knowledge.”
 The scientific method, also called empirical method, is a process of determining truth or
knowledge through experimentation, inductive and deductive reasoning, and hypothesis or theory
testing.
 The scientific method could trace its history from the Classical period with Aristotle giving the
earliest structured theory on the scientific approach.
 The process begins with an idea about any given topic. Hypothesis testing is done to prove the
validity of this idea.
 In a philosophical view, the means of hypothesis testing and its results are considered the most
important feature of the method.
  The scientific method also values observation as an important aspect because it contributes to
further understanding the results of the hypothesis testing.
Examples:
 exposing one plant to sunlight while limiting the exposure of another is done to test which setting
promotes better plant growth
 testing and quantifying morality, love, mercy, justice, or compassion which are all realities that do
not dwell in the realm of materialism

Learn about it!

The Scientific, Dialectic, and Socratic Methods
Both the Socratic and dialectic method are based on a discussion between two or more people who may
carry differing views but wish to pursue the truth by seeking an agreement with one another. Meanwhile,
the scientific method is a process of determining truth or knowledge through experimentation, inductive
and deductive reasoning, and hypothesis or theory testing.
Study the chart below.

Learn about it!

Opinion and Truth
It is important to remember that the scientific method involves only the truth. However, differentiating
between the two is still important.
 An opinion is a personal view formed about a particular matter. An example of this would be your
take on who among your science teachers is the best.
 Truth is something that has actual and proven existence regardless of one’s opinion. For example,
raspberry plants that receive the most water grow the biggest.
Try to analyze the given situations. Distinguish the opinion from the truth.

Situation A reveals the truth because it is proven scientifically.

Situation B expresses an opinion because it is a personal view about the topic.

Learn about it!

The Scientific Method Leads to Wisdom and Truth
The scientific method leads to wisdom and truth because it uses an evidence-based approach to come up
with its conclusion. In this method, all truths are supported by facts that can easily be tested or proven
again through experiments, logical reasoning, or observation. The knowledge and truth gained from the
scientific method are assured to come directly from valid conclusions.

9
Explore!
Throughout the years, the scientific method has been used by professionals and amateurs alike to come up
with conclusions about their topics of interest. Many studies have been done to facilitate a scientific method
in exploring a certain phenomenon. One such notable experiment is Louis Pasteur’s, whose discovery of
the process of pasteurization greatly boosted the food and health industry. As a student, how can you apply
the scientific method to answer your questions?

Try it!
Observe the environment around you. Do you have any question about how things work? Do you have your
hypothesis about it? Try to devise your own experiment to generate an answer to your question. You may
also use your observational skills to further define the problem at hand. If you are unable to devise your
own experiment, you can visit some websites that can show you videos or lessons about your topic of
interest. Remember to observe the process presented to you.

What do you think?

Why is the scientific method more recognized in the discipline of science than in philosophy? What is the
difference between the scientific method in philosophy and in the physical sciences?

Tips

 The scientific method should always be concluded with supporting evidence. However, ideas to be
tested may or may not be derived from existing facts.
 The use of observation in the scientific method is a critical aspect of supporting empirical
conclusions. Be sure that all your senses are actively engaged to observe during experimentation.

Keypoints
 A method of philosophizing is a process of determining the truth or a conclusion of a statement
through the use of various philosophical methods such as Socratic, dialectic, historical, and
scientific.
 The scientific method or empirical method is a process of determining truth or knowledge
through experimentation, inductive and deductive reasoning, and hypothesis or theory testing.
 An opinion is a personal view formed about a particular matter, while the truth is something that
has actual and proven existence regardless of one’s opinion.
 The scientific method of philosophizing leads to wisdom and truth.

Methods of Philosophizing: Historical

Objectives
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:
 define and explain the historical method of philosophizing,
 compare the Socratic method, dialectic method, scientific method, and historical method as
methods of philosophizing,
 distinguish an opinion from truth by analyzing the given situations, and
 justify the validity of the statement “The historical method leads to wisdom and truth.”
You already know that the Philippines has a rich culture that was molded by colonial influences in the past.
 If you want to further know how that happened, what type of book should you read?
 How do you know that what was recorded in our history books really happened?
Find out the answers in this lesson!
Review!
Methods of Philosophizing
A method of philosophizing is a process of determining the truth or drawing conclusions from a statement
using various philosophical methods, such as:

 Socratic,
 dialectic,
 scientific, and
 historical.

Learn about it!

If you answered “history book” in the previous question, you are correct. Now, if you were to read that
particular history book to know how the Philippines ended up with such a unique culture, then you just
applied the historical approach in your activity. Historical evidences are derived from records of the past.
The Historical Method
 The term "history" is from the Greek word iotopia which means “to investigate" or "to find out.”
 The historical method is the process of gathering evidences, examining them, and formulating
ideas about the past to come up with present truths.
 In this approach, it is believed that history has a “divine order” or a large “cyclical or progressive”
pattern that enables events to repeat themselves and record information through historical accounts
or archaeological findings.
 The process of learning the truth is simply through looking at past records to validate the present
hypothesis.
 If viewed in a more general perspective, the historical approach would include only a historical
account to differentiate truth from opinion.
 History is seen as more important than logic and a more valid source of the truth.
 Using the historical approach is much like researching for an answer to a particular question.
Reviewing what has been done in the past is the primary method of looking at a solution for a
problem at present.
Examples:
 You are going to Baguio for the first time with your family. You have the option to use one of two
routes. You look for reviews published in the internet to determine which of the two routes is better.
 An entrepreneur wants to open a café in a middle class residential area in the city. Before buying
the property, she looked first at previous business ventures that were established within the area to
determine the feasibility of her plan.

Learn about it!

Historical, Scientific, Dialectic, or Socratic Method
Both the Socratic method and the dialectic method are based on a discussion between two or more people
who have differing views, but wish to pursue the truth by seeking agreement with one another. The
scientific method is a process of determining truth or knowledge through experimentation, inductive and
deductive reasoning, and hypothesis or theory testing. Meanwhile, the historical method deals with
examining the past to come up with present facts or truths.
Study the table bel ow.

Learn about it!

Opinion and Truth
It is important to distinguish opinion from truth when using the historical method.
Remember:
 An opinion is a personal view formed about a particular matter, such as your preference for
Japanese cuisine.
 Truth, on the other hand, is something that has actual and proven existence regardless of one’s
opinion, such as the fact that the Philippines is made up of more than 7,100 islands.
Try to analyze the given situations. Distinguish the opinion from the truth.
11
Situation A reveals the truth because this account is derived from historical evidence.
Situation B expresses an opinion because it is a personal view.
Learn about it!
The Historical Method Leads to Wisdom and Truth
Because history is repetitive, it is believed that the things that are occurring at present already happened in
the past. Following this logic, the historical method serves the purpose of digging into historical data and
analyzing together the findings to come up with a conclusion. The use of the method, therefore, leads to
knowledge that is true and evidence-based.

