Technical Papers in Hydrology

v-%?urricula and syllabi

in hydrology
, I
--
\

A contribution
to the International
Hydrological
Programme

Unesco
Technical Papers in Hydrology 22
In this series:
1. Perennial ice and snow masses. A guide for compilation and assemblage of data for a world inventory.
2. Seasonal snow cover. A guide for measurement, compilation and assemblage of data.
3. Variations of existing glaciers.A guide to international practices for their measurement.
4. Antarctic glaciology in the International Hydrological Decade.
5. Combined heat, ice and water balances at selected glacier basins. A guide for compilation and
assemblage of data for glacier mass balance measurements.
6. Textbooks on hydrology-analyses and synoptic tables of contents of selected textbooks.
7. Scientific framework of world water balance.
8. Flood studies-an international guide for collection and processing of data.
9. Guide to world inventory of sea, lake, and river ice.
10. Curricula and syllabi in hydrology.
11. Teaching aids in hydrology.
12. Ecology of water weeds in the netropics.
13. The teaching of hydrology.
14. Legends for geohydrochemicalmaps.
15. Research on urban hydrology, vol. 1.
16. Research on urban hydrology, vol2.
17. Hydrological problems arising from the development of energy.
18. Urban hydrological modelling and catchment research, international summary.
19. Remote sensing of snow and ice.
20. Predicting effects of power plant once-throughcooling on aquatic systems.
21. Research on urban hydrology, Vol. 3.
22. Curricula and syllabi in hydrology.
23. Dispersion and self-purification of pollutants in surface water systems.
24. Experimental facilitiesin water resources education.
25. Teaching the systems approach to water resources development.
26. Study of the relationship between water quality and sediment transport.
 A contribution to the
International Hydrological
Programme

Curricula and syllabi

in hydrology
Second edition

Chief editors :
Satish Chandra and
L. J. Mostertman

Unesco
The designations employed and the presentation of the material
do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the
part of Unesco concerning the legal status of any country or
territory, or of its authorities, or concerning the frontiers of
any country or territory.

Published in 1983 by the

United Nations Educational,Scientific and Cultural
Organization
7,place de Fontenoy,75700 Paris
Printed by Imprimerie de la Manutention,Mayenne

ISBN 92-3-102106-0
OUnesco 1983
Printed in France
Preface

Although the total amount of water on earth is generally assumed to have remained virtually constant,the rapid growth of
population, together with the extension of irrigated agriculture and industrial development, are stressing the quantity and
quality aspects of the natural system. Because of the increasing problems, m a n has begun to realize that he can no longer
follow a “use and discard” philosophy-either with water resourcesor any other natural resource. As a result, the need for
a consistent policy of rational management of water resources has become evident.
Rational water management,however,should be founded upon a thorough understanding of water availability and
movement. Thus,as a contributionto the solution of the world’s water problems,Unesco,in 1965,began the first world-wide
programme of studies of the hydrological cycle-the International Hydrological Decade (IHD). The research programme
was complemented by a major effort in the field of hydrological education and training. The activities undertaken during the
Decade proved to be of great interest and value to Member States.By the end of that period,a majority of Unesco’s Member
States had formed IHD National Committeesto carry out relevant national activities and to participate in regional and inter-
national co-operationwithin the I H D programme.The knowledge of the world’swater resourceshad substantially improved.
Hydrology became widely recognized as an independent professional option and facilities for the training of hydrologists
had been developed.
Conscious of the need to expand upon the efforts initiated during the InternationalHydrological Decade and,following
the recommendations of Member States,Unesco, in 1975, launched a new long-term intergovernmental programme, the
International Hydrological Programme (IHP),to follow the Decade.
Although the IHP is basically a scientificand educational programme, Unesco has been aware from the beginning of
a need to direct its activities toward the practical solutions of the world’s very real water resources problems.Accordingly,
and in line with the recommendationsof the 1977 United Nations Water Conference,the objectives of the InternationalHydro-
logical Programme have been gradually expanded in order to cover not only hydrological processes considered in interrela-
tionship with the environment and human activities,but also the scientificaspects of multi-purposeutilization and conservation
of water resources to meet the needs of economic and social development. Thus,while maintaining IHP’sscientific concept,
the objectives have shifted perceptibly towards a multidisciplinaryapproach to the assessment,planning,and rational mana-
gement of water resources.
As part of Unesco’s contribution to the objectives ofthe IHP,two publication series are issued:“Studies and Reports
in Hydrology” and “Technical Papers in Hydrology”. In addition to thcse publications,and in order to expedite exchange
of information in the areas in which it is most needed, works of a preliminary nature are issued in the form of Technical
Documents.
The “Technical Papers in hydrology” series, to which this volume belongs, is intended to provide a means for the
exchange of information on hydrological techniques and for the coordination of reszarch and data collection. Unesco uses
this series as a means of bringing together and making known the experience accumulated by hydrologists throughout the
world.
Contents

Foreword 9

1. Objectives of hydrological education 11

2. Spectrum of hydrological education 12

3. Topics for education in hydrology 13

4. Present state of educational programmes 1s

5. Future trends in hydrological education 17

Bibliography 19

Annex

IA Reference syllabi for topics recommended by the IHP Working Group

on Training Experts in Hydrology and Related Water Sciences 20

IB Syllabi f o r topics for advanced study in hydrology 24

IC Curricula and syllabi recommended by W M O for the education and training

of professional personnel in operational hydrology 29

I1 Curricula and syllabi for complete undergraduate training in hydrology 36

IIIA Curricula and syllabi f o r some Unesco sponsored post-graduate programmes

in hydrology 44

IIIB Examples of post-graduate programmes leading to a Master degree in

hydro logy 68

IIIC Examples of short duration specialized programmes 80

IV Curricula and syllabi for some undergraduate and graduate options in

training for degrees in other fields than hydrology 88

V Examples of hydrology subjects included in programmes for other degrees95

Foreword

The former IHD Working Group on Hydrological Education prepared a report on 'Curricula and
Syllabi in Hydrology' which Unesco published in 1972 in its series 'Technical Papers in Hydrolo-
gy' (No. 10). This report became out-of-date and the Intergovernmental Council of the IHP, at
its second session in 1977, requested the IHP Working Group on the Training of Experts in Hydro-
logy and Water Sciences (Project ED1) to review this publication on the advanced training of
hydrologists, taking into account the need to incorporate in it changes resulting from the latest
developments and new trends in hydrology. The Council further requested that this work be
carried out with the assistance of the directors of the Unesco sponsored post-graduate hydrology
courses.
When reviewing the 1972 version, the Working Group felt that not only should it be up-
dated but also that essential sections should be redrafted. The Working Group prepared a new
outline and a member of the Group, Mr. Satish Chandra, was given the responsibility of co-ordi-
nating the compilation of the new publication. It was also decided that the co-operation of
the WMO should be invited.
The Working Group provided the following guidelines:

a. The publication should be entirely devoted to undergraduate and post-graduate studies;

technician training should be excluded and treated separately.

b. The general approach of the publication should be maintained.

C. The Intergovernmental Council of the IHP should invite IHP National Committees to submit
new material on university programmes conducted in their countries? so as to provide the
Working Group with the latest information.

d. The publication should advise potential course organizers on possible ways of effectively
setting up new courses and on methods of introducing hydrology into other related scien-
tific or engineering study programmes.

e. The model syllabus developed by the former IHD Working Group should be up-dated; in par-
ticular, the imbalance between surface and groundwater should be remedied.

f. The syllabus prepared by the former WMO Working Group on Training in Hydrometeorology
should be replaced by the up-dated syllabus published in the WMO 'Guidelines for the educa-
tion and training of personnel in meteorology and operational hydrology' (WMO No. 258).

g- New, modern topics should be introduced and the scope may be enlarged so as to include
certain aspects of water resources assessment.

In order to support
-~ Mr. Satish Chandra a Team of Authors was established and it held its
initial session at Unesco House, Paris, from 3-7 March 1980. The members of the team were
Messrs. L.J. Mosterman (Netherlands)? J.E. Nash (Ireland), J. Nemec (WMO), T. Peczely (Hungary)
and Satish Chandra (India). Mr. W.H. Gilbrich (Unesco) acted as secretary of the meeting.
In accordance with the Council's deliberations, the Team of Authors noted the differences
in syllabi for undergraduate and post-graduate studies and decided that examples of each should

9
be included. The variety of educational systems was emphasized and it was recommended that, in
developing new syllabi, due attention should be given to feasibility, endogenous capacities and
appropriate evaluation of training objectives. In this connection, the need for practical
exercises and on-the-job training was underlined.
The authors decided (a) to make use of the basic themes of the Unesco publication 'The
Teaching of Hydrology' (which is now out of print) and (b) to differentiate between undergradu-
ate courses in hydrology and undergraduate courses with an option in hydrology, and between post-
graduate courses in general hydrology and post-graduate courses concentrating on selected sub-
jects. The need for special syllabi for courses designed for specific climatological or geo-
graphical conditions was emphasized. The authors also considered that the publication might be
used for the development of a system of hydrology courses which would ensure that all hydrologi-
cal subjects were covered. When discussing the character of the publication, the authors re-
called that the book was designed as a casebook which would also contain model or reference
syllabi. The usefulness of this approach was underlined. The authors based their work
largely on the material provided by the National Committees for the IHP and they realized that
this material was uneven in terms of presentation, completeness and approach. Thus, inevitably,
some courses have been reflected in greater depth while others have been made use of only in an
abridged form. Later issues of this publication may be designed with a better balance of pre-
sentation.
As in the 1972 publication, an introductory text precedes the syllabi and curricula. The
new text places more emphasis on the present status and future trends of hydrological education.
Like the Unesco-sponsored courses during the seventies, this publication follows the general
development in including aspects of water quality, environmental issues and water resources
assessment for the rational utilization of water within national planning schemes.
1. OBJECTIVES OF HYDROLOGICAL EDUCATION

Hydrology may be defined as "the science that deals with the waters of the earth , their occur-
rence, circulation and distribution, their chemical and physical properties, and their reaction
with their environment, including their relation to living beings" (Unesco/WMO International
Glossary of Hydrology). As such', hydrology is an indispensable requirement for planning in
the field of water resources. Owing to its rapid development during the .last decade, hydrology
hasbecornea fundamental science for water resources management. Hydrological investigations,
including the collection and interpretation of data on precipitation, evapotranspiration, dis-
charge etc., are essential for the practical planning and design of water development schemes.
Civil and sanitary engineers, who traditionally are engaged in water resources studies and
design, are enabled by including hydrological courses in their education to improve the quality
and efficiency of their designs. In the last few years, new methods for the assessment of
surface and groundwater resources have become available as have more sophisticated tools for
studies of optimal water use. Application of these more specialized methods requires a train-
ing that is more specialized than is normally offered in undergraduate engineering programmes.
This determines the need for professionals with hydrology as their main area of competence.
The increase in population and the growth of economic activities in most countries re-
sults in a greater demand for water. The consequent water scarcity already forms a limiting
factor for development in many regions. The quality of water resources planning and manage-
ment must therefore be as high as possible. This in turn requires a good data base which can
be provided only through having a sufficiency of well trained hydrologists. The training of
hydrologists therefore forms an important contribution to economic development.
The main objective of hydrological education is to develop competence for the measuring,
handling and analysis of hydrological data, as well as proficiency in the application of such
information for the planning and design of water resources projects. The level of competence
and proficiency developed varies with the type of education provided. It ranges from the
ability to follow standard procedures by geographers and engineers who study hydrology as a
small part of a much wider programme, to the use of advanced and original methods of analysis
by specialists in water resources for whom hydrology forms a major portion of their professio-
nal education.
The level at which hydrology may be taught and the aim that this teaching has in view will
be very varied. The extent of this variety basically depends on the system of education
prevalent in the country, regardless of whether it is industrially developed or not. In the
main, there are four educational activities in hydrology available at the university level:
complete undergraduate education of professional hydrologists; hydrology as a subject of study
in an education for such fields as civil, sanitary, water resources, environmental and agricul-
tural engineering, geology, geography and geophysics; hydrology as a major option in undergra-
duate or post-graduate curricula; post-graduate education to train professional hydrologists.
The "International Hydrological Decade" (IHD) (1965-1974) and the first phase of the
"International Hydrological Programme" (IHP) which followed, have had considerable impact on all
activities in hydrology. Whereas before 1965 hydrology was being taught only at a few places,
during the Decade it was introduced into many university and college programmes. Many text-
books on hydrology and related subjects have been published since 1965. A series of special
post-graduate courses on water sciences, directed at the needs of developing countries, were
set up with the assistance of Unesco.
The aim of this technical paper is to offer sets of examples of the contents of teaching
programmes in hydrology. The reader may find that these pages offer useful ideas in drafting

11
curricula and syllabi for specific programmes. The proper programme for a given case will
depend on the local needs and facilities, the system and level of education and the local
social, economic and physiographic conditions.

