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Elements in Mathematics

The document defines and explains various mathematical elements and concepts including logarithms, complex numbers, sequences and series, trigonometric functions, matrices, and theorems related to triangles. Key elements covered are logarithms, modulus and argument of complex numbers, Vieta's formulas, Fibonacci sequence, Lucas sequence, and theorems regarding cevians and triangles.

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Armenion Mark Allen
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48 views

Elements in Mathematics

The document defines and explains various mathematical elements and concepts including logarithms, complex numbers, sequences and series, trigonometric functions, matrices, and theorems related to triangles. Key elements covered are logarithms, modulus and argument of complex numbers, Vieta's formulas, Fibonacci sequence, Lucas sequence, and theorems regarding cevians and triangles.

Uploaded by

Armenion Mark Allen
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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ELEMENTS IN MATHEMATICS

LOGARITHM - is the power or exponent to which the base must be raised in order
to produce the number.

 BRIGGSIAN LOGARITHM – a type of logarithm named after Henry


Briggs, a 17th century British mathematician. It is more commonly
known as “COMMON LOGARITHM”. Sometimes it is called as “ decadic
logarithm ” because this is a logarithm in base 10.
 NAPERIAN LOGARITHM – more commonly known as “NATURAL LOGARITHM”
where the base is the number e. Named after the Scottish
mathematician John Napier of Merchistoun.

MODULUS AND ARGUMENT OF A COMPLEX NUMBER

 MODULUS – also called as the absolute value of a complex number


 ARGUMENT – is the angle subtended by a complex number from a
complex plane or Argand plane read counter-clockwise with respect
to the positive horizontal axis.

VIETA'S FORMULAS, otherwise called VIÈTE'S LAWS, are a set of equations


relating the roots and the coefficients of polynomials. This were discovered
by the French mathematician FRANÇOIS VIÈTE

SEQUENCE AND SERIES

 SEQUENCE – also known as PROGRESSION. These are ordered sets of


quantities that are in one-to-one correspondence with the set of
positive integers and are governed by a certain condition.
 SERIES – is an expression which is an INDICATED SUM of the terms
of a given sequence.

ARITHMETIC SEQUENCE - A sequence in which the difference between each term is


constant wherein that constant is called the “common difference” (d).

ARITHMETIC MEAN – most commonly known as “AVERAGE”. It is the average of n


given numbers. Let us denote it as A

HARMONIC SEQUENCE - A sequence whose reciprocals of the terms form an


arithmetic sequence.
HARMONIC MEAN – is the RECIPROCAL OF THE AVERAGE OF THE RECIPROCALS of two or
more numbers.

GEOMETRIC SEQUENCE - A sequence in which any term after the first term is the
product of the preceding term and a constant number. The constant number is
called the “common ratio” usually denoted by r.
GEOMETRIC MEAN – also known as “MEAN PROPORTION”. It is the nth root of the
product of n numbers.

FIBONACCI SEQUENCE – a sequence of integers starting from 1 wherein the next


term is equal to the sum of the two terms immediately preceding it.
BINET’S FORMULA, formulated by the French mathematician Jacques Philippe
Marie Binet was used to determine the nth Fibonacci number by a closed form
formula.
𝑎𝑛 −𝑏 𝑛
𝐹= ; where a and b are the two roots of the quadratic equation
𝑎−𝑏

𝑥2 − 𝑥 − 1 = 0
𝑛 𝑛
1+√5 1−√5
( ) −( )
2 2
So that; 𝐹 =
√5

LUCAS SEQUENCE - is a particular generalization of the Fibonacci numbers and


Lucas numbers. Lucas sequences are named after French mathematician Edouard
Lucas.

LUCAS NUMBERS are an integer sequence named after the mathematician François
Édouard Anatole Lucas (1842–1891), who studied both that sequence and the
closely related Fibonacci numbers (both are Lucas sequences). Like the
Fibonacci numbers, each Lucas number is defined to be the sum of its two
immediate previous terms, i.e. it is a Fibonacci integer sequence.
Consequently, the ratio between two consecutive Lucas numbers converges to
the golden ratio.