History is repetitive. Only technology and political systems change. Everything revolves around war for
conquest, whatever the specific reasons. Greed is the brace no matter what the system may be.
Explore!
As a student, you are exposed to doing assignments on almost every subject you are taking. In some
classes, English for example, your primary project would be a position paper on the literary work you have
been asked to read. In putting content into your project, how do you go about writing it? Do you review
other sources first before proceeding to write your final position?
Try it!
Choose a random object in your house. On a piece of paper, write a hypothesis of where you think that
object originated from. You may also include your ideas on how you think that object was used in the past.
After listing your thoughts, find some relevant information on the internet that may tell you more about your
chosen object. You may also search for answers at the library if you want. Once you find valid information,
compare your work to the real origins of the object to see how you fared.
What do you think?
Can the use of the historical approach predict the future? Why? Why not?
Tips
 The historical method does not accept logic as the primary source of the truth. Instead, it relies on
factual information or evidence-based conclusions to confirm a present idea as the truth.
 The historical method, as a method of philosophizing, should not be mistaken for historical
materialism. Although both concepts fall under philosophy, historical materialism is a Marxian topic
that caters to a more liberal readership.
 History, as a discipline, should be considered a separate topic from the historical method. While
both concepts focus on past events as significant, the latter only uses history to produce its main
goal which is the truth.

Keypoints
 A method of philosophizing is a process of determining truths or conclusions from a statement
through the use of various philosophical methods such as Socratic, dialectics, historical, and
scientific.
 The historical method deals with examining the past to come up with present truths.
 An opinion is a personal view formed about a particular matter, while the truth is something that
has actual and proven existence regardless of one’s opinion.
 The historical method of philosophizing leads to wisdom and truth.

PHILOSOPHY OF THE HUMAN PERSON

One’s Limitations and Possibilities for Transcendence
Objectives
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:
 explain the human person as an embodied spirit,
 recognize one's limitations and possibilities,
 distinguish limitations and possibilities from transcendence,
 realize how the human body imposes limits and possibilities, and
 evaluate own limitations and possibilities for transcendence.

13
Many people admire Jason for being the youngest director of the biggest conglomerate in the Philippines.
He is also one of the richest bachelors under 30 years old. Little do people know that he was once a poor
boy who dreamed big and worked hard to attain his current status. When asked about his successes,
Jason said that he considers seeing his family happy, imparting his knowledge to others, and being able to
serve others as the successes he is most proud of.

 Like Jason, all people have lifelong goals that they want to fulfill. If you were finally able to meet
your life goal, how would you feel?
 Do you think your perspective in life will change?
Find out the answers in this lesson!
Learn about it!
The previous example talks about transcendence or a state of "existence above and beyond the limits of
material experience." Transcendence originated from the words trans, meaning "go beyond," and scandare,
meaning "climb."
In the example, fulfilling a goal entails transcendence because it opens a state of thinking and feeling that
there is something more in life than just physical and material things. Much like Abraham Maslow's self-
actualization concept, transcendence is a state of being intrinsically satisfied with life regardless of physical
and tangible factors.
The Human Person as an Embodied Spirit
In totality, a man is a physical body, a living soul (the inner self; mortal), and a spirit (the life-force;
immortal).
The spirit takes form through the mortal, physical body to represent its qualities in the conscious, physical
world. Each body part has its worldly function that is communicated in an expressive and understandable
form.
For Aristotle, a human person is a personal being that possesses its intellectual nature in a natural unity
with a material body. This unity is called: "man as a rational animal."
For St. Thomas, the total vision of man would be the "embodied spirit."

Learn about it!

Limitations and Possibilities for Transcendence
Here are some limitations and possibilities for transcendence:
Limitations of Transcendence
 may not occur to everyone
 does not come at a specified period
 varies across all people
 may coincide with physical limitations of the body
Possibilities for Transcendence
 developing a positive outlook in life
 working towards reaching a goal
 learning from experience
It is also important to know that transcendence may be applied to present worries by living in the present.
This means that life is lived from moment to moment in a carefree and exuberant manner where concerns
for stress are reserved for the future, and regrets or guilt feelings are kept in the past.

Learn about it!

The Human Body in Imposing Limits and Possibilities
From a biological and physical standpoint, it can be recognized that the human body, although it can
perform many functions, also has limitations. Limits in the environment, demographics, and society may
also hinder a person from reaching transcendence.
Here are some examples:
Bodily Limitations
 mental and emotional disorders (e.g. anxiety, intellectual disability)
 disabilities (e.g. amputated leg, deafness)
 diseases and illnesses (e.g. hypertension, cough)
 failures and experiences (e.g. failing a subject)
Social and Environmental Limitations
 socioeconomic status
 location of neighborhood (e.g. armed, disorganized, or violent neighborhood)
 abusive relationships (e.g. emotional abuse)
 negative influences (e.g. drug use)
Overcoming Limitations
Bodily limits can be tested by trying on new experiences and working on challenges with increasing levels
of difficulty. The human body, if given enough exposure to any situation, can attain a goal with efficiency.
Social and environmental limitations are more difficult to overcome than bodily limitations because they
involve the influence of other people and the external world. However, with a proper mindset, clearly
defined goals, and motivation to rise above challenges, one may successfully overcome his or her
limitations.
Learn about it!
Recognize and Evaluate Own Limitations and Possibilities for Transcendence
Even though you are still young, you are not prevented from further understanding yourself. Transcendence
is even more possible when you begin to understand that you can go beyond your limitations if you set your
mind on your goals.
Some points to remember when going beyond your limits are:
 You are connected to the external or eternal world.
 Challenges are learning opportunities.
 Your goal is more important than your fears.
 Think outside the box.
 Recognize that everyone has fears.

Explore!
The world continues to change rapidly. Nowadays, the generation gap can easily be seen in everyday life
because of new technological advances being introduced at a fast pace.
In your personal experience, does technological advancement limit or improve the possibility for
transcendence? Why? Why not?
Try it!
Look around you. Observe the environment and identify possible factors that may limit transcendence. You
may also put yourself in the position of those who experience such limitations. Identify ways on how you
may overcome those challenges.

What do you think?

Is reaching transcendence always a good thing? Why? Why not?
Tips
 The terms "transcendent" and "transcendental" should not be used interchangeably. According to
Immanuel Kant, "transcendent" is a term used to refer to God, while "transcendental" refers to all
other matter.
 While transcendence may not occur for everyone, all people have the capacity to experience it
regardless of any sociodemographic, biological, or personal factors.

Keypoints
 Transcendence is a state of being or existence that is above and beyond physical needs and
realities.
 From a biological and physical standpoint, it can be recognized that the human body, although it
can perform many functions, also has limitations and possibilities.
 In aiming for transcendence, it is important to consider the feasibility of your goals, the work you
would need to put in it, the challenges you will face, and other factors that may come in play.

Prudence and Frugality Towards One’ s Environment

Objectives
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:
 identify disorder in the environment and suggest solutions to the problem,
 prove that care for the environment contributes to health, well-being, and sustainable development,
and
 demonstrate the virtues of prudence and frugality towards the environment.
A self-supporting college student works part-time as a service crew to be able to fund his education. He
earns PhP 2,000.00 more than what he needs to pay for monthly expenses. With this extra money, he
could have bought the expensive watch he always wante d. Thinking practically, he decided to save his
money in the bank instead.

 How will you describe this college student?

 What qualities does he possess regarding handling his money?
 How can you relate his behavior to current environmental trends?
Find out the answers in this lesson!
Learn about it!
Prudence and Frugality
In the previous example, the college student was shown to have direction and control over what he needs
versus what he wants by being prudent and frugal with his money.
Prudence is defined as the ability to have good judgment that allows avoidance of dangers and risks.
Meanwhile, frugality is the act of using money or other resources wisely and practically.

15
These virtues or values should not just be applied in a personal setting. The environment is also in critical
need of these so that it can function efficiently and productively. People have the responsibility to exercise
prudence and frugality not just within themselves, but also in taking care of the environment.

The word FRUGALITY is oftentimes used in money; a thriftiness or a quality of being economical with
money. If this term is applied in the environment, this simply means that you have to CONSERVE as well
as PROTECT the environment. And frugality coupled with the word PRUDENCE which simply means
intelligent, creates a better world in our environment. You will act, use and harness all available resources
possible in our environment conservatively and intelligently, and of course, with all due respect to the
society and human life as well.

Read more on Brainly.ph - https://brainly.ph/question/1000646#readmore

Frugality is environmentalism
Saving oneself a load of cash is somehow less daunting than striving for
environmental virtuousness, but the end result is the same.
Frugality is a popular topic on TreeHugger, not only because our readers like to save money, but
also because it connects well to the eco-friendly lifestyle we encourage. Frugality is all about
buying less, buying better, and standing up to mindless consumption. Shopping becomes a rare
and strategic event, not a hobby. While frugality stems from a desire to conserve money, it has the
enormous added benefit of helping the planet.
In an article called, “You Can’t Buy Your Way to Green,” financial independence blogger Mrs.
Frugalwoods explains how her family’s journey toward frugality has made her a more
environmentally conscious person. She writes: “I’ve always respected natural resources, been a fan
of Mother Nature, and loved the outdoors, but it wasn’t until I became a frugal weirdo that I began
living a holistically environmental life.”
She goes on to explain in detail the many ways in which trying to save money has translated directly into a
decreased carbon footprint and less waste. For example, in an effort to slash electricity and water bills, she
and her husband have cut their utility usage significantly. They dry laundry on a clothes rack year-round
and buy efficient appliances, but only when they need to be replaced:

“We test the energy consumption of our appliances with an energy use monitor. The beauty
of this gadget is that it averages energy usage over time and thus isn’t merely measuring
what the appliance utilizes in a given moment… The monitor translates this usage into
cold, hard cash –you type in how much you pay per kilowatt hour and it displays how many
dollars per month, kilowatt hours, and pounds of CO2 the device in question
consumes/emits.”
The Frugalwoods family sticks to a tight food budget, which means that very little gets wasted and
they try to grow as much as possible. Cooking from scratch helps. Clothing and furniture are
repaired whenever possible, and purchased second-hand if needed. Mrs. Frugalwoods has crossed
the “final frontier of frugality” by letting her husband cut her hair, and she has stopped dyeing it,
painting her nails, and wearing makeup on a regular basis – cost-saving efforts that result in fewer
chemicals in her body and the waste stream.
I appreciated her discussion of home heating and cooling. Similar to the Frugalwoods family, my
husband and I do not use air conditioning, preferring to open windows in the early morning and
evening, then close them to keep the coolness inside. In winter the thermostat stays at 63 F during
the day; it goes down to 53 F at night. Visitors are often cool, which sometimes takes me a while to
notice because I’m so used to wearing a sweater, warm socks, and slippers around the house.
No doubt all of these actions will sound familiar to TreeHugger readers, but it’s intriguing to look
at them through the lens of saving money. Somehow frugality makes these household practices
easier to implement. When the focus shifts away from environmental virtuousness toward saving
oneself a load of cash, it becomes less daunting to do them.
“Frugality is an environmental statement that’s far more powerful than empty words or
bumper stickers. Ultimately, environmentalism stems from acts of doing less: less
consumption, less commuting, less carbon emissions, less wastefulness, less carelessness.”
I would add that embracing frugality also protects oneself from being duped by the notion that
buying 'green' products somehow makes it OK to continue consuming at the same rate. As climate
scientist Peter Kalmus writes in his soon-to-be-published book, Being the Change:
"Buying green stuff promotes the status quo consumer mindset. Green allows us to feel like
we're responding to our predicament without needing to change. Green precludes
meaningful action, and in this way does more harm than good."

Learn about it!

Disorders in the Environment and Aesthetic Organization
Aesthetics, also spelled esthetics, the philosophical study of beauty and taste. It is
closely related to the philosophy of art, which is concerned with the nature of art and
the concepts in terms of which individual works of art are interpreted and evaluated.
To provide more than a general definition of the subject matter of aesthetics is
immensely difficult. Indeed, it could be said that self-definition has been the major task
of modern aesthetics. We are acquainted with an interesting and puzzling realm of
experience: the realm of the beautiful, the ugly, the sublime, and the elegant; of
taste, criticism, and fine art; and of contemplation, sensuous enjoyment, and charm. In
all these phenomena we believe that similar principles are operative and that similar
interests are engaged. If we are mistaken in this impression, we will have to dismiss
such ideas as beauty and taste as having only peripheral philosophical interest.
Alternatively, if our impression is correct and philosophy corroborates it, we will have
discovered the basis for a philosophical aesthetics.

17
Noticing disorder in the environment is relatively straightforward. People are required to employ observation
to determine whether an environment is organized or not.
However, there may be signs that may easily point to environmental disorganization, such as:
 Lack of resources: The environment is both a producer and consumer for all species. The
unavailability of a particular local byproduct may imply excessive disturbance that is not at par with
its reproduction.
 Things are not in place: The environment exhibits a sense of chaos or confusion. It does not
create a place of comfort and warmth.
In times of disorganization, it is essential to fix aesthetics to make the environment more conducive. Such
ways include re-potting and rearranging plants or using a variety of flowers. By the end of the day, it is
important to remember that there is no specific way of improving the environment aesthetically, and that it
will all come down to your perception of what is aesthetically acceptable.
Learn about it!
The Importance of Caring for the Environment
The environment contributes to health and well-being.
 Some plants have medicinal properties that may aid in the removal of pathogens in the body.
 Fruits and vegetables are good sources of numerous vitamins and minerals.
 The aesthetic properties of the environment make an excellent venue for various exercises and
activities.
The environment contributes to sustainable development.
 The environment is the primary source of raw resources used to make all types of food and
materials.
 With appropriate techniques, the environment can reproduce and regenerate resources that have
been harvested or lost.
 The environment produces oxygen and carbon dioxide which are necessary factors in the
continuation of life systems.

Learn about it!

Demonstrating Prudence and Frugality Towards the Environment
With new forms of technological advances that make life easier, the seemingly simple task of
demonstrating prudence and frugality towards the environment becomes a challenge. One must realize that
the processes involved in the environment are not occurring as fast as modern technologies do. Looking
deeper, exercising prudence and frugality towards the environment is both a personal and collective
responsibility.
Below are some examples:
 cooking and consuming food with little to no leftovers
 planting trees in replacement of cut-down ones
 employing waste segregation strategies in the community and recycling reusable materials
Explore!
It is no surprise to know that the environment is nearing destruction because of human acts that are not
sustainable. As evidenced by climate change and natural disasters, the environment is in great need of
reconstruction and rehabilitation. As such, many environmental groups were formed to channel the values
of prudence and frugality in their platforms. Even simple acts such as the “no plastic policy” is implemented
across many areas to help reduce wastes and chemicals that may harm the environment.
In your perspective, what other ways may be done to exercise prudence and frugality towards the
environment?
Try it!
Observe prudence and frugality in the environment by using your community as an example. Go around
your area and look for activities, posters, or laws that promote prudence and frugality. You may also consult
with your local government unit regarding any government-organized program that addresses your
concern. Additionally, you may take online tests that can determine your carbon footprint or your attitude
towards positive environmental change.
What do you think?
Is the value of prudence different from frugality? What makes them different? What makes them the same?
Tips
 The values of prudence and frugality can be used in any setting or situation. It is not limited to
environmental causes.
 It is important to note that an environment may be any external setting that people live in. An
environment is not limited to plants and animals, and may be found in a rural or urban setting.

Keypoints
 Prudence is the ability to have good judgment that allows avoidance of dangers and risks.
 Frugality is the act of using money or other resources wisely and practically.
 Disorder in the environment may be evidenced by lack of resources or displacement of things.
 It is important to care for the environment because it promotes health, well-being, and sustainable
development.
 An environment may be any external setting that people live in.

Freedom of Choice and its Consequences

Objectives
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:
 define freedom and explain the freedom of the human person,
 prove that all actions and choices have consequences,
 evaluate and exercise prudence in choice,
 realize that some things are given up while others are obtained in making choices, and
 show situations that demonstrate freedom of choice and the consequences of their choices.
Imagine you won a big contest, and you were asked to choose just one of the following prizes:
A. a luxury car with a non-transferable contract
B. a 4-year college educational scholarship at any school in the Philippines
C. a 1-month all-expense paid trip to three European countries
 Which prize will you choose?
 What factors made you come up with that decision?
Find out the answers in this lesson!
Learn about it!
In the previous example, you were asked to choose just one prize. Seemingly, all of them are great prizes.
However, if you will weigh the pros and cons of each, you will easily realize that one may be better than the
other. For example, if you choose the luxury car, the high cost of maintenance fees and gasoline may
burden you. The European trip would also be fun, but seems too impractical. A 4-year scholarship would
have been the best choice because it is long-term and useful.
In choosing which prize to get, you have already exercised your freedom to make decisions. However, it is
important to realize that, as shown in the example, the choices you make have corresponding
consequences.
The power or right to act, speak, or think as you want without hindrance or restraint is called freedom.
Learn about it!
Defining Freedom of Choice and its Limits
The ability to exercise one's freedom in any manner is called freedom of choice. By law, all human beings
are entitled to make decisions for themselves in whatever way they choose to.
 The only exception to this rule is when an absolute choice harms or delimits the self and others.
 It can be compared to a cause and effect relationship where a decision concludes with a
corresponding effect on the person or the environment.
 Freedom of choice also includes the way one acts towards another. All forms of action, therefore,
are brought about by a person's decision to accomplish them.
 All decisions, big or small, have corresponding consequences which may be good or bad.

19
Learn about it!
Demonstrating Prudence in All Choices
Prudence is an act of making good judgment that allows a person to avoid risks. It is important to be
prudent at all times to prevent any harm that a decision may cause.
In making a decision, it is critical to determine the adverse effects beforehand to avoid greater risks.
Exercising prudence in choice implies that one has already criticized all available options, and a well-
thought-of choice has been made.
How will you demonstrate prudence in the following scenarios?
 You do not have many friends in school, but one fraternity—known for their hazardous activities—is
recruiting you to be part of their brotherhood.
 A trusted colleague is inviting you to invest in her restaurant business.

Learn about it!

The Consequences of Making Choices
Because making choices involves various options, it should be realized from the beginning that some
things will eventually be given up in exchange for another. Before coming up with a final decision, it is
important to first weigh the contributions and consequences that may arise upon choosing a certain option.
Nevertheless, all choices result in a particular effect that you, as a decision maker, should be ready to face.
What consequences may arise from the following scenarios?
 deciding not to attend the institutional orientation at the start of the school year
 playing online games instead of studying for a difficult exam
 making fun of your classmate and being caught by the teacher
While exercising the freedom to choose is attainable by all people, it should always be realized that
decision-making is a linear and complex task that requires accountability and commitment.
Explore!
As evidenced by social media, people’s actions are more reflected in public nowadays. Every time you log-
in to your account, it will not be a surprise to see posts about the wrongdoings of people in various
environments.
You may have seen videos of students bullying a classmate, adults being unprofessionally mean to their
workmates, or parents abusing their children. In these situations, the people doing unacceptable acts were
judged and criticized by netizens. Some have even become so popular that they cannot go out in public
because they can easily be recognized and mobbed. It is clear that people experiencing these situations
have not made the right choices regarding their actions.
In your perspective, how could have these people handled the situations better?
Try it!
Create a list of opportunities that you currently have. Make an organized table that will allow you to plot
your options and weigh each one’s pros and cons in your life. Using your learnings in this lesson, critically
analyze each opportunity you may have, and then decide which choice is best for you. Make sure to
exercise prudence in making your decision.
What do you think?
Can your freedom of choice, at some point or instance in your life, be legally removed from you? Why?
Why not?

Tips
 Apart from the freedom to choose, it is also relevant to know that freedom does not stop at making a
choice. There are also several areas where freedom may be exercised (e.g. free speech or freedom
of information).
 Religious and cultural practices may limit one's freedom of choice. Even though a person is given
the right by the state to choose for himself, he may not be able to do so because of the religion or
culture that he belongs to (e.g. arranged marriage).

Keypoints
 Freedom is the power or right to act, speak, or think as one wants without hindrance or restraint.
 The ability to exercise one’s freedom in any manner is called freedom of choice.
 The freedom to choose stops when there is risk or harm that may be inflicted on the self or other
people.
 Prudence is an act of making a good judgment that allows a person to avoid risks.
 All forms of action are brought about by a person’s decision to accomplish them.
 Religious and cultural practices may limit one’s freedom of choice.

Intersubjectivity
Objectives
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:
 define and explain the meaning and the process of intersubjectivity,
 discuss the application and importance of intersubjectivity to society,
 prove that authentic dialogue means accepting others even if they are different from you, and
  demonstrate an appreciation for the talents of persons with disabilities and those from the
underprivileged sectors of society.
Whenever an unfortunate event occurs, you feel sad or anxious, but how do you assure yourself that those
feelings are real?
Find out the answer in this lesson!
Learn about it!
In looking at the example, it is easy to say that interacting with others can confirm the validity of emotions a
person may have towards the environment. In this interaction, intersubjectivity takes place.
The Meaning and Process of Intersubjectivity
Each person has a subjective experience of the world. However, because of this subjective experience,
one cannot know which events occur in reality or which are products of self-perception.
Social interactions among individuals through comparison, agreement, and confirmation of each others'
perceptions make it easier to determine real events occurring in society. This concept is
called intersubjectivity−−the shared perception of reality between or among two or more individuals.
A main principle of intersubjectivity is communarization, a social process wherein the community of other
people are seen as embedded within the self. This process initially occurs with the idea that other
individuals are extensions of the self and serve as the “alter-ego” of a person’s being. The self and others
are therefore seen as a pair that shares each other’s lived experiences. This is much like the concept of
empathy or “being in the shoes” of others.

Learn about it!

The Application of Intersubjectivity to Society
Because intersubjectivity looks at others as embedded within the self, it is safe to say that this concept also
promotes a view that all people are equal. This would imply that people from other sectors of society, such
as those who have physical disabilities or socioeconomic challenges, are seen as individuals with the same
potential and talents as anybody else.
Because intersubjectivity is unbiased, everyone has the power to understand relationships and interactions
occurring within society with little regard to social or physical deficiencies. In effect, people who are
marginalized may still be seen as significant contributors to society through their talents, skills, and
capabilities.
Below are some authentic examples of disadvantaged individuals who have significantly contributed to
society:
 Stephen Hawking is a physicist and cosmologist who, despite his rare medical condition
called amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), made significant contributions to contemporary studies of
relativity and quantum physics.
 As a child, Oprah Winfrey experienced living in a poor household and was sexually abused. Despite
this, she motivated herself to succeed and did so by being one of the richest women alive today.

Learn about it!

The Use of Authentic Dialogue
Authentic dialogue is a form of interpersonal communication wherein individuals acknowledge that they
are part of a greater whole and that they resonate with others within the whole. This occurs when
individuals learn to set aside their personal biases and begin seeing themselves in others through
communarization. In this sense, other people, including the marginalized sector, are seen as functional
parts of a whole. No biases or preferences are exemplified during the dialogue because an individual has
learned to perceive and communicate with others with a sense of community and oneness.
Examples:
 accepting your classmates’ opinion on government services because his experience with
transacting with government employees is different from yours
 overlooking the fact that your boss yelled at you since you understand that he only did so out of
concern over an urgent matter

Learn about it!

The Importance of Intersubjectivity
Intersubjectivity has significant contributions to society and relationships, including the following:
 It validates real and authentic subjective experiences.
 It facilitates interaction among individuals.
 It enables individuals to look at others equally, regardless of any physical or socio-demographic
factor.
 It promotes a sense of community and unity among individuals.
 It emphasizes that anyone can contribute to society.

Explore!

21
Many people all over the world have attested to the idea that spiritual entities, such as the ghost of a
departed loved one, are just lurking the earth with living human beings. Some people, however, are
hesitant to believe this phenomenon because there is still not enough proof that the supernatural exists.
In your perception, can the concept of intersubjectivity be used to confirm the validity of this phenomenon?
Try it!
Look around you and list down your observations. Have a friend do the same thing on the same
environment. Compare your observations once both of you are finished. Identify common observations you
had and discuss any dissimilar remarks you have each made.
What do you think?
Are intersubjective concepts always considered real occurrences? Why? Why not?

Tips
 Intersubjectivity is not a process, but rather a concept. The process incorporated within the concept
is communarization.
 Authentic dialogue is a technique that requires, at least, two people in a conversation with each
other. This is a variety of a simple dialogue.

Keypoints
 Intersubjectivity is a concept where social interactions among individuals through comparison,
agreement, and confirmation of each other's perceptions make it easier to determine real events
occurring in society.
 Communarization is a social process wherein the community of other people are seen as
embedded within the self.
 An authentic dialogue is a form of interpersonal communication wherein individuals acknowledge
that they are part of a greater whole and that they resonate with others within the whole.
 Intersubjectivity is important because it validates authentic subjective experiences, facilitates
interactions, and promotes a sense of unity and community among individuals.

Human Relationships and Their Social Context

Learn about it!

At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:

 recognize how individuals form societies and how societies transform individuals,
 explain how social systems transform human relations, and
 evaluate how social systems change human relationships and how societies process individual
people.
You have spent your whole life living in the Philippines. However, your parents told you that you will be
migrating to the United Kingdom next year and that you will be staying there for good.

 Do you think that you will change as a person once you live somewhere else?
 What can influence you to change your beliefs and attitudes?
Find out the answers in this lesson!
Learn about it!
People and society have a reciprocal and complementary relationship. People’s personalities and culture
depend upon the processes and events occurring in society. Similarly, society takes its changes from how
people act, perceive, and shape it.
Living in another community, as shown by the previous example, constitutes an entirely different social
environment that may be different from one's beliefs and culture. Immersing oneself in a new society,
therefore, exhibits a change in both the community and the person.
Social Influence and Transformation
Individuals are the building blocks of society. They take on various social roles to ensure the smooth flow of
social processes that regularly occur within the community. However, it is the collective action of individuals
that mainly influence how society is formed and structured.
Example:
If many people of one community perceive catcalling as offensive and derogatory, then society will have an
unwritten norm that such an act is unacceptable. With the repetition of this process, a community can form
and develop its culture and character.
Learn about it!
Social Influence and Transformation
Reciprocally, society also transforms individuals into social and cultural beings. As a part of society,
individuals experience enculturation or the process by which people acquire the knowledge, skills,
attitudes, and culture embedded in society. These social and cultural qualities vary across cultures since
they are also created and influenced by human action. As such, you may notice that different communities
have unique cultures, traditions, and norms.
Examples:
  The openness of Thai people to gender differences has made their country diverse in terms of
social partnerships and preferences.
 In the Philippines, making slurping sounds while eating noodles is a sign of disrespect. However, in
Japan, doing the same act is a positive way of expressing satisfaction with the food.

Learn about it!

Social Systems and Their Influence on Human Relations
A social system is the structure of society consisting of individuals who interact and relate in a shared
cultural and symbolic environment. As such, individuals serve as the backbone of the larger social system
and are moderated and formed by social institutions such as the family, education, religion, economy,
and government.
In this sense, each person belonging to a society plays a social role that is at par with social norms and
institutions. An individual's role may encompass any single organization at once that he is altogether a
student, son, layperson, and playmate. It is with these roles that appropriate human behavior and
relationships are defined and acted out in society. The social system, therefore, dictates through norms and
institutions how an individual can relate and interact with others.
In your perspective, how would the following events influence human relations?
 The mode of governance shifted from democracy to dictatorship.
 Only a single religion was legally allowed to be practiced in the country.

Learn about it!

The Importance of Human Relations in Society
Human relations make up patterned interactive relationships which are the most powerful unit of the social
system. Participation in these interactions establishes an individual's social role and status in forming the
collective, intricate characteristics of society. Without human relations, institutions and the system itself
would cease to exist.
Explore!
The Philippines takes its unique social characteristics from three colonial influences that vastly shaped local
society and culture. Even until today, evidences of Spanish, American, and Japanese colonialism flourish in
every day Filipino living. For instance, many Filipino surnames were derived from Spanish origins. Filipinos
are also relatively good English speakers in comparison with other Southeast Asian nationalities. What
other influences have our past left us? How do these forces shape our culture and society?
Try it!
With a friend, write down characteristics that make each of you a social and human person. You may
include your perceived roles in society as well as the social institutions you belong to. From these, identify
your contributions to society and how society affects you. Compare your results and try to come up with a
common pattern or theme with what both of you shared. In this way, you will further understand how an
individual influences society and vice versa through social interactions.
What do you think?
What will happen to society when its social structure becomes damaged or faulty? What circumstances
may cause this event to occur?

Tips
 It is important to understand that the process of enculturation is different from acculturation. While
the first deals with acquiring one's culture, beliefs, and norms, the latter focuses on obtaining the
same constructs from another society.
 Social constructs, belief systems, interactions, culture, and structure vary across countries. This is
the reason why countries are different from each other despite some similar cultural traditions and
beliefs.

Keypoints
 Individuals are the building blocks of society. They take on various social roles to ensure the
smooth flow of social processes that regularly occur within the community.
 Enculturation is the process by which people acquire the knowledge, skills, attitudes, and culture
embedded in their society.
 A social system is the structure of society consisting of individuals who interact and relate in a
shared cultural and symbolic environment.
 Social institutions include religion, education, government, economy, and family.

23
  Human relations make up patterned interactive relationships which are the most important unit of
the social system.

Different Forms of Societies and Individuals

Objectives
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:
 compare different types or forms of societies and individuals, and
 discuss the interaction between individuals and societies in the social system.
In the Philippines, life in the province is certainly different from life in the city. While structures, technology,
and transportation continue to boom in the cities, provinces remain to be less industrialized, but rich in local
produce and resources. As such, individuals who grew up in cities develop as persons differently from
those born in the provinces.
How do these differing societies influence individuals?
Find out the answer in this lesson!
Learn about it!
Socioeconomic, technological, and environmental differences in societies may dictate cultural differences
among individuals. Because different types of societies exist, it is also expected that there are various
societal differences among individuals as well.
Individuals and Societal Transformations
Individuals are social animals who need society for food, protection, education, and other forms of
support. Meanwhile, a society is a collection of individuals shaped by social relations and interactions. As
such, individuals and society need each other to function properly. They have a complementary relationship
that is improved and influenced by culture and social institutions. In effect, societies and individuals all
around the world develop varying cultures and practices.

Examples:
 Many Filipino children still live with their parents even during adulthood.
 Paris is known as the center of fashion due to numerous designers that focused their works in the
city.

Learn about it!

Types of Societies and Individuals
In learning about types of societies, it is important to know that classifications were made by socioeconomic
conditions and availability of resources. Nevertheless, these classifications describe all currently existing
models of societies.
Types of Societies
Agrarian (Agricultural)

 It focuses on the production of crops and raising of farm animals.

 Women share the same type and mode of labor.
 It utilizes technological advances to cultivate crops.
Industrial (Modern Industrial)
 It introduced fuel-driven machinery in goods production.
 Factories are seen as the center of work.
 Transportation is more developed and advanced than agricultural societies.
Virtual (Post-Industrial)
 Professional services are offered in exchange for money.
 Technology is used in every aspect of life and work
 It focuses on the production and selling of information.
Apart from these, some more types of societies include pastoral, hunting and gathering, and feudal.
However, these models no longer exist at present.
Learn about it!
Types of Individuals in Society
The types of individuals in a society are dictated by socioeconomic conditions and capability. Each
individual belongs to a certain social class or group of people with similar levels of wealth and status.
Lower Class
 experiences poverty, homelessness, and unemployment
 relatively higher in number in developing countries
Working Class
 constitutes blue-collared workers (e.g. waiter, driver, salesperson)
 experiences low career opportunities and minimal wage
Middle Class
 consists of white-collared workers (e.g. doctor, lawyer, engineer)
 able to survive life with relatively minimal material difficulties
 typically provides professional services as sources of income
Upper Class
 consists of individuals born into aristocratic families
  usually involves families with large businesses and ventures

Learn about it!

Different Individuals and Societies in the Social System
The social system denotes the whole society that is comprised of individuals and institutions interacting
within the same structure. Despite differences in classifications, all types of individuals and social models
co-exist and interact within the social system. Different combinations between individuals and societal
models may occur within the system. As such, culture is developed through simultaneous societal
interactions.
Examples:
 Individuals from the upper class may primarily live in agricultural settings due to the nature of their
family business (e.g. haciendero).
 Provinces near the Metro have an industrialized society and is primarily composed of middle class
workers.

Explore!
As society continuously rebuilt itself, vast changes occurred within the last 10 years. The Philippines used
to be an industrialized society, but with the sudden availability of resources and opportunities, it was able to
shift to a post-industrial social model. Alongside this, many middle class workers emerged since new
professional positions were developed. Looking at these advancements, what societal changes do you
think will occur within the next ten years?
Try it!
Assess yourself and your society. In a sheet of paper, list down the socioeconomic characteristics of your
family, including the work of your parents, siblings, or extended family members who live with you. Next,
briefly list down the characteristics of your current environment and living conditions. Using your learning
from this lesson, try to determine which social class you and your family belong to, as well as the type of
society you live in.
What do you think?
Is it possible for a nation not to have all types of societies and individuals within the social system? Why?
Why not?

Tips
 Individuals from different social classes may interact with one another; however, interaction does
not change a person’s social class. An individual’s social group changes only when his
socioeconomic capabilities change.
 All individuals may fall under only one social class at any single point in time. Meanwhile, people
may encounter and live in different types of societies at the same time (e.g. having two houses in
different parts of the country).
 All types of societies and individuals fall under a social system. It is important to remember that a
social system goes beyond the individual and society. It also includes culture, institutions, and the
interaction among these factors.

Keypoints
 Individuals are social animals who need society for food, protection, education, and other forms of
support.
 Society is a collection of individuals shaped by social relations and interactions.
 The types of societies evident at present are agrarian, industrial, and virtual. Meanwhile, societies
such as pastoral, hunting and gathering, and feudal are not existing anymore.
 Individuals fall under any one of the four social classes,
namely: lower, working, middle, and upper.

The Meaning of Life

Objectives
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:
 explain the origin, meaning, and purpose of life,
 enumerate the goals a person wants to achieve,
 define the projects an individual intends to do in life, and
 reflect on the meaning and purpose of his or her life.
 How would you feel when a person close to you suddenly passed away?
 What would you think about your own mortality during that time?
Find out the answers in this lesson!
Learn about it!
25
Life is short and unpredictable. For many people, there is a purpose in living, and gradually going through
life allows one discover his real purpose. Still, many people are unable to understand their lives and to
make meaning out of it.
The Origin of Life
Evolutionists believe that everything in the cosmos, including life, can be explained by the interaction of
matter. They initially believed in spontaneous generation−−that living things can arise from non-living
materials; for example, worms, flies, or even mice could develop from grain, meat, or other materials. At
present, scientists were already able to develop more complex, valid, and organized theories on the origin
of life.
Creationists, on the other hand, believe that life came from a supreme being or a god. They use
scriptures, rather than scientific evidences, as proof of their belief. An example of this would be the story of
creation in the Bible.

Learn about it!

The Significance and Meaning of Life
Some people nowadays often believe that life has no meaning or significance because it is either (1)
brought about by a god, or (2) developed by modern science. In both scenarios, life would be certainly
meaningless if the person does not believe in a god or modern science.
However, many theorists go against this belief by saying that life has meaning. Based on the theoretical
concept of meaning, theorists and philosophers specified that life must be embedded in communication,
understanding, and service. As such, the meaning of life becomes centralized in doing acts of integration,
selflessness, and love.
The meaning of life is incredibly significant because it is believed to balance the good-evil relationship
within the self. It is established as a collective defense against psychological problems like aggression and
divisiveness. People who have found meaning in their lives therefore seem happier, more approachable,
and more understanding than those who have not.
Learn about it!
The Accomplishment of Personal Goals
Discovering the meaning of life constitutes people to live life to the fullest. As such, they engage in various
activities as much as possible, and they immerse themselves with what life has to offer. Research reveals
that one out of five people are convinced that they are living their lives to the fullest and that majority of all
individuals who want to live life to its fullest are longing for excitement. These activities may be reflected in
a bucket list, a list of all goals, dreams, and achievements that one wants to attain before death.
Below are some examples of adventurous ideas that may be found in a bucket list:
 Travel all around the world.
 Build a charitable institution.
 Strengthen spiritual life.
 Obtain an undergraduate diploma.

Learn about it!

The Endpoint of Life
Physical life is given an origin, meaning, and purpose because it has an end. Physical death is a state that
all humans will encounter at the end. Many people are afraid of dying because it is the final, irreversible
state of reality that leads to another path or journey. Since people desire consciousness, memory,
personhood, and love to be experienced consciously, the unconscious state of death becomes a fearful
fate.
What concerns people more about life is that death may come unexpectedly. Some people die young.
Because of this, people tend to choose to achieve their goals as soon as possible to ensure that they do
not miss out on life before death.
Do you know the meaning and purpose of your life?
Explore!
The quality of life may play a significant role in the life experiences of people. It is said that those who have
poorer quality of lives may be expected to die relatively younger than those who can live life satisfactorily.
Despite differences in the condition of life, all people are capable of creating goals for their lives. In your
perspective, how are individuals with poorer quality of lives able to transcend their condition and reach their
career goals?
Try it!
Make a bucket list of all the goals and dreams you want to attain for your whole life. You may want to divide
your goals in terms of years before you achieve them (e.g. "These are my goals for the next five years").
Upon making them, try to fulfill as much as you can throughout your life. Be sure to make goals that are
reachable and safe for you.
What do you think?
Is the concept of “cheating death” possible? How?

Tips
 Although many people desire for adventure in living life, bucket lists may involve any activity that
may not necessarily invoke adventure.
  The ability to find meaning in life is not limited to people who have a high quality of life. All persons,
regardless of sociodemographic and personal factors, are capable of discovering the meaning of life
on their own.

Keypoints

 Evolutionists believe that everything in the cosmos, including life, can be explained in terms of the
interaction of matter.
 Creationists believe that life was brought about by a supreme being or a god.
 The meaning of life is incredibly significant because it is believed to balance the good-evil
relationship within the self. It is established as a collective defense against psychological problems
like aggression and divisiveness.
 Theorists and philosophers specified that life must be embedded
in communication, understanding, and service.
 Research shows that one out of five people are convinced that they are living their lives to the
fullest and that majority of all people who want to live life to its fullest are longing for excitement.
 A bucket list is a list of all goals, dreams, and achievements one intends to attain before death.
 Physical death is a state that all humans will encounter at the end of conscious life. Many people
are afraid of dying because it is the final, irreversible state of reality that leads to another path or
journey.

What is Philosophy?
Philosophy is the systematic and critical study of fundamental questions that arise both in everyday life and
through the practice of other disciplines. Some of these questions concern the nature of reality: Is there an
external world? What is the relationship between the physical and the mental? Does God exist? Others concern
our nature as rational, purposive, and social beings: Do we act freely? Where do our moral obligations come
from? How do we construct just political states? Others concern the nature and extent of our knowledge: What is
it to know something rather than merely believe it? Does all of our knowledge come from sensory experience?
Are there limits to our knowledge? And still others concern the foundations and implications of other disciplines:
What is a scientific explanation? What sort of knowledge of the world does science provide? Do scientific
theories, such as evolutionary theory, or quantum mechanics, compel us to modify our basic philosophical
understanding of, and approach to, reality? What makes an object a work of art? Are aesthetic value judgments
objective? And so on.

The aim in Philosophy is not to master a body of facts, so much as think clearly and sharply through any set of
facts. Towards that end, philosophy students are trained to read critically, analyze and assess arguments, discern
hidden assumptions, construct logically tight arguments, and express themselves clearly and precisely in both
speech and writing.

Here are descriptions of some of the main areas of philosophy:

27
Epistemology

Epistemology studies questions about knowledge and rational belief. Traditional questions include the
following: How can we know that the ordinary physical objects around us are real (as opposed to dreamed, or
hallucinated, as in the Matrix)? What are the factors that determine whether a belief is rational or irrational?
What is the difference between knowing something and just believing it? (Part of the answer is that you can have
false beliefs, but you can only know things that are true. But that’s not the whole answer—after all, you might
believe something true on the basis of a lucky guess, and that wouldn’t be knowledge!) Some other questions
that have recently been the subject of lively debate in epistemology include: Can two people with exactly the
same evidence be completely rational in holding opposite beliefs? Does whether I know something depend on
how much practical risk I would face if I believed falsely? Can I rationally maintain confident beliefs about
matters on which I know that others, who are seemingly every bit as intelligent, well-informed, unbiased and
diligent as I am, have come to opposite conclusions?

Metaphysics

Metaphysics is the study of what the world is like—or (some would say) what reality consists in. Metaphysical
questions can take several forms. They can be questions about what exists (questions of ontology); they can be
questions what is fundamental (as opposed to derivative); and they can be questions about what is an objective
feature of the world (as opposed to a mere consequence the way in which creatures like us happen to interact
with that world). Questions that are central to the study of metaphysics include questions about the nature of
objects, persons, time, space, causation, laws of nature, and modality. The rigorous study of these questions has
often led metaphysicians to make surprising claims. Plato thought that alongside the observable, concrete world
there was a realm of eternal, unchanging abstract entities like Goodness, Beauty, and Justice. Gottfried Wilhelm
Leibniz claimed that the world was composed of tiny indivisible souls, called monads. Even today contemporary
metaphysicians have been known to doubt the existence of ordinary objects, to deny the possibility of free will,
and to argue that our world is just one of a plurality of worlds.

Logic

Logic is the study of the validity of patterns of inference. Logic is not a branch of psychology: It does not concern
how people actually reason or which kinds of reasoning they find intuitively compelling. Rather, logic concerns
the question of when a claim is conclusively supported by other claims. For instance, the inference from the
claims “it is raining” and “if it is raining then the streets are wet” to the claim “the streets are wet” is logically
valid – the premises conclusively support the conclusion. The validity of this specific inference, and of other
inferences of the same form, is tied to the nature of the concept “if … then”. More generally, the notion of logical
validity is closely connected to the nature of concepts such as “and”, “or”, “not”, “if … then”, “all”, and “some”. In
studying the notion of logical validity, logicians have developed symbolic languages. These enable us to state
claims clearly and precisely, and to investigate the exact structure of an argument. These languages have turned
out to be useful within philosophy and other disciplines, including mathematics and computer science. Some of
the questions about logic studied by members of the philosophy department include: Given that logic is not an
empirical science, how can we have knowledge of basic logical truths? What is the connection between logic and
rationality? Can mathematics be reduced to logic? Should we revise logic to accommodate vague or imprecise
language? Should we revise logic to answer the liar paradox and other paradoxes concerning truth?

Political Philosophy

Political philosophy is the philosophical study of concepts and values associated with political matters. For one
example, is there any moral obligation to do what the law says just because the law says so, and if so on what
grounds? Many have said we consent to obey. Did you consent to obey the laws? Can one consent without
realizing it? Are there other grounds for an obligation to obey the law? Another central question is what would
count as a just distribution of all the wealth and opportunity that is made possible by living in a political
community? Is inequality in wealth or income unjust? Much existing economic inequality is a result of different
talents, different childhood opportunities, different gender, or just different geographical location. What might
justify inequalities that are owed simply to bad luck? Some say that inequality can provide incentives to produce
or innovate more, which might benefit everyone. Others say that many goods belong to individuals before the law
enters in, and that people may exchange them as they please even if this results in some having more than
others. So (a third question), what does it mean for something to be yours, and what makes it yours?

Philosophy of Language

The Philosophy of Language is devoted to the study of questions concerned with meaning and communication.
Such questions range from ones that interact closely with linguistic theory to questions that are more akin to
those raised in the study of literature. Very large questions include: What is linguistic meaning? How is the
meaning of linguistic performances similar to and different from the meanings of, say, gestures or signals? What
is the relationship between language and thought? Is thought more fundamental than language? Or is there
some sense in which only creatures that can speak can think? To what extent does the social environment affect
the meaning and use of language? Other questions focus on the communicative aspect of language, such as:
What is it to understand what someone else has said? What is it to assert something? How is assertion related to
knowledge and belief? And how is it that we can gain knowledge from others through language? Yet other
questions focus on specific features of the langauges we speak, for example: What is it a name to be a name of a
particular thing? What's the relationship between the meanings of words and the meanings of sentences? Is
there an important difference between literal and figurative uses of language? What is metaphor? And how does
it work?

Moral Philosophy

Ethics is the study of what we ought to do and what sorts of people we

ought to be. Ethicists theorize about what makes acts right and wrong and what
makes outcomes good and bad, and also about which motivations and
traits of character we should admire and cultivate. Some other questions that ethicists try to answer are closely
related to the central ones. They include: What does it mean to act freely? Under what conditions are we
responsible for our good and bad acts? Are moral claims true and false, like ordinary descriptive
claims about our world, and if they are what makes them so?

Aesthetics

[forthcoming]

History of Philosophy

The History of Philosophy plays a special role in the study of philosophy. Like every other intellectual discipline,
philosophy has of course a history. However, in the case of philosophy an understanding of its history - from its
ancient and medieval beginnings through the early modern period (the 17th and 18th centuries) and into more
recent times - forms a vital part of the very enterprise of philosophy, whether in metaphysics and epistemology
or in ethics, aesthetics, and political philosophy. To study the great philosophical works of the past is to learn
about the origins and presuppositions of many of the problems that occupy philosophy today. It is also to
29
discover and to come to appreciate different ways of dealing with these problems, different conceptions of what
the fundamental problems of philosophy are, and indeed different ways of doing philosophy altogether. And it is
also the study of works—from Plato and Aristotle, through Kant and Mill and more recent writers—that have
shaped much of Western culture far beyond academic philosophy. Many of the most creative philosophers
working today have also written on various topics in the history of philosophy and have found their inspiration in
great figures of the past.

Why Study Philosophy?

This question may be understood in two ways: Why would one engage in the particular intellectual activities that
constitute philosophical inquiry? And how might the study of philosophy affect my future career prospects?

 Philosophy as intellectual activity may have a number of motivations:

 Intellectual curiosity: philosophy is essentially a reflective-critical inquiry motivated by a sense of
intellectual “wonder.” What is the world like? Why is it this way, rather than another? Who am I? Why am I
here?
 Interest in cultural and intellectual history: as a discipline, philosophy pays a great deal of attention to its
history, and to the broader cultural and intellectual context in which this history unfolds.
 Sharpening thinking skills: the study of philosophy is especially well suited to the development of a variety of
intellectual skills involved in the analysis of concepts, the critique of ideas, the conduct of sound reasoning
and argumentation; it is important to emphasize that philosophical inquiry also fosters intellectual creativity
(developing new concepts, or new approaches to problems, identifying new problems, and so on).
 Sharpening writing skills: the writing of philosophy is especially rigorous insofar as it demands a high level of
clarity, precision, and organization.
 Philosophy might affect future career prospects in a number of ways:
 Some philosophy concentrators go on to graduate school to earn a PhD in philosophy. Most of those become
professors of philosophy, which means that their professional lives are devoted to research and teaching in
philosophy.
 A philosophy concentration is not limiting: in fact, the skills it develops and sharpens are transferable to a
wide variety of professional activities. Obvious examples include the application of reasoning and
argumentation skills to the practice of law; less obvious examples include the application of analytical and
critical skills to journalism, investment banking, writing, publishing, and so on; even less obvious examples
include putting one’s philosophical education to work in business entrepeneurship, political and social
activism, and even creative arts.