2. SPECTRUM OF HYDROLOGICAL EDUCATION

By the nature of its definition, hydrology comprises the description and study of many diverse
natural phenomena. Applied hydrology encompasses a variety of methods for the analysis and
treatment of hydrological data. Despite this diversity, which is also reflected in textbooks
and handbooks on the subject, hydrology is recognized as a distinct single discipline. Its
basic principles and methods of analysis are usually taught in one or two courses, which appear
under various names but contain essentially the same subject matter. Other, more advanced
courses are usually offered in addition to the basic courses. These advanced courses concen-
trate on specific aspects of hydrological processes, or on special methods of an analysis, or on
some specified approaches in hydrological design. Different combinations of the basic course
and the advanced courses produce a large variety of educational programmes in hydrology.
Analysis of the professional activities of a hydrologist brings to light the manifold as-
pects of hydrology and these are of course reflected in the various programmes of hydrological
education. The diversity in educational programmes is even greater than in the subject matter
itself due to differences in local conditions. The different systems for teaching hydrology
follow the pattern of the existing facilities from which they emerge and also reflect the speci-
fic natural, economic, social and adminisbative conditions of a given country. The achieve-
ments of scientific research and the results of international programmes such as the Internatio-
nal Hydrological Decade have also influenced the development of hydrological education.
The necessity of adapting hydrological education to the particular needs and to the socio-
political structure of a country is characteristic, and distinguishes hydrology from other
closely related fields such as meteorology, for which teaching follows more closely internatio-
nally accepted guidelines. The absence of a universal programme for hydrology may be advanta-
geous in allowing the educational process to adjust more quickly to changing needs and available
facilities; however it does make it more difficult to compare different teaching programmes.
Considering the curricula of a number of universities and other institutes or centres for
the teaching of hydrology, and the syllabi of the subjects faught, it appears that there are two
levels of diversity. One relates to the list of topics included in the basic course or courses
in hydrology. The second refers to the list of courses included either as required or optional
continuation of the basic course. The latter depends, of course, on the type of education
undertaken but even for one definite level of competence, the curriculum offered at various
institutes is different.
There are also variations in the syllabi of advanced courses bearing the same title at
different institutes. Such variation is relatively small and may reflect the personality and
preferences of the teacher as well as the influence of local conditions and the local impor-
tance of various aspects of the subject. It should be added that even where syllabi are
identical, the teaching may be different depending on the background and personality of the
teacher and the availability of teaching aids and experimental facilities.
One more source of variability is in the requirements of the various institutes for back-
ground and peripheral courses. These requirements may reflect the basic approach to learning
of the institutions but in many cases it is also a result of the framework and the development
of the hydrology programme concerned.
Despite the diversity in programmes and in course contents, the general pattern of hydro-
logical education at present is as described in the previous chapter. There are four alterna-
tives for gaining hydrological education at a university level:
a. Complete undergraduate training as professional hydrologists.
b. Participation in a post-graduate programme for training of professional hydrologists.
c. Taking hydrology as a major option in an undergraduate or a post-graduate programne
of studies.
d. Studying the basic courses, possibly with one or two optional advanced courses, in a
programme leading to a degree in engineering, geography, etc.
Ideally, professional training in hydrology should be provided over a full undergraduate
course but the relatively small number of positions available to hydrologists renders this
early specialization impractical except in the largest countries or those with special interest
in or dependence on water resources. An alternative which might prove feasible would be to
modify a civil engineering curriculum to constitute a water resources option without losing the
essential civil engineering component. This could be done by replacing some of the structural
engineering components of the traditional curriculum by additional courses in water resources
and related topics. The traditional courses on water supply, sewage disposal, surveying and
even construction would, however, be maintained. Where it is considered desirable to do so,

12
water resources engineering could be combined with other subjects such as road planning under
the title of 'civil engineering (environmental)'.
For the immediate future, however, and in many countries for the foreseeable future, the
normal method of training professional hydrologists will continue to be by way of post-graduate
co~irsesdesigned to 'top up' existing training usually in an appropriate branch of engineering
or to convert a science graduate. The main advantage of this method lies in the fact that
students taking such courses will, in most cases, have reached a mature decision to pursue a
career in hydrology and often will already be employed in that area. The disadvantages are
derived from an impatience in mature students towards the study of a broad course and the
difficulty of obtaining a commitment to study over a sufficiently long period. Most such
courses require up to one year of study. A further difficulty is that universities consider
post-graduate study as the prerogative of only the (academically) best graduates. Post-gra-
duate courses thus tend to become academically biased and to create an elite of academically
excellent graduates, rather than providing the spectrum of personnel with practical to theore-
tical skills which a stable professional community needs. To overcome this difficulty, uni-
versities might be encouraged to recognize such continued education (or 'topping up') courses
for what they are and to distinguish between these and higher level specialist courses, usually
academically excellent, which they could continue to provide for suitably qualified personnel.

3. TOPICS FOR EDUCATION IN HYDROLOGY

Because of differences in the educational systems, the natural circumstances and the needs of
various countries, it is impractical to recommend one standard curriculum with world-wide
validity. The alternative is to draw up a list of topics which should be included in the
educational programme of the future hydrologist. This list can give some guidance to those
engaged in the preparation of a curriculum for hydrological education. In preparing such a
curriculum, the aim should be to try and provide a proper scientific basic training in hydrolo-
gy which would, insofar as it was scientific, be common to all circumstances.
The IHD Working Group on Education and the IHP Working Group on Training Experts in Hydro-
logy and Water Sciences have recommended a series of topics that must be taught to ensure that
the student receives the minimum of necessary theoretical knowledge and adequate practical
training. These topics should he taught in a manner consistent with a specified minimum level
of proficiency in mathematics and science which the student must have achieved. The list of
topics can be considered as a minimum theoretical knowledge that a person should have in order
to be considered a professional hydrologist. This knowledge should of course be supported and
amplified by practical training.
The list of topics recommended by the two Working Groups is given below in sections 3.1 and
3.2. Detailed syllabi for the various topics are given in Annex IA. This curriculum may be
used as a reference by those who have to design or adapt a training programme on this level.
It is not intended as a model to be followed, because each institute of education offering hydro-
logy training will have to adapt its curricula to its own facilities and to the local circum-
stances.
In addition to the courses considered to be essential, the programme for education in hydro-
logy should contain a number of additional advanced courses. The number of courses depends on
the level of training. It may be one or two for students majoring in engineering or geography
or it may be ten to twenty for students doing a complete undergraduate or graduate training in
hydrology. A list of topics which can be included in these specific or advanced courses is
given below in section 3.3. Some of these topics can form a complete course of studies,
others represent only sections of courses which can be grouped to form a complete course.
Syllabi for some of these advanced courses are given in Annex IB. The selection of the topics
to be included in any programme depends, of course, on local cnnditions and interests.
additional source of topics for courses in hydrological education and an example of a
curriculum for such education is published in Part I1 of the second edition of the WMO
Publication "Addendum to Guidelines for the Education and Training of Personnel in Meteorology
and Operational Hydrology" (WMO Publication No. 258). This publication includes, among others,
curricula and syllabi for the education and training of professional personnel in operational
hydrology, prepared by the WMO Commission for Hydrology (CHy). These curricula are reproduced
in Annex IC and should serve as useful guidelines for the organizers of special or post-graduate
training programmes in the field of operational hydrology. The main topics included in these
curricula are listed in section 3.4 below."
3.1 Topics from other disciplines that are basic requirements for the study of hydrology at
the professional level-
1. General mathematics.
2. Analytical geometry.

13
3. Differential and integral calculus.
4. Computer programming.
5. Probability and statistics.
6. Engineering drawing and graphics.
7. Elementary physics.
8. Elementary chemistry.
9. Elementary geology and geomorphology.
10. Surveying and cartography.
11. Interpretation of aerial photographs.
12. Fluid mechanics.
13. Hydraulics.
14. Theory of sediment transport.
15. Flow through porous media.
16. Soil science.
17. Ecology, forest types and farm crops.
18. Elements of water resources engineering.
19. Elements of economics of water resources.
20, Water pollution.
21. Meteorology and climatology.

3.2 Essential hydrological topics for all hydrologists

1. Introduction to hydrology.
2. Precipitation.
3. Evaporation and evapotranspiration.
4. Infiltration.
5. Groundwater.
6. Flow in open channels and streams.
7. Surface runoff.
8. Rivers and lakes.
9. Water balance.
10. Hydrological measurements.
11. Quality of water.
12. Hydrological data handling.
13. Hydrological analysis.

3.3 Topics of courses or sections of courses which can be used for advanced programmes
in hydrology

1. Stochastic and parametric hydrology.

2. Urban hydrology.
3. Agricultural hydrology.
4. Groundwater development.
5. Geology and hydrogeology.
6. Groundwater systems modelling.
7. Geomorphology, sediment transport.
8. Meteorology and hydrometeorology.
9. Forest hydrology.
10. Hydrology of coastal and estuarine areas.
11. Hydrology of lakes and reservoirs.
12. Hydrology of marshes and swamps.
13. Hydrology of tropical zones.
14. Hydrology of arid and semi-arid zones.
15. Snow and glacier hydrology.
16. Man's influence on the hydrological cycle.
17 i Experimental and representative basins.
18. Hydrological forecasting.
19. Nuclear and tracer techniques in hydrology.
20. Photo-interpretation and remote-sensing for hydrology.
21. Computer programming and data processing.
22. Watershed management.
23. Water resources planning and management.
24. Water resources systems analysis.
25. Legal and environmental problems in hydrology.
26. Water quality.

14
3.4 Topics of courses included in the curriculum for the training of professional personnel
in operational hydrology

a. Education in the basic sciences

1. Algebra.
2. Differential and integral calculus.
3. Partial differential and integral equations.
4. Probability theory and statistics.
5. Numerical and graphical calculation.
6. Machine computation.
7. Particle dynamics.
8. Rigid body dynamics.
9. Elastic media.
10. Hydrodynamics.
11. Thermodynamics.
12. Electromagnetism.
13. Electromagnetic radiation.
14. Atomic and molecular physics.

b. Education in operational hydroiogy and related sub] ects

1. Principles of descriptive geometry and technical drawing.

2. Theoretical mechanics and fluid mechanics.
3. General chemistry and hydrochemistry.
4. Principles of geophysics, geology, geomorphology and soil science.
5. Surveying.
6. Hydraulics: open channel flow dynamics and channel processes.
7. General meteorology and climatology.
8. Synoptic meteorology.
9. Hydrological instruments and methods of observation.
10. Design of networks.
11. Collection, processing and publication of data.
12. Hydrological analysis.
13. Hydrological forecasting.
14. Applications to water management.
15. Organization of hydrological services.

4. PRESENT STATE OF EDUCATIONAL PROGRAMMES

4.1 ComDlete underaraduate trainina as Drofessional hvdroloaists

The specialized undergraduate university education of hydrologists seems to be typical for

large countries with adequate employment possibilities for the graduates of such specialized
institutes. Complete undergraduate programmes in hydrology exist at present only in very few
countries. The curricula and syllabi of existing programmes in the USA, in the USSR and in
Sweden are included in Annex 11.
The availability of complete undergraduate programmes for hydrologists will probably con-
tinue to be limited to a few countries. The organization of such complete programmes in other
countries, or other regions of the world, will be justified only if there were sufficient
opportunities of suitable employment for their graduates.
The duration of the complete courses are between 4 and 5 years. In some places it is
possible to participate in the programme on a part-time basis which prolongs the durations of
the programmes. The programmes usually include some field work and practical training as an
essential part. The objectives of the complete undergraduate programmes are to teach the
participants a variety of techniques of measuring, handling and reduction of hydrological data,
to give them competence in various methods of analysis of data and their use for water resources
planning and, for some of the participants, to provide them with a good basis for further study
and independent research in advanced problems of hydrology.

15
4.2 Post-graduate programmes for training as hydrologists

Generally, there are two types of post-graduate training and education programmes in hydrology:

(i) integrated post-graduate programmes of long duration, leading to a post-graduate degree

or diploma as a professional hydrologist;

(ii) programmes of short duration on specialized topics leading to increased competence in

special subjects or to widening the participant's information.

In the integrated post-graduate programmes, a student follows a more or less fixed curricu-
lum for periods of between six months and two years leading to a post-graduate certificate,
diploma or degree in hydrology. These programmes are directed, as far as possible, towards
providing education in the wide spectrum of hydrology and equipping students to handle hydrolo-
gical problems with limited or no guidance. A number of such p r o g r m e s have been developed as
Unesco-sponsored and other international post-graduate courses. Universities in some countries
also organize integrated post-graduate hydrology courses leading to a Master's degree. Exam-
ples of the curricula and syllabi of some Unesco sponsored post-graduate programmes are given
in Annex IIIA. Examples of some integrated post-graduate programmes leading to a Master's
degree are given in Annex IIIB.
The short duration specialized programmes considered in this section are those intended for
hydrologists who have already gained a more or less complete professional training. Develop-
ments in hydrology are taking place at such a rate that the hydrologist must refresh his educa-
tion and become acquainted with the recent developments and newer techniques for hydrological
work. This may include informal seminars organized with research workers and hydrology pro-
fessors from well established institutions on the one hand and, on the other hand, formal train-
ing courses on specialized topics to provide the hydrologist with an opportunity to up-date his
knowledge so that he may carry out his duties more effectively. Such seminars and courses will
usually be of short duration from a few days to one or two months.
These specialized short programmes could be organized as regional courses or as roving semi-
nars with course material prepared beforehand and made available to the participants. Topics
of courses to be included in such programmes can be selected from the list of advanced topics
given above in section 3.3. The structure of each programme would depend on the specific aims
of the organizers and the students involved, on the educational background of the students, on
the availability of teaching personnel, and on the facilities at which the training takes place.
Examples of short duration programmes given in recent years are given in Annex IIIC.

4.3 Hydrology as an option in university programmes leading to another degree

In general, university education has not been directed towards highly specialized undergraduate
study. In these circumstances, fairly extensive hydrological education can still occur in two
types of programmes. In the elective curricula type, a student having chosen his field of
study follows a hydrology option during the last one or two years of his course, obtaining his
degree in his main field of study. In other circumstances, it is not uncommon for students to
follow a general course in another field of study with one or two subjects in hydrology as part
of the fixed programme or elective subjects in the programme chosen by the student himself.
Civil, environmental and agricultural engineers thus obtain some familiarisation with hydrologi-
cal methods without becoming specialists in the subject. Agronomists and foresters, geologists
and geographers have also become aware of the job opportunities which hydrology offers and this
has led to the introduction of this subject in several faculties of agriculture, geology and
geography. Examples of curricula and syllabi of hydrology options in undergraduate courses are
given in Annex IV.
At some institutions it is possible to follow a hydrology option as part of the programme
of studies towards a Master's degree in such fields as civil engineering, water resources
management, agricultural engineering, or some non-engineering fields. It should be added that
the hydrology option of many graduate study programmes or even the hydrology option to some
undergraduate engineering or science courses, can lead to competence as a professional hydrolo-
gist if the programme is of sufficient scope and depth. Examples of graduate study options in
hydrology leading to a Master's programme in a non-hydrology field are also included in Annex IV.

4.4 General background programmes in hydrology

Hydrology constitutes a part of the educational programmes both at the undergraduate and post-
graduate levels in a large number of disciplines. Among these one may mention civil engineer-
ing, agricultural engineering, environmental engineering, water resources engineering, geology,

16
geography, forestry, agronomy. Those programmes are not aimed at training hydrologists.
However, those taking a number of courses in hydrological subjects may afford a sufficient
base for working in hydrology.
A great number of universities include one or two courses in general hydrology in the pro-
grsii~e=f studies t ~ w a r d sdegrees that are not hydrology or water resources degrees. Examples
of such courses which provide a general background of hydrology and their syllabi are included
in Annex V. The aims of these courses are generally to face the student with the importance
of the hydrological aspect of his chosen profession and to familiarize him with the standard
methods of data gathering and analysis and of hydrological design.
Further discussion of the programmes of hydrological education in some countries is avail-
able in the proceedings of a few international meetings held in recent years. A list of some
of these meetings is given in the bibliography. Some remarks about and references to articles
dealing with hydrological education are also included in many of the standard textbooks and
handbooks on hydrology. The bibliography also contains a list of Unesco and WMO publications
related to the curricula and syllabi in hydrology.

5. FUTURE TRENDS IN HYDROLOGICAL EDUCATION

Generally, it is very difficult to predict future developments and needs in hydrology. Since
programmes for hydrological education tend to respond to the demands for practical or applied
hydrologists, this uncertainty also applies to a prediction of future trends in hydrological
education. The task is, however, somewhat easier since there are some basic trends, observed
since the beginning of the International Hydrological Decade in 1965, which may be expected to
continue, at least in the near future.
These basic trends include: (a) the continued and growing demands for hydrologists at all
levels of education; (b) the increasing mathematical and scientific level at which the various
topics in hydrology are treated; (c) the involvement and growing use of computers in the teach-
ing of various aspects of hydrology; (d) the continued need for specialization within the spec-
trum of topics contained in hydrological education; (e) the growing importance of water quality
aspects of water resources and its impact on hydrology; (f) the development of new techniques
for observation and handling of data.
While these trends are reflected in all parts of the hydrological education programme,
their impact is less pronounced in the basic or core courses. Their influence is greater in
the specialized advanced courses, both in the topics of the proposed advanced courses and the
material included in their syllabi. It is expected that this situation will continue over the
next few years. The curricula of the basic courses will continue to list the familiar topics
of the hydrological cycle, precipitation, infiltration, evapotranspiration, runoff, groundwater
flow, etc. However, the course contents represented by these topics will slowly change as new
techniques and technologies are introduced. The specialized advanced courses will continue to
be the media for introducing new ideas and results from the advanced hydrological research into
the curricula for hydrological education. In this respect, it is important to stress the need
for continued education programmes for practising hydrologists. There are no doubts that the
demand and the need for such courses will continue to grow in parallel with the numbers of
people engaged in hydrology and with the introduction of new ideas and new techniques in hydro-
logical practice.
In the discussion of future trends in hydrological education, it is useful to include also
some comments on a number of subjects which are and will continue to be important parts of rele-
vant courses.
The hydrological cycle will continue to be the main frame and background against which the
various hydrological processes are studied. A quantitative knowledge of the cycle requires
measurements and recording, and demands the study of the principles and methods used. It is
difficult to forecast the types of instruments and the design of networks that will appear in
the next stage. Measurements will, however, continue to play an important role in hydrology,
in water resources inventories and in water management. The instruments and the methods of
their use will become more accurate, more robust and less dependent on field observers. The
collection, transmittal, processing, analysis, storage and retrieval of data over large regions
will be performed by automatic equipment. Remote sensing will become a low-cost and effective
instrument for water resources inventories. Aerial photography and other remote sensing
imagery already form an important tool in the practice and the teaching of hydrology. This
will increasingly become the case in the future.
Modern hydrology increasingly turns to a quantitative approach to the various elements of
the hydrological cycle and to their interrelation and this tendency will continue to be
emphasized in education. The mathematical models representing hydrological concepts and pro-
cesses are still grossly simplified, partly because of our scientific ignorance and partly
because the large amounts of data have proved to be unmanageable. These difficulties may be
expected to yield, to some extent, to the increasing research effort and to the power of modern
17
calculation devices. All hydrology and related courses should leave students with a clear
understanding of the limitations of existing models and the meaning of the results of new
research.
It is also important that practising hydrologists appreciate the quantitative implications
of any simplifications inherent in their models of the hydrological cycle. There is a tempta-
tion to adopt refinements, as they are published, in one phase of the cycle which may already
be better understood than others, without searching for the remedies for much larger errors in
the other phases. Hence, the students need a fundamental understanding of the whole cycle and
of the sensitivity of their results to any errors in their assessment of any one phase or part
of the hydrological cycle.
The use of the digital computer has had a deep influence on hydrological studies in prac-
tice. Educational programmes cannot stay behind. Many subjects will be taught in a diffe-
rent way once the students have easier access to computers. However, the use of computers in
hydrological education will be treated in a separate study assigned by the Intergovernmental
Council of the IHP.
The growing importance of water quality aspects of the hydrological cycle will continue to
influence hydrological education. In general, hydrologists in the past were primarily con-
cerned only with the quantity of water in each phase of the hydrological cycle, but there will
be a growing need for the study of physical, chemical and biological aspects of water quality
as a result of the more extensive use of water resources in all countries. A sufficient mas-
tery of the qualitative aspects of water resources and of the biological and chemical laws
underlying the study of water treatment constitutes a vast field of study in itself. It is
hardly possible for a hydrologist or for an engineer to master the control of water quality to-
gether with advanced methods of predicting water quantities and analysis. For schemes of any
significance, the hydrologist, the engineer and the water quality specialist must work together
with other professionals in an interdisciplinary team. In order to be effective here, the
hydrologist will need a sound knowledge of water quality, including some practical laboratory
experience. Programmes of field work on hydrometry should be amplified by the practical deter-
mination of simple water quality variables. One can expect that, in future, hydrological edu-
cation will, to an increasing extent, imply also a study of the quality aspects of water.
Specialization in hydrological education is at present mostly on the basis of specific
phenomena involved, which is related largely to the physical location of the water. There is
a possibility that, due to the complexity and advanced nature of the procedures being used, new
types of specialization will develop according to skills and basic training involved. Thus,
specialization might be based on a fourfold division of mathematics, physics, chemistry and
engineering. The mathematics specialization would be the most comprehensive and could cover
all topics of surface water hydrology, the mathematics of groundwater and all analytical hydro-
logy. The physics related specialization would include the physical and geological aspects of
groundwater, as well as the processes of evaporation and climatology. The chemistry speciali-
zation would include the chemical and biological aspects of water quality, treatment and pollu-
tion. The engineering specialization might concentrate on the engineering works aspects.
Finally, there are some comments on the extent to which it will be necessary for a hydro-
logist to engage in wider studies of water resources planning. This will depend to a large
extent on the organization for which he works. Many organizations will not be satisfied with
studies resulting only in a prediction of water yield. They will require an indication of
which duties this water can perform. Their hydrologists will, therefore, need a sound know-
ledge of the quantities of water needed for various uses as well as of the quality standards of
the water for each use. They should also know how water demand for various uses is also rela-
ted to economic factors. The use of water in conjunction with land and other factors of pro-
duction should be planned to give an optimal contribution to national welfare. Such optimal
solutions can best be studied by considering water and related resources as one system. Sys-
tems analysis for water resources planning is thus becoming more and more important. The
hydrologists will be called to an increasing extent to take a share in the work of multi-
disciplinary teams, engaged in water resources systems analysis. This tendency dictates the
need to include systems analysis topics as part of the hydrology education, probably at the
post-graduate specialization level. There is further a need to give some hydrological train-
ing on an advanced level for water resources planners well versed in systems analysis. As
this analyst should have a sound knowledge of hydrology, one can anticipate the need for
special post-graduate programmes in hydrology for engineers whose main field is systems analy-
sis.

18
BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. The Progress of hydrology, Part 111: Hydrologic Education; July 1969. Proceedings
of First Seminar for University Professors, Urbana, Illinois, U.S.A.
7-
-. Vlachos; E. (editor!; September 1972. Transfer of Water Resources Knowledge, Proceedinqs
of First International Conference on Transfer of Water Resources Knowledge, Fort
Collins, Colorado, U.S.A.
3. Chow, V.T., Fried, J.J., Krizek, R.J. (editors); March 1975. Water Resources Education,
Proceedings of the International Seminar on Water Resources Education, Paris and
Strasbourg, France. Published by the International Water Resources Association,
Chanpaign, Illinois, U.S.A.
4. Hydrological Education, Proceedings of the International Workshop on Hydrological Education,
Smolenice, Bratislava, Czechoslovakia, September 1980.
5. Textbooks on Hydrology; 1970; Vol. I: Technical Papers in Hydrology, No. 6, Unesco, Paris.
1974; Vol. 11: Technical Papers in Hydrology, No. 6/11, Unesco, Paris.
6. Curricula and Syllabi in Hydrology, first edition, 1972. Technical Papers in Hydrology,
No. 10, Unesco, Paris.
7. Teaching Aids in Hydrology; 1972. Technical Papers in Hydrology, No. 11, Unesco, Paris.
8. The Teaching of Hydrology; 1974. Technical Papers in Hydrology, No. 13, Unesco, Paris.
-
9. Compendium oc Training Facilities in Environmental Problems related to Heteorology and
Operational Hydrology; 1977, WMO Publication No. 489, Geneva.
10. Addendum to Guidslines for the Education and Training of Personnel in Meteorology and
Operational Hydrology; 1982, W40 Publication No. 258, Geneva

19
Annex IA
Reference syllabi for topics recommended by the IHP Working Group
on Training Experts in Hydrology and Related Water Sciences

Introduction

Because of differences in the educational systems and in the levels of education in various
countries, it is impractical to recommend specific curricula for hydrological education. One
institution may be able to develop an undergraduate programme of four or five years' duration
designed exclusively for the training of hydrologists, while another may find it desirable to
provide hydrological education as part of an existing undergraduate programme, such as civil
engineering. Still other institutions may wish to restrict hydrological education ta a post-
graduate programme. Thus, rather than a series of courses the former IHD Working Group on
Education and the IHP Working Group on Training Experts in Hydrology and Related Water Sciences
have recommended a series of topics that must be taught to ensure that the student receives the
necessary theoretical knowledge and adequate practical training. These ;topics may be presen-
ted as a complete undergraduate programme for the education of professional hydrologists or
they may be taken at the post-graduate level as necessary to supplement an existing training in
science or engineering. The list of topics recommended is given in Sections 3.1 and 3.2 in
the preceding text. This annex gives the syllabi to the various topics although the arrange-
ment of topics in this annex does not correspond exactly to the list.

1. Mathematical methods

General mathematics up to and including linear algebra, determinants, matrices, eigenvalues.

Analytical geometry. Calculus including linear differential equations and partial differen-
tial equations. Laplace transforms and spectrum analysis, Laplace's equation and boundary
value problems. Numerical analysis including systems of linear algebraic equations. Numeri-
cal solution of differential equations. Difference equations. z-transform. Solution of
partial differential equations.

2. Probability and statistics

Applied statistics. Probability. Distribution theory. Likelihood, hypothesis testing.

Regression and correlation. Theory of extreme values. Estimation and stochastic processes.

3. Elements of system analysis

Systems analysis. Analysis of linear input-output systems. Linear and dynamic programming,
Optimization, Lagrange multipliers.

4. Elementary physics

Elementary physics, including heat, light and electricity. Molecular structure, Kinematic
theory of gases. Elements of nuclear physics. Heat transfer, radiation. Elementary thermo-
dynamics. Physical properties of water including surface tension, viscosity, hydrogen bond.
Physics of flow in porous media.

5. Elementary chemistry

General chemistry. Atomic-molecular theory. The periodic system of elements. Chemical

combination and the structure of molecules. Kinetics and chemical equilibrium, Theory of
solutions. Basic principles of electrochemistry. Hydrochemistry: water as a solvent, its
properties, electrolyte solutions. Principles of physico-chemical analysis. Surface pheno-
mena and absorption. Basic problems of colloidal chemistry. Chemical composition of natural
waters.

6. Theoretical Mechanics

Statics (including hydrostatics), forces and moments, equilibrium. Dynamics, forces, work
energy, Newton's laws of motion. Coriolis force.

20
7. Fluid mechanics

Flow fields, graphical descriptors, mathematical descriptors, partial differentiation, vectors,

gradients, divergence, rotation, circulation. Theorems of Green and Stokes. Mechanics of
.( l ~ d lL,=7..22-
I-..7 IIIICI~. n^L--C: - 1
n
..,
="LCllLLaL
.Fl
LIVw, flsw nets. Laplace's ecpation; Conformal representation,
sources, sinks, etc. Mechanics of viscous flow, Newtonian fluids. Navier-Stokes equations.
Laminar and turbulent flow. Reynolds' stresses and Reynolds' equations. Boundary layer
theory. Semi-empirical treatment leading to the logarithmic velocity distribution.

8. Hydraulics

Bulk flow. Momentum principle. Flows over weirs and through orifices and flumes. Flow in
pipes. The universal resistance diagram. Uniform flow in open channels. Unsteady flow in
pipes, water hammer. Principles of similitude and theory of models.

9. Geology

Composition of earth's crust, rock cycle classification of rocks, texture and structure, karst
phenomena. Geomorphology, cycles and erosional processes, drainage patterns.

10. Hydrogeology (introduction)

Geological factors in water regime. Origin and occurrence of groundwater in different types
of aquifers. Geomorphological and geological investigations for groundwater. Groundwater
in rock fissures and karstic rocks. Springs, mineral water, thermal water. Geophysical pro-
specting for groundwater, well logging.

11. Soil science

Origin and classification of soil. Physics and chemistry of soils. Life processes in plants.
Soil-water-plant relationship.

12. Climatology

General properties of the atmosphere. Composition and structure of the atmosphere. Basic
gas laws applicable to the atmosphere. Principle of atmospheric statics. Radiant energy in
the atmosphere. Heat exchange in the soil and transfer to atmosphere. Air humidity. Pre-
cipitation processes. Evaporation. Climate formation and classification. Local climate
and microclimate.

13. Surveying and photo-interpretation

Plane surveying and cartography. Aerial surveying and remote sensing. Interpretation of
aerial photographs and other imagery for hydrological processes.

14. Introduction to hydrology

Definitions and relation of hydrology to other sciences. The hydrological cycle. Physical
characteristics of the watershed. Importance of data. Variability and randomness of
hydrological phenomena.

15. Hydrological processes

Surface water, the run-off process, influence of surface conditions and soil cover, drainage
pattern. Water in the unsaturated zone: water retention in the soil, tension, wetting and
drying, flow processes, equations of motion, infiltration. Water in the saturated zone,
Darcy's law, equation of continuity, steady and unsteady flow, the Dupuit-Forchheimer assump-
tions, flow-net analysis. Snow and ice.

16. Precipitation

Forms and mechanisms of precipitation. Determination of amounts, intensity and duration and
spatial and temporal distribution of precipitation. Measurements of precipitation and their
accuracy. Snow. Estimation of missing data.

21
17. Evaporation and evapotranspiration

Definitions. Determination by measurement and by computations. The energy and mass transfer
approaches. Evaporation from water surfaces, soil, snow and ice. Transpiration. Total
evaporation and total losses. Evaporation control.

18. Infiltration

Soil moisture. Laws governing infiltration. Measurement. Infiltrometers. Empirical

formulae.

19. Groundwater

The origins and occurrence of groundwater. Types of aquifer. Hydrological properties of

various pervious materials. Interrelation between groundwater and surface water. Depletion.
Springs and wells. Water-table fluctuations. Movement of groundwater. Recharge of ground-
water reservoir. Simulation by physical or electrical models. Quality of water.

20. Flow in open channels and streams

Energy relations. Uniform flow in prismatic channels. Gradually varied flow in channels and
streams. Surface profiles. Unsteady flow and flood routing. St. Venant's equations,
methods of solution; convergence. Flow in erodible channels. Theories of sediment transport.
Channel morphology. Design of river regulation structures.

21. Surface run-off

Elementary hydrograph, separation of depletion fl3w and surface flow. Minimum flow. Types
of run-off. Depression storage, overland flow, surface detention. Unit hydrograph tech-
niques. Properties of the drainage basin. Synthetic hydrograph. Flood and droughts. Use
of the unit hydrograph. Measurements. Statistical and other methods.

22. Rivers and lakes

The natural river as a medium of transport of water and sediments. The river as changed by
man's influence. Morphology of river-beds. Natural and artificial lakes.

23. Water balance

Calculation of yield. Short-term and long-term variations. Water balance of lakes, swamps,
watersheds and regions. Experimental drainage basins and representative basins.

24. Hydrometry

Collecting hydrological data as a technical and organizational problem. Decision on duration

and frequency of observations and on their required accuracy. Various methods of measuring
water-levels, velocities and solid and liquid discharges. Storage and processing of data.
Cost of measurements. General principles for design of networks, general requirements, opti-
mum network, minimum network.

25. Hydrological measurements

Precipitation, gauge location, recording and non-recording gauges, observations by radar and
satellite. Water equivalent of snow, depth and extent of snow cover, ground surveys, radio-
isotope snowgauges, snow pillows, natural gamma radiation. Ice on rivers, lakes and reser-
voirs, methods of observation. Synoptic climatological measurements, humidity, temperature,
wind speed. Water temperature, observational procedure, infra-red radiation thermometer.
Measurement of water surface temperature for lake and reservoir evaporation. Evaporation and
evapotranspiration, pan evaporation, soil evaporimeters and lysimeters, snow evaporimeters,
indirect methods. Water levels of rivers, lakes and reservoirs. Discharge measurements by
current meters, other methods for flow measurement, measurement under ice cover. Stream
gauging stations, purposes, selection of site, control sections, artificial controls, stage-
discharge relationships. Sediment discharge, suspended and bed load. Soil moisture, weight
method, electrical-resistance method, tensiometric method, neutron method, gamma-ray method.
Infiltration, infiltrometers, field plots, lysimeters. Groundwater levels, measurement,
selection of observation wells.

22
26. Hydrological data handling

Collection, observational procedures, transmission of hydrological observations. Storage and

retrieval of hydrological data. Processing and publication of hydrological data. Hydrologi-
cal maps - hydrometeorological, surface water, groundwater, water balance, water quality and
water management.

27. Hydrological analysis

Interpretation of precipitation data, adjustment of data, double-mass curve analysis, spatial

distribution, evaluation of physiographic effects. Storm rainfall studies, depth-area-dura-
tion analysis, probable maximum precipitation (PMP). Rainfall intensities and frequencies,
drought severity. Interpretation of snow fall, snowpack and .snowmelt data. Interpretation
of streamflow data, adjustment of data, spatial distribution. Maps of average annual run-off.
Temporal distribution of run-off volume and yield. Relation of streamflow to rainfall, volu-
metric relations. Hydrograph analysis, unit hydrograph, linear and non-linear systems, total
response modelling. Flow routing. Statistical relationships, flow duration curves, fre-
quency analysis of floods and droughts. Regional analysis. Stochastic processes, modelling
and simulation.

28. Water aualitv

Physical and chemical properties of natural waters. Changes in these properties by evolutions
in land use, power generation, agriculture, industry and habitation. Chemical analysis of
water. Water quality monitoring. Biological quality of water. Main principles of aquatic
biology. Oxygen depletion and reoxygenation. Analysis of biological water quality. The
excess of nutrients in water. Eutrophication of lakes and reservoirs. Prevention and con-
trol of water pollution. Quality requirements and standards for various types of water use.
Water quality modelling.

23
Annex IB
Syllabi for topics for advanced study in hydrology
Introduction

The syllabi presented in this annex were collected from various sources, including the previous
version of this publication. They are given as examples of possible syllabi for some of the
topics listed in section 3.3, but variations can of course be introduced according to local
needs and new technical developments. For ease of reference, the numbers given to the various
syllabi correspond to the numbers identifying the topic in the above list.

1. Stochastic and parametric hydrology

Hydrological time series; deterministic and stochastic components; stationarity; trend and
periodicity; inconsistency and non-homogeneity.
Autocorrelation analysis and the correlogram; spectral analysis and the power spectrum;
model building; autoregressive integrated moving average processes; diagnostic checking; the
generation of random variates; data synthesis. Short and long-memory models; modelling of
seasonality; the Shot Noise process; the Hurst phenomenon; Fractional Gaussian Noise and
Broken Line models; multi-site models and'disaggregationprocesses.
Parametric methods in hydrology: the systems viewpoint; nature of hydrological systems;
some systems mathematics; state variables and parameters; blackbox analysis; objective func-
tions and optimization; linear conceptual models; linear methods of flood routing; non-linear
conceptual models; the role of systems and parametric hydrology.

2. Urban hydrology

Various types of urban run-off; storm run-off, domestic waste water and industrial waste
water. Piped and open-channel drainage. Combined or mixed transport of storm water and waste
water.
Precipitation and run-off from small areas. Various computation methods. Rational for-
mula, Izzard's method for computation of overland flow; soil conservation service procedure
(United States), unit hydrograph, Road Research Laboratory hydrograph method (Great Britain),
Chicago method with emphasis on construction of hyetographs, computation of depression storage,
flood routings above the surface, gutter, lateral and main canals. Use of the standard graphs
of the Chicago method.
Storage inside urban areas. In natural and artificial reservoirs.
Influence of upstream run-off on the urban area.
Groundwater in the urban area. Influence of underground discharge and of withdrawal.
Land subsidence in the urban area.
Water quality of run-off from streets, markets, sports fields, roofs and of domestic and
industrial wastes.
Quality of urban groundwater. Disposal of waste water in the underground and its conse-
quences.

3. Agricultural hydrology

Soil classification. Agricultural evaluation of the soil. Soil and water. Different condi-
tions of the water in soil. General computation of dotations for irrigation. Establishment
of irrigation water requirements for cultivated plants. Measurements of humidity rates and
humidity tension in the soils. Water circulation in the soil. Irrigation methods.

4.. Groundwater flow and development

Types of aquifers, storage and distribution. Hydraulics of wells, well interference, well and
free surface interaction.
Steady flow in confined, semi-confined and unconfined aquifers. Principle of superposi-
tion and images. Application of complex variables. Graphical method, numerical methods and
analogue models. Flow net analysis.
Non-steady groundwater flow. Compressibility of water and soil, phreatic storage. De-
rivation of important flow equations. Analytical and numerical solution methods. Unsteady
flow to wells and galleries.

24
Geophysical aspects

Introduction; occurrences of groundwater; practical importance of groundwater; objectives of

study in groundwater projects; terminology.
Rocapit-ulati.onof geology: importance, some terms, effects on porosity and permeability.
Aquifers, different types of aquifers (recharge and flow), semipervious and impervious
layers, some figures and formulae for porosity, permeability and specific yield, determination
of geohydrological constants for large areas.
Fresh and saline groundwater; origin and migration of salt. Principle of Badon Ghyben -
Herzberg and its application to different types of aquifers.
Seepage; prediction of the amount of seepage. Practical consequences of seepage.
Exploitation of groundwater resources; natural recharge of groundwater; consequences of
groundwater abstraction; concept of safe yield; artificial recharge, other aspects of ground-
water control, groundwater mapping. Salt water intrusion.

Technical aspects

Introduction; formulae for the drawdown curves of galleries, single wells and well systems with
confined or unconfined flow under different geo-hydrological and boundary conditions.
Design of galleries, wells and well systems. Test pumping analysis.
Methods of well construction. Construction of well casing and well screen. Well comple-
tion and well maintenance. Development and testing of wells.
Pumping equipment for wells.
Radial collector wells.

5. Geology and hydrogeology

Composition of earth's crust. Classification of rocks. Composition and texture of rocks in

relation to the processes which lead to their origin, transformation and destruction. Descrip-
tion of the various types of igneous rocks, sedimentary rocks and metamorphic rocks. Review of
the main exogenous and endogenous processes: action of wind, water, climate in terms of
weathering, erosion, transport and sedimentation, volcanism and intrusions, tectonic movements,
folding, faulting, jointing. Influence of various processes on strength and permeability of
rocks. Land forms. Karst phenomena. Geomorphology, cycles and erosional process. Geolo-
gical factors in water regime, origin and occurrence of groundwater in different rock types.
Geomorphological and geological investigations for groundwater. Groundwater in rock fissures
and karst. Springs, mineral water, thermal water. Geophysical prospecting for groundwater,
well logging.

6. Groundwater systems modelling

General. Scaling procedure. Devel-opmentof model laws and analogies; techniques for model-
ling groundwater systems; limitations of methods and theories. The sand box. The Hele-Shaw
analogue. The electrolytic tank analogue. The RC-network analogue. Applicability of the
various models and analogues. Applications of results to prototype conditions.
Development and use of computer models for groundwater systems. Calibration and testing
of models. Applications to complex aquifers.

7. Geomorphology and sediment transport

Evolution of land form; weathering processes; slopes and their development; land forms crea-
ted by river work. Geomorphology of limestone areas; land forms developed under arid condi-
tions; the use of geomorphological maps; principle of geomorphological and geological photo
interpretation. Soil erosion, soil deterioration and soil conservation. Classification of
erosion processes. Factors affecting surface erosion. Sediment yield. Surface erosion con-
trol. Linear erosion. Sediment balance. Routing. Quantitative approaches.
Sediment properties, initiation of motion.
Sediment transport, bed forms, alluvial roughness.
Stable channels, deposition and erosion, local scour.
Sediment transport measurement procedures.
Characteristics of rivers.
River dynamics. Characteristics of natural rivers. Effect of river engineering works.
River models. Mathematical and scale models.

25
8. Meteorology and hydrometeorology

Atmosphere physics: general introduction, atmospheric gas laws, phase changes of water, psychro-
meter formula, moisture variables, thermodynamics of vertical atmospheric motion, radiation.
Micrometeorology: vertical turbulentkansport, advection and exposure, mass transfer and
energy balance evaporation theories.
Meteorological observation: general problems, requirements for stations.
General meteorology: vertical stability, precipitation formation, artificial control of
precipitation, general circulation, large-scale weather systems, meteorological forecasting
possibilities.
Climatology: synthetic parameters and classification, moisture indices, seasonal circu-
lation patterns, local winds, diurnal and annual courses, influences of latitude and topography,
climatic periodicities and changes.
Meteorological instruments: response theory, thermometers, radiation meters, hygrometers,
snow and dew measurement, wind meters, radar, radiosonde. Principles of observation and record-
ing for attended and unattended stations.
Observation methods: measurements of temperature, humidity, solar radiation and.wind.
Keeping, checking and adjustment of records.
Applied hydrometeorology: major weather types producing precipitation. Physics of
evaporation: radiation; transport mechanisms; formulae. Measurement of precipitation,
design of precipitation networks, precipitation data processing, total preqipitation on an area.
Intensity-duration-frequency relationships; depth-area-duration analyses, storm maximization.

9. Forest hydrology

Forest hydrology. Study of the erosion. Soil and erosion. Means of transportation. Study
of carriages and suspensions. Measurement of solid flow in watercourses. Sample take-off.
Conservation of reservoir capacity. Influence of vegetation on the amount of water which
reaches the soil surface. Effects of the vegetation on surface run-over.

10. Hydrology of coastal and estuarine areas

Coastal morphology. Sources of salt. Measures to combat salt intrusion. Reservoirs in

coastal areas; water and salt balance. Estuarine morphology. Mixing of fresh and salt
water. Tidal effects. Water quality aspects of estuarine mixing. Siltation in coastal and
estuarine areas.

11. Hydrology of lakes and reservoirs

Various types of lakes, related to their origin and land forms. Evaporation from lakes. Wa-
ter balance of a lake, relation to the surrounding ground and surface waters. Physical proper-
ties of the water, temperature and density. Lake stratification.
Chemical water quality, salinity. Biology of lakes, nutrients, content of the water.
Eutrophication of lakes. Sediments from the surrounding areas. Precipitation of silt in the
lake, sediment control.
Oscillation of the lake water, causes and consequences, wind set-up and wind waves.
Very high and very low lake levels, drying up of lake bottom.
Management of the lake water quality, aeration.
Operation of lakes for water use, control of water level.

12. Hydrology of marshes and swamps

Various types of marshes, stagnant waters and swamps, their origin and history. Temperature
and dynamics phenomena in bodies of standing water.
Water balance of a wetland area, relation to surrounding ground and surface waters,
seasonal fluctuations.
Physical properties of water in ponds, marshes and swamps.
Chemical water quality in marshes and swamps, salinity, acidity and alkalinity.
Biology of marshes and swamps, evolution in the available biomass, formation of peat,
siltation in the marsh and swamp area.
Coastal swamp areas, tidal flats, mangrove forests.
Consequences of drainage of marsh and swamp area, corrosion of the surface, subsidence,
quality of drainage water.
Management of marsh and swamp areas for human uses and as natural area.

26
13. Man's influence on the hydrological cycle

Principal factors of the hydrological cycle that can be influenced by man. Human activity and
its effects along the watercourses in connection with their training and utilization. Effect
of iiiiiiaii activity 0:: the catchcent area. Evaluation of the efficiency and development of water
management.

14. Hydrological forecasting

Hydrological forecasts and warnings: types, classification including elements of the regime,
period covered, forecasting methods, purpose, time advance.
Forecast methods: rainfall-runoff computation, seasonal and annual forecasts, hydromete-
orological forecasts, conceptual catchment models, streamflow simulations, forecasting runoff
from snowmelt, river ice formation and break-up forecasting.
Formulation, evaluation and verification of hydrological forecasts: evaluation of
methods, verification of operational forecasts, relation between meteorological and hydrological
forecasting, cost-benefit analyses.
Forecast of lake level: classification, natural changes and interferences in the regime,
short-term and long-term forecasts, methods and selection.
Groundwater level forecasts: natural and man-made changes in the regime of groundwater,
classification of forecasts, short- and long-term forecasts, methods and selections.
Water quality forecasts and warnings: chemical, toxical components and their parameters
to be forecast, organization, data acquisition and transmission, time advance requirements in
quality forecasting, technical equipment, issue of forecast warnings, short- and long-term
forecasts, methods, selection of methods.
Hydrological forecast services: operation, organizations, data acquisition and trans-
mission, issue of forecast and warnings, technical equipment.

15. Nuclear and tracer techniques in hydrology

Principles of tracer methods. Advantages and limitations of radioactive tracers. The use of
artificial tracers in investigations of surface and groundwater. Radiotracer investigations
of surface and groundwater flow and transport. Instrumental methods (snow gauging and survey,
soil moisture logging). Occurrence and distribution of environmental isotope data in surface
and groundwater investigations. The use of salts and other tracers. Applications of nuclear
methodology and techniques to hydrologic investigations and measurement devices in hydrology.

16. Aerial photography and remote sensing for hydrology

Methods of covering an area by aerial photographs. Types of photographs. Geometrical pro-

perties of photographs. Difference between a vertical photograph and a map. Binocular
vision. Different ways of observing photographs, parallaxes, floating marks. Necessity of
ground-control. Slotted template method. Plotting with simple instruments. Principle of
the reconstruction of bundles of rays.
The interpretation of aerial photographs. Qualitative and quantitative methods. Im-
portance of photo-scale, emulsion type etc. Simple photogrammetric features: influence of
distortion of the photomodel on the interpretation. Demonstration of main geomorphological
types. Case studies demonstrating the use of aerial photography for studies in geohydrology
and hydraulic engineering works, soil surveys based on geomorphological approach.
Remote sensing. Definition: remote sensing in nature. Main actual uses of remote
sensing. Survey of remote sensing techniques. Interpretation of data. The earth's re-
sources, satellite technology, application of remote sensing to meteorology, oceanography,
glaciology of the polar caps, hydrology, environmental protection. Biological applications:
crop survey, vegetation mapping, pest and disease spotting. Medical uses.

17. Computer programming and data processing

Use of digital calculators. Types of computers. Structure of a typical computer.

The FORTRAN programming language (or another language).
Development of computer programmes for the solution of hydrological problems.
Collection of data. Type of recording, codes, ways of registration, nature of the
process, length of the recording interval.
Processing of data. Error detection, correction, data reduction, actual processing.
Storage of data. Files, data bases of information and of data.

27
18. Principles of watershed management

Elements of wildland hydrology and influence of forest and range vegetation on environment and
water resource. Introduction to management of vegetation and use of small structural measures
for watershed benefits. Techniques of managing wildlands for increases in usable water yields,
protection of watershed values, and rehabilitation of depleted watershed lands.

19. Integrated water resources planning and management

Scope and basic principles, water needs and stage and types of development.
Evaluation of storage capacity, silting of reservoir and reservoir losses, water uses and
conflicts.
Planning of single purpose and multi-purpose projects, data for planning, estimation of
water needs, formulation and analysis.
River basin development: appraisal of resources and existing development; selection of
optimal development, systems approach to optimization of benefits; engineering economy, finan-
cial and economic analysis, cost benefit and rate of turnover criteria; analysis of project
returns.
Water balance, effect of development on hydrological regime.
Conjunctive use and management of surface and groundwater.
Reservoir regulation, operation planning, schedules and guides.

20. Water resources systems analysis

General principles of the application of system analysis to problems in water resources engin-
eering. Water resources projects as systems. Identification of objectives, economic bene-
fits, cost and decision variables. Application of micro-economics to design. Analysis of
performance and production. Techniques for finding optimal development or minimum cost.
Computation periods for problems requiring a combination of economic and engineering analysis.
Deterministic and probabilistic analysis of hydrological and water resources systems using
mathematical techniques such as simulation, linear and dynamic programming and queuing theory.
Conjunctive utilization of surface-water and groundwater systems.

21. Hydrological models

Model - prototype relationship in hydrology, collection of data on prototype catchment, experi-

mental and representative basins.
Physical models: rain simulators, catchment models, registration equipment.
Mathematical models: digital simulation of catchment behaviour- solution of equations
of motion and continuity, conceptual modelling of the hydrological cycle; catchment as a
system. Analogue simulation - catchment as a routing model (reservoir and channels), concep-
tual electrical analogy of the cycle. Hybrid simulation -digital and analogue.

22. Statistical analysis in hydrology

Definition of terms used jointly in hydrology and statistics, types of hydrological data, clas-
sification and presentation of data for purpose of analysis; elementary theory of probability,
permutation and Combination; frequency distributions of discrete variables and their applica-
tion to hydrological variables, binomial, multinomial, hypergeometric. Poisson; frequency
distributions of continuous variables and their application to hydrological data, normal, log-
normal (two and more parameters), Gamma and Beta (one and more parameters), main types of
Pearson distribution and distribution of extreme values; different plotting position fomulas,
use of probability paper, testing goodness of fit and other hypotheses, the Chi-square distri-
bution, maximum likelihood method; comparison of means and variances, analysis of variance;
regression and correlation analysis, simple linear regression, regression relation, multiple
linear regression; tests of significance, Student t-test, Fisher F test and tests of signifi-
cance of correlation coefficient. Sampling theory and its application to large and small
samples. Applications of extreme value distributions to floods and droughts.

28
Annex IC
Curricula and syllabi recommended by W M O for the education and
training of professional personnel in operational hydrology
INTRODUCTION

Part I1 of the second edition of the IfiO Publication No. 258 'Addendum to Guidelines for
the education and training of personnel in neteorology and operational hydrology' includes
curricula and syllabi for training professional hydrologists and hydrological technicians.
The field of 'operational hydrology' (1) is defined as follows:
a. Measurement of basic hydrological elements from networks of meteorological and hydro-
logical stations; collection, transmission, processing, storage, retrieval and pub-
lication of basic hydrological data;
b. Hydrological forecasting; and
c. Development and improvement of relevant methods, procedures and techniques in: net-
work design; specification of instruments; standardization of instruments and
methods of observation; data transmission and processing; supply of meteorological
I

and hydrological data for design purposes; hydrological forecasting.

The curricula and syllabi presented below have been prepared by the Commission for Hydrolo-
gy (CHy) of the World Meteorological Organization. They are given as guidance for organizers
of courses or university-related training of professional hydrologists and do not represent any
formal recommendation of the World Meteorological Organization on the training of the personnel
of national services in charge of operational hydrology.

A. EDUCATION IN THE BASIC SCIENCES

1. Mathematics

1.1 Algebra

Classic linear and non-linear algebra with special emphasis on vectors and tensors; elements of
modern algebra: fields, rings, groups, lattices.

1.2 Differential and integral calculus and advanced calculus

The classical course in differential and integral calculus including the theorems of Green,
Ostrogradsky, Stokes and Gauss; methods of evaluating the asymptotic value of integrals.
Functions of a complex variable.
Classical course in series, including Fourier series and orthogonal functions; Fourier
integrals.
Ordinary differential equations including linear and higher order and degree equations;
solutions in series and the theory of special functions.
Classical course in differential and integral vector and tensor calculus.
Calculus of variation; optimal control theory.

1.3 Partial differential and integral equations

Boundary value problems in heat conduction.

Special functions.
Eigen functions and Eigen values.

1.4 Probability theory and statistics

Foundations of probability theory.

The statistical method and its scope.
Contingency and correlation.
Time series; random series; trends in time series; harmonic analysis; spectrum analy-
sis (power spectra).
Method of least squares.

(1) Sixth W O Congress, Annex to Resolution 12 (WO-No. 292).

29
1.5 Numerical and graphical calculation

Numerical calculation of an expression involving only arithmetical operations.

Numerical differentiation and integration.
Numerical calculation of series.
Solution of ordinary differential equations; numerical approximation and graphical method.
Simultaneous linear equations.
Partial differential equations; relaxation methods.
Non-linear algebraic equations; numerical solution of cubic equations; graphical methods.
Approximation functions.
Solution of the standard transcendental equations; graphical methods.
Standard integral equations.

1.6 Machine computation

The use of computers in meteorology: computers, working principles; coding; general construc-
tion, central unit, in- and output devices (CRT displays, plotters); information carriers
(paper tape, magnetic disc, microfilm for machine reading); memories; principles; lineprin-
ters; tapes and cards, tape and punch-card machines; sorting and selection stages; program-
ming principles; flow diagrams; programming languages (ALGOL, BASIC, FORTRAN]; compilers;
statistics, accounting and information handling machines; application of machine methods in
meteorological services; analogue computers; processing of continuous variables; applica-
tions.
2. Physics

2.1 Particle dynamics

Kinematics of a particle.
Dynamics of a particle.

2.2 Rigid body dynamics

Kinematics of a rigid body.

Dynamics of a rigid body.

2.3 Elastic media

Equilibrium of elastic bodies.

Elastic waves.

2.4 Hydrodynamics

a. Kinematics
Eulerian and Lagrangian variables; decomposition of a field of motion in the vicinity of one of
its points into a field of translation; a field of rotation and a field of deformation and di-
vergence; physical significance of vorticity and divergence; application to plane motion.

b. Statics
Pressure; force due to the pressure gradient; equations of state and of change of state of a
fluid; perfect gas equation; surface tension of fluids; capillarity; barotropic and baro-
clinic fluids; isobarisostere solenoids; Pascal's law; Torricelli's experiment; barometer;
Archimedes' principle and buoyancy applications; hydrostatic equation along the vertical;
altimetry, application to the atmosphere; Laplace's equation.

c. Dynamics
Eulerian and Lagrangian motion; boundary and initial conditions; continuity equation; case of
gases and liquids; compressibility and incompressibility.
Work-energy theorem, balance of mechanical energy (potential and kinetic energy) ; applica-
tion to aerodynamics; Bernouilli's theorem.
Vorticity and divergence; rotational form of the equations of motion; irrotational motion
and two or three-dimensional rotational motion; irrotational motion in three dimensions due to
sources, sinks, doublets and line sources; images; flow around an obstacle.
Circulation and vorticity: absolute and relative circulation and vorticity; case of the
barotropic fluid: the Lagrange-Helmholtz theorem; case of the baroclinic fluid: V. Bjerknes'
theorem and its interpretations.
 Small disturbances and their propagation in a fluid in equilibrium; compressibility waves
(sound waves); gravity and inertia waves.
Viscous fluids; coefficient of viscosity; case of gas; case of liquids; Navier-Stokes'
tensor; integration of the viscous fluid equations in simple cases; Poiseuille's flow and
Couette's flow; resistance of fluids to the motion of immersed bodies; Stokes' formula, limit-
ing velocity, applications.
Turbulent fluids; one and two-dimensional turbulent flow; boundary layer; eddy lines and
eddy motions in the wake of an obstacle; Reynolds' number; Reynolds' tensor; turbulent dif-
fusion of heat and momentum, eddy conductivity and eddy viscosity; application to the atmos-
phere, turbulent diffusion of water vapour in air.

2.5 Thermodynamics

Object of thermodynamics: thermodynamic system; definition; exchanges of energy and matter

with the external world; closed and open systems; physical state of a system; variables of
state; (p,v) systems; Clapeyron's diagram.
Definition of temperature: temperature scales (Celsius, Fahrenheit, Kelvin); variables
of state and the equation of state of a system; homogeneous and non-homogeneous systems;
thermal expansion of solids, liquids and gases; case of gases: the laws of Boyle-Mariotte,
Gay-Lussac, Avogadro and Dalton (gas mixtures); equation of state of a gas: perfect gas and
Van der Waal's gas.
Definition of heat: quantity of heat; calories; thermal conductivity; specific heat;
case of gases; heat of change of phase; heat of reaction (chemistry); calorimetry.
First law of thermodynamics: various forms of energy (work, heat, electrical and chemi-
cal energy, etc.); principle of the conservation of energy; principle of the equivalency of
heat and work (Joule); statement and meaning of the first law in the cases of systems at rest
and in motion (atmospheric air); in the cases of closed and open systems (clouds in the case
of precipitation); case of systems in motion; consequences of the first law and of the
kinetic energy theorem as applied to the system; internal energy; enthalpy; Gibb's system;
work accomplished by the expansion of an ideal fluid; reversible exchange of work and heat;
calorimetric coefficients of a fluid; adiabatic transformations; case of the perfect gas.

2.6 Electromagnetism

Electrostatics.
Direct current.
Magnetostatics.
Alternating current.
Electromagnetism.

2.7 Electromagnetic radiation

Geometric optics.
Wave optics.
Spectroscopy.
Theory of electromagnetic radiation.

2.8 Atomic and molecular physics

Concept of the composition of matter.

Elements of wave and quantum mechanics, and atomic physics.

.B. EDUCATION IN OPERATIONAL HYDROLOGY AND RELATED SUBJECTS

1. Principles of descriptive geometry and technical drawing

Principles of descriptive geometry: point; planes; methods of conversion of projec-

tions; axonemetric projections.
Technical drawing: principles of projection and topographic drawing.

2. Theoretical mechanics and fluid mechanics

Statics: composition of forces; parallel forces -theory of couples on a plane surface;

plane and general system of forces; centre of parallel forces and of gravity.
Kinematics: kinematics of a point; translation and rotation motion of a solid body;
complex motion; plane-parallel motion of a solid body.

31
 Dynamics: differential equations of the motion of a material point; theorems on the
amount of motion of a material point and system; theory of shocks; theorems on the moment of
the amount of motion of a material point and on the kinematic moment of a system; theorems on
the variation in the kinematic energy of a material point and system -general law of energy
conservation; d'Alembert's principle and principle of virtual displacements.
Fluid mechanics: kinematics of a liquid; hydrostatics; hydrodynamics of an ideal
liquid; wave theory; dynamics of a viscous liquid.

3. General chemistry and hydrochemistry

General chemistry: atomic-molecular theory; structure of the atom and the periodic system of
elements; chemical combination and the structure of molecules; kinetics and chemical equi-
librium; theory of solutions; basic principles of electrochemistry; general properties of
metals; alloys; first group of the periodic system of elements; second group; third group;
fourth group; organic combination; fifth group; sixth group; seventh group; eighth group;
zero group.
Hydrochemistry: water as a solvent; its properties; electrolyte solutions; principles
of physico-chemical analysis; surface phenomena and absorption; basic problems of colloidal
chemistry; chemical composition of natural water; chemical composition of atmospheric preci-
pitation; chemistry of rivers, lakes and reservoirs; chemistry of groundwater; chemistry of
seas and oceans.
Water pollution.

4. Principles of geophysics, geology, geomorphology and soil science

Principles of geophysics and general information about the globe: shape, dimensions and types
of motion of the globe; layers surrounding the globe - atmosphere, hydrosphere, biosphere,
lithosphere and bathysphere; their composition, structure, thermo-dynamic conditions and state
of aggregation; terrestrial magnetism, density of the earth and distribution of gravity forces
over its surface; distribution and relationship of water and land on the earth's surface.
Principles of geology: composition of the earth's crust; distribution of chemical ele-
ments in the earth's crust; minerals and rocks; geological processes; tectonics and mountain
formation phenomena; historical geology methods.
Principles of geomorphology: classification of types of relief - morphological, oro-
graphic and genetic; action of flowing water and erosion; rivers and climate; water-accumu-
lation forms of relief; karst and glacier forms of relief; forms of relief in deserts and
mountainous areas.
Principles of soil science: soil formation, soil as polydispersion system; physics of
soil; chemistry of soil; classification of soils; soil and water; movement of soil water;
hydrological properties of soils; soil water balance.

5. Surveying

Plan and map: principles of theory of errors in measurements; measurement of lines in the
field; optical parts of geodetic instruments; theodolite and theodolite survey; levelling;
combined planimetric-altimetric surveys; approximation surveys; geodetic network; geodetic
applications in stationary and field hydrological surveys; principles of aerial photography;
principles of cartography.

6. Hydraulics: open channel flow dynamics and channel processes (river bed formation)

General hydraulics: hydrostatics; principles of hydrodynamics; flow through small and large
orifices at constant and variable pressure; steady flow in open channel; pressure flow of a
liquid in pipes; non-steady flow; spillways and flow over structures; hydraulic jump and
energy dissipators.
River hydraulics: non-uniform flow in channels; flow with a variable discharge; un-
steady flow in open channels; hydraulics of bifurcations and estuaries.
Principles of similitude.
Principles of the dynamics of streams with a non-erodable bed: mechanics and structure
of two-dimensional channel flow; hydro-mechanical analysis of two-dimensional turbulent flow;
non-rectilinear flow and additional resistance of channel to flow.-
Physical and hydromechanical basis of the theory of flow in an eroding channel: main
mechanical and hydraulic characteristics of river beds and sediments; mechanism of sediment
transport.
Channel processes: hydrodynamic and hydromorphological approach to the channel processes
theory; basic river bed processes produced by the construction of hydraulic structures.
32
7 - General meteorology and climatology

General properties of the atmosphere; composition of structure of the atmosphere; basic gas
laws applicable to the atmosphere; principles of atmospheric statics.
Rdiant energy in the atmosphere: solar radiation; effective radiation and radiation
balance.
Heat exchange in the soil, water and atmosphere: heat regime of the soil and bodies of
water; principle of atmospheric thermo’dynamics; heat transfer in the atmosphere
temperature; vertical distribution of air temperatures.
- air

Physicalrneteorology: cloud formation; the nucleation of water-vapour condensation;

the nuclei of atmospheric condensation; the growth of droplets in cloud and fog; initiation
of the ice phase in cloud; the formation of snow crystals; the physics of natural pre-
cipitation processes,
Artificial modification of clouds and precipitation: suppression of large hail.
Wind measurement methods.
Climatological problems and investigation methods- relationship with meteorology and hy-
drology: climatological data processing methods; basic factors of climate formation; influ-
ence of relief on climate; influence of snow and ice on climate; geographical distribution of
climatic elements over the globe; classification of climates; microclimate and local climate;
changes in climate and climatic fluctuations; climates of the world.
Network of meteorological stations -
observation times and the transmission of information.

8. Synoptic meteorology

General information on synoptic meteorology and short-range weather forecasts: basic synoptic
codes -
prospects of using meteorological satellite data -
elements of World Weather Watch;
compilation and analysis of weather charts; analysis of the fields of meteorological elements;
air masses -
their classification and properties; atmospheric fronts: cyclone activity;
analysis and short-range forecasts of the synoptic position and weather conditions; quanti-
tative precipitation forecasting .
Macro-synoptic processes and long-range weather forecasts: laws of general atmospheric
circulation; peculiarities of circulation in various areas of the globe and types of macro-
synoptic processes; methods of long-range weather forecasts covering long and short periods.

Nucleation of the liquid phase from the vapour; condensation nuclei, their properties and
distribution; ice nuclei and their properties and distribution in time and space; growth
of cloud drops and ice crystals by diffusion, snow-crystal habit; size, number, fall speed
of drops and crystals; limit on diffusional growth and need for precipitation mechanisms;
Bergeron-Findeisen process; coalescence of cloud drops; growth of warm rain; formation
of graupel and hail, growth of precipitation in convective, stratiform and orographic clouds;
icing of aircraft; artificial modification of clouds; critical assessment of techniques
for stimulation of rain, prevention of hail, dissipation of fog and cloud.

10. Hydrological instruments and methods of ohserva€ions

Precipitation: gauge location; recording and non-recording gauges; snowfall; observation

by radar; dew.
Snow cover: water equivalent; depth and extent of snow cover, ground surveys; radio-
isotope snowgauges; snow pillows; natural g a m a radiation.
Evaporation and evapotranspiration: pan evaporation; soil evaporimeters and lysimeters;
snow evaporimeters; short and long-wave radiation; indirect methods.
Water levels of rivers, lakes and reservoirs: gauges and procedures for measurement of
state; frequency of gauge measurements.
Discharge measurements: current meters; float method; dilution method; measurement
of corresponding stage; moving-boat method; ultrasonic method; electromagnetic method;
indirect methods; measurement under ice cover.
Stream gauging stations: purposes; selection of site; control sections; artifical
controls; stage-discharge relationships.
Sediment discharge: measurement of suspended sediment discharge; measurement of bed-
sediment discharge.
Water temperature; instruments for point-to-point and continuous measurements; ohserva-
tional procedure; infra-red radiation thermometer; measurement of water surface temperature
for lake and reservoir evaporation.

33
 Ice on rivers, lakes and reservoirs: elements of ice regime; methods of observation;
times and frequency of observations.
Soil moisture: weight method; electrical-resistance method; tensiometric method;
neutron method; gamma-ray method.
Groundwater levels: methods of measurement; selection of observation wells.

11. Design of networks

General principles for design of networks: general requirements; optimum network; minimum
network; optimum use of existing stations in organizing a m i n i m network; data to be con-
sidered in determining network density; quality of data to be collected.
Density of observation stations for a minimum network; factors affecting the density;
minimum density limit of climatological networks; hydrometric network of minimum density.
Integration of bench-mark stations and representative basins in the network.

12. Collection, processing and publication of data

Collection: observational procedures; transmission of hydrological observations; quality

control; storage and cataloguing.
Use of satellites in operational hydrology; types of sensor; platforms; hydrological
applications; data-transmission systems.
Streamflow computation: computation of average gauge height; computation of average dis-
charge; computation of average discharge under ice cover; quality control of streamflow data.
Special data collection: requirement, 'bucket surveys' of storm rainfall; weather-radar
data; extreme river stages and discharges.
Processing: general methods; special applications.
Publication: purpose; requirements of hydrology; frequency of publication; contents
and formats.

13. Hydrological analysis

Interpretation of precipitation data: adjustment of data, double-mass curve analysis, inter-

polation of data; spatial distribution, isohyetal maps, evaluation of physiographic effects;
average depth over a catchment; storm rainfall studies, depth-area-duration analysis, probable
maximum precipitation (PIG); rainfall frequencies, drought severity; rainfall intensities;
snowmelt .
Interpretation of soil-moisture data.
Evaporation and evapotranspiration: derivation of lake and reservoir evaporation, water-
budget method, energy-budget method, aerodynamic approach, combination of aerodynamic and
energy balance equations, pan-coefficient method; estimates of basin evapotranspiration,
water budget, energy-budget method, aerodynamic approach.
Interpretation of streamflow data: adjustment of data; spatial distribution, maps of
average annual run-off; temporal distribution of run-off volume, unit hydrograph, isochrone
method; streamflow routing; low-flow analysis, flow duration curves, low-flow frequencies,
statistical analysis of droughts, recession curve analysis; flood frequencies, statistical
analysis of floods, regional generalization of flood characteristics; long-period trends.
Run-off relations- rainfall and snowmelt: regression and analysis; run-off by storm
periods, antecedent-moisture index method, initial base flow as index to rainfall run-off,
moisture accounting techniques; run-off from short-period snowmelt; monthly, seasonal and
annual water-budget.

14. Hydrological forecasting

Hydrological forecasts and warnings: classification of hydrological forecasts.

Hydrological forecasting services: operations; organization; collection of data and
issue of forecasts and warnings; data requirements, accuracy and frequency of data measure-
ments, operational data acquisition, use of radar oIjservations for hydrological forecasting,
use of snow and ice observations from meteorological satellites, technical equipment for
hydrological forecasting services.
Forecast methods: theory of rainfall and snowmelt, floods and methods of their compu-
tation, forecasting run-off from snowmelt, seasonal and annual flow forecasts; stages and
flows, flood forecasts, rainfall-run-off computations, conceptual catchment models, (numerical
run-off models), streamflow simulation; short- and long-term forecasts of ice formation and
break-up; updating of forecasts.
Formulation, evaluation and verification of hydrological forecasts: formulation of

34
 hydrological forecasts; evaluation of forecasting methods; verification of operational
forecasts; relation between meteorological and hydrological forecasting; cost-benefit
analyses for hydrological forecasting.

15. Applications to water management

#
Estimation of available surface water supplies: factors to be evaluated; suitability of
available records; synthesis of hydrological data; probabilistic approach; time series
approach.
Estimation of water demand and losses: estimation of components of water demand; esti-
mation of water losses from surface water systems.
Estimation of required reservoir storage capacity: data adaptation; probabilistic
approach, discharge frequency, volume frequency; time series approach, mass curves, Hurst
phenomenon, Markovian process; multipurpose storage requirements; reservoir system design;
environmental effects.
Estimation of design floods; definitions; types of design flood; determination of
optimum design probabilities of flood discharge and the probability distribution used in
hydrological design; data preparation; use of streamflow data in computing flood-frequency
curves; techniques for computations of design floods, determination of design floods.
Design of flood control works: design of flood protection reservoirs; operational
considerations for design purposes; operation of reservoirs for flood control; further
considerations concerning reservoirs; channel modification, levees, flood proofing; other
flood protection structures, non-structuralmeasures, Elood plain regulation, flood warning.
Design of urban and small rural watershed drainage works: rational method; unit hydro-
graph and time-area curves; distributed system models; rainfall data required for design of
drainage works.
Estimation of maximum reservoir levels: wind set-up; wind generated waves; periodic
undulations of water surface.
Sediment transportation: erosion of watersheds; sedimentation.
Influences of hydrological factors on water quality: streamflow; lakes and reservoirs.
-
General causes of water quality changes, reaction to pollutants; eutrophication; self
purification; absorption and accumulation; rise in water temperature.

16. Organization of hydrological services

Functions of hydrological services: basic data functions; reports on water resources; hydro-
logical forecasts; analysis and design studies; research; training.
Organization of hydrological services: existing patterns; technical considerations in
organizational planning.

35
Annex 11
Curricula and syllabi for complete undergraduate training in hydrology
c

SELECTED SYLylBI FOR COURSES IN HYDROLOGY AND RELATED SUBJECTS IN THE U.S.S.R.

1. Fluid mechanics

1.1 Kinematics
Velocity fields of steady and unsteady flow. Acceleration. Trajectory of movement, stream
line. Differential equation of the stream tube. Two-dimensional flow. Flow net. Conti-
nuity, etc. Sources, sinks, vortex. Cartesian components. Helmholtz and Stokes laws.
Velocity potential. Laplace equation. Concepts of flow function.
Simple fields of potential flows. Flow systems.
Conformal representation. Flow around cylinders and polygonal profiles, separation of
boundary layer.

1.2 Hydrodynamics
Derivation of differential equations of viscous flow. Laminar and turbulent flow, theory of
hydrodynamic similarity, design of free surface flow according to Bernadski. Wind-induced
currents in deep reservoirs, seiches. Hydromechanics and its relation to hydraulics and
thermodynamics.
Practical examples in kinematics and hydrodynamics.

2. General and special (open channel) hydraulics

2.1 General hydraulics

Introduction. Hydrostatics. Basic hydrodynamics. Flow through orifices and nozzles. Uni-
form flow in open channels. Pressure flow in conduits. Non-uniform flow. Flow over and
through structures. Hydraulic jump and its connection with upper and lower backwater.

2.2 Special (open channel) hydraulics

Non-uniform flow in channels. Flow with changing discharge. Unsteady flow. Hydraulics of
bifurcations and of estuaries. Laboratory work problems.

3. Hydrophysics

Basic data referring to the physics of water and ice.

Hydrothermics: heat balance of soils and hydraulic structures; Laplace equations and
practical methods for their solution; solution of thermal problems by means of temperature
models; heat balance of reservoirs; differential equation of turbulent-flow temperature
fields; heat balance in ice-covered reservoirs; thermal balance of ice melting, etc.
Capillary, film and vapour movement of water in-soils and other porous media; laws of
motion temperature gradients, heat regime of snow packs, osmotic phenomena in soils, etc.
Hydro-acoustics and hydro-optics; sonic velocity in liquids, ultra-sound, laws of
spectral reflection and refraction.
Electrical and magnetic phenomena in liquids. Experiments in laboratory.

4. Chemistry and hydrochemistry

4.1 Chemistry
Basic laws of chemistry; construction of atoms -Mendeleev's periodical system of elements;
chemical bond and structure of molecules; crystallic state of the substance; chemical kine-
tics and equilibrium; solutions; bases of physical and chemical analyses; surface phenomena
and adsorption; basic laws of colloidal chemistry; oxidation; general properties of metals;
alloys; basic electrochemistry -corrosion of metals and methods of protection; description
of the eighth group of the periodical system; organic compounds.

4.2 Hydrochemistry
Methods of hydrochemical research. Chemical composition of natural waters; atmospheric
precipitation; groundwater; river waters; lakes and reservoirs; sea water; economic
importance of chemical composition of natural waters. Laboratory training.

36
 5. Geophysics, geology, geomorphology

Components of the environment of the globe. Mutual influence of the hydrosphere and litho-
sphere. Modern geology and geomorphology. The earth's shell, geological processes, volca-
mism; earthquakes! historical geology and qeomorphology, processes of soil formation, etc.
4 Pedology. Field exercises.

6. General climatology and meteorology

General properties of the atmosphere; radiation energy. Winds, heat circulation in the soil,
water and atmosphere; water vapour transport in the atmosphere.
Climatology: methods of processing climatological observations; basic climatological
factors; influence of the relief on the climate; classification of climates; micro-climate
and regional climate; changes in fluctuations of the climate; climates of the globe. Labora-
tory training.

7. Synoptic meteorology

General information about the weather-service; preparation and analysis of weather-charts;

analysis of fields of meteorological elements; atmospheric masses; fronts; cyclones, analy-
sis and short-term forecast of the synoptic situation and weather conditions.
Macro-synoptical processes and long-term weather-forecasts: determination of general
atmosphere circulation. Zonal and meridional components of air flows; successive recurrence
of cyclones and anticyclones in the Northern Hemisphere. Pressure distribution on the globe.
Climatological centres of atmospheric action. Direction and velocity of basic air flows on
the ground and in altitudes; situation and intensity of main frontal zones; average charac-
teristics of main intense atmospheric flows; role of basic factors in the formation of
general atmospheric circulation; schemes of general atmospheric circulation, criticisms.
Methods of long-term weather-forecasts according to B.P. Multanovskij; macro-circulatory
method of long-term weather-forecasts according to G.J. Wangenheim. Laboratory training.

8. Hydrometry

8.1 General hydrometry

Measurement of the water regime; discharge computation; sedimentation; winter and other tem-
perature regimes; chemical composition, transparency and colour of water; wave motion;
aerial photography in hydrometry; hydrometric stations and gauges; general principles of
mechanized and automated observation and processing of data; safety techniques.

8.2 Hydrometric structures and equipment.

9. General and special hydrogeology

9.1 General hydrogeology

Introduction; classification and physical properties of rocks and of groundwater; chemical
composition, bacteriological properties and radioactivity of groundwater; origin and classi-
fication of groundwater; waters of the aeration zone, soil moisture; swamp water and inter-
flow; groundwater in fissures; mineral waters, wells; groundwater protection.

9.2 Special hydrogeology

Groundwater in the U.S.S.R.; dynamics of groundwater; research and investigation of ground-
water. Laboratory training.

10. General hydrology

10.1 Land hydrology

Introduction; meteorological conditions of the regime of continental waters; channel network
and watershed; morphology of river channels; origin of river water; regimes of water-level
and discharges; river run-off and the water balance; temperature and winter regimes of
rivers; energy of rivers and river sediments; hydrology of lakes and reservoirs; river and
lake biology; swamp hydrology.

10.2 Oceanography
Introduction; general data on oceans; morphology of the sea-bed; level fluctuations of
oceans; chemical composition, physical properties of sea water; mixing processes; currents;
waves; sea ice. Laboratory training.
37
11. Hydrological analysis

Introduction; equation of mass and heat balances; mean annual run-off; fluctuations of annu-
al run-off; seasonal variation of run-off; minimum run-off; run-off of spring floods and
storm floods; run-off of bed load and of suspended matter; special problems of hydrological
computations. Laboratory training. b

12. Water resources management and design

12.1 Water management

Water resources and water management; hydraulic structures in the U.S.S.R.; water requirements
of various branches of national economy-standards, consumption and water use; phenomena accom-
panying the construction of reservoirs; evaluation of economical effectiveness of water manage-
ment measures.

12.2 Water management computations

Water management installations and reservoirs; basic data for water management; theoretical
basis of run-off regulation to meet a defined demand; run-off regulation computations using
methods of mathematical statistics for a fixed demand and for a defined variable demand; ope-
ration diagrams for reservoirs; statistical methods in various fields of water management;
hydropower assessment; regulation of flood run-off; reservoir systems, balancing regulation.
Laboratory training.

13. Hydrological forecasting

General bases of hydrological forecasts; short-cerm run-off forecasts (stage and discharge) ;
long-term run-off forecasts; long-term run-off forecasts for mountain streams; long-term
forecasts of annual run-off; forecasts of ice phenomena. Laboratory training.

14. Water balance studies

Investigation of the water balance in catchment areas, lakes and reservoirs with regard to the
development of the national economy; analysis of the water balance equation in general, under
various conditions and correlation of its components and various time periods; water balance
fluctuations due to man's activity; design of hydrological networks and stations; design and
location of representative and experimental basins; water balance and hydrological field
research; field research of water balance components. Laboratory training.

15. Hydrological data and surveys

Multipurpose management; surveys for various developments in the basin, e.g. irrigation,
drainage, highways, navigation. Safety regulations for surveys. Practical training.

16. Dynamics of channel flow and channel erosion

16.1 Dynamics of flow in a rigid-bed channel

Hydromechanical analysis of a shallow turbulent flow; curved flow and additional resistance.

16.2 3Hydromechanics of flow in erodable channels

Basic characteristics of river-beds and of sediments; bed load transport.

16.3 Channel processes

Theoretical hydrodynamics, hydromorphology of river channels; basic channel processes, hydrau-
lic structures. Laboratory training.

17. Hydraulic structures

17.1 Bases of hydrotechnical constructions

Constructional work and materials in hydrotechnics; basic hydrotechnical installations.

17.2 Techniques of water resources exploitation and control of d k g i n g water effects

Exploitation of water energy; log driving; irrigation; irrigation of regions and irrigation
with local run-off; drainage; water-supply of settlements and industrial plants; measures
against soil erosion and gorge formation; hydrotechnics of bridges; notions concerning the
design and organization for the construction of hydraulic structures; list of practical and
laboratory training.
38
TABLE 11.1 - CURRICULA AND SYLLABI OF HYDROLOGICAL EDUCATION IN THE USSR: TIME SCHEDULE

TYPE OF TRAINING NUMBER OF WEEKS FOR A FIVE YEAR COURSE

1 2 3 4 5 TOTAL

Theoretical lessons 33 33 32 29 14 141

Practical lessons (laboratory
training) 6 6 1 2 15
Field work 6 8 10 24
Preparation of diploma project 12 12
Annual examinations 6 6 6 6 3 27
State final examination 2 2
Vacation 7 7 7 7 2 30

TOTAL 52 52 52 52 43 251

TABLE 11.2 - CURRICULA AND SYLLABI OF HYDROLOGICAL EDUCATION IN THE USSR: TEACHING SCHEDULE

NUMBER OF HOURS NUMBER OF HOURS IN A WEEK PER YEAR AND SEMESTER

To- Lec- Labo- Field Year 1 Year 2 Year 3 Year 4 Year 5

tal tures ra- Work
tory
SUBJECT Train- Semester Semester Semester Semester Semester
ing 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

WEEKS

18 15 18 15 18 14 14 15 14 20

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

Political economy 140 70 4 2 3

Foreign languages 250 250 2 2 3 2 2 4
Higher mathematics 485 242 243 8 8 6 4 3
Numerical methods
and computer
programming 75 45 30 5
Physics 288 138 100 50 6 6 5
Theoretical
mechanics and
hydrodynamics 130 80 50 4 4
Principles of
electronics 72 30 42 4
Introduction into
special subjects 36 36 2
Control of the
environment 42 42 3

39
 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

Principles of
geophysics 102 66 36 4 2
Hydrochemistry 96 50 46 4 2
Geodesy and geo-
physical
designing 120 50 45 25 4 3
Meteorology, sy-
noptic meteoro-
logy and
climatology 162 81 81 4 2 4
Hydrometry 150 84 66 5 4
Hydrogeology 117 66 51 4 3
Hydrophysics 70 42 28 5
General and
river hydraulics 156 96 60 4 3 3
General hydrology
and hydrography 202 110 92 5 4 4
Hydrological com-
putation 145 87 58 5 5
Hydrological
forecasting 158 72 86 4 7
Numerical methods
in hydrology
using computers 70 30 40 5
Water technical
surveys; safety
techniques 42 28 14 3
Water balance
research 45 30 15 3
Water management 101 58 43 3 4
Hydrometeorologi-
cal service for
the national
economy 30 30 2
Hydrometeorologi-
cal
constructions 98 56 42 3 4
River channel
processes and
the dynamics of
water flow 116 58 58 4 4
Sport 130 130 2 2 2 2
Special courses
for hydrolo-
gical subjects 348 2 9 2 4 7
CURRICULUM OF THE HYDROLOGICAL EDUCATION PROGRAMME IN THE EAST CHINA INSTITUTE OF HYDRAULIC
ENGINEERING, NANJING. DURATION OF PROGRAMME IS FOUR YEARS.

1. List of courses required by all students

Fundamental hydrology; meteorology; principle of runoff formation; groundwater hydrology;

probability and statistics; river dynamics; hydrometry and data processing; hydrological
forecasting; hydrological computation; water resources design and planning; hydrochemistry;
higher mathematics; algorithmic language and prograrmning; physics; theoretical mechanics;
surveying; engineering drawing; hydraulic engineering; fundamentals of electronic instrumen-
tation; physiography; political studies. Athletics. Foreign language (English, Russian or
Japanese).

2. List of optional courses

Hydrometeorology; watershed hydrological modelling; stochastic hydrology; combined operation

of water projects; hydrological experiment and research; water quality monitoring; oceanology
and esturial hydrology; application of remote sensing in hydrology; limnology. Second
foreign language.

3. Field work and practical experience

During the four-year period of study, some field work is conducted including surveying, hydro-
metry, and physiographic investigations. Practical training in data processing, hydrological
forecasting, hydrological computation and water resources planning is also arranged in diffe-
rent semesters. A thesis on a particular problem will be prepared by each student in the last
semester of his studies.

CURRICULA AND SELECTED SYLLABI ON EDUCATION IN HYDROLOGY IN LUND, SWEDEN (1)

1. Water and society

An integrated course that deals with water, man and the environment. Water, food and energy.
Socio-economic aspects of water management. Water planning concepts, legal and administrative
aspects.

2. Principles of hydrology

Basic principles of modern hydrology. Global energy and water balance principles. Compara-
tive hydrology due to different climatic regions with a special reference to Nordic hydrological
conditions.

3. General hydrometry

Basic principles of hydrological information. Methods of observations of precipitation (inclu-

ding snow), evaporation and interception. Methods of discharge computation, as well as ground-
water and soil water observations. Hydrometric stations and gauges