The sequence of Lucas numbers begins:


“2, 1, 3, 4, 7, 11, 18, 29, 47, 76, 123, ...”
𝑛 𝑛
1+√5 1−√5
The nth Lucas number 𝐿 = ( ) +( )
2 2

Example :

1. What is the 14th Lucas number?


14 14
1 + √5 1 − √5
𝐿14 = ( ) +( ) = 𝟖𝟒𝟑
2 2

TELESCOPING TECHNIQUE - this method is very powerful in obtaining a closed-


form formula for a sum with great extent (or sometimes infinite) number of
terms. This technique is also called “collapsing technique” in which the main
process lies on collapsing the terms between the first and the last terms of
the sum.
ARITHMETIC TRIANGLE – now generally known as PASCAL’S TRIANGLE. It is an
infinite numerical table in “triangular form” where the nth row of the
triangle lists the successive coefficients in the binomial expansion of
(𝑥 + 𝑦)𝑛
DIOPHANTINE EQUATIONS – system of equation(s) wherein the number of unknowns
is not equal to the number of available equations.

LAGRANGE’S INTERPOLATION - A general method for finding the explicit


polynomial equation of any degree if we are given set of points that satisfy
the polynomial equation. It was formulated by Joseph Louis Lagrange.

GAUSS-JORDAN METHOD – is a method for solving the values of the unknowns in


simultaneous linear equations by the use of matrix elementary row operations.
This method was named after mathematicians Carl Friedrich Gauss and Camille
Jordan

ANCIENT TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

1. VERSINE - The versed sine, also called the versine and, in Latin, the
sinus versus ("flipped sine") or the sagitta ("arrow"), is a trigonometric
function versin(θ) (sometimes further abbreviated "vers"). The versine
function is computed using the formula:

𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒆𝜽 = 𝟏 − 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽
2. COVERSINE - The coversine, denoted cvs(x), of an angle is defined as one
minus the sine of the angle. Very few applications of this function exist,
and it is generally only used to provide a co-function for the versine. The
coversine function is computed as

𝒄𝒐𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒆𝜽 = 𝟏 − 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽
3. EXSECANT - The exsecant, also abbreviated exsec, is a trigonometric
function defined in terms of the secant function sec(θ):
𝟏 − 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽
𝒆𝒙𝒔𝒆𝒄𝜽 =
𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽
4. EXCOSECANT - A related function is the excosecant (excsc), the exsecant of
the complementary angle

𝒆𝒙𝒄𝒔𝒄𝜽 = 𝒄𝒔𝒄𝜽 − 𝟏
5. HAVERSINE - The haversed sine or haversine (half the versed sine), most
famous from the haversine formula used historically in navigation.
𝟏 − 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽
𝒉𝒂𝒗𝜽 =
𝟐
6. HACOVERSINE - The hacoversed sine (half the coversed sine, also called the
hacoversine, cohaversine or havercosine.
𝟏 − 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽
𝒄𝒐𝒉𝒂𝒗𝜽 =
𝟐
CEVIAN – a line segment which connects one vertex to the opposite side (or
its extension) of the triangle.

Generally speaking, the length of a cevian is determined using STEWART’S


THEOREM.

On this handout, we will tackle the three most popular and special types of
cevian. These are the ALTITUDE, MEDIAN and the ANGLE BISECTOR.

Altitude – also known as height. It is a cevian drawn from one vertex


perpendicular to the opposite side of the triangle. The three altitudes of a
triangle meet at a common point called ORTHOCENTER
Median – is a cevian drawn from one vertex to the midpoint of the opposite
side of a triangle. The three medians of a triangle meet at a point called
CENTROID

Angle Bisector – is a cevian drawn from one vertex bisecting the vertex angle
to the opposite side of the triangle. The three angle bisectors of a triangle
meet at a common point called INCENTER.

ROUTH’S THEOREM - Named after Edward John Routh, Routh’s Theorem determines
the AREA OF THE TRIANGLE FORMED BY THE INTERSECTION OF THE CEVIANS of a
triangle

VIVIANI’S THEOREM - The theorem is named for Vincenzo Viviani (1622-1703), a


pupil of Galileo and Torricelli, who is also remembered for a reconstruction
of a book on the conic sections of Apollonius and for finding a way of
trisecting an angle through the use an equilateral hyperbola. Viviani’s
Theorem states that:

“In an equilateral triangle, the sum of the distances from any interior
point to the sides is equal to the altitude of the triangle.”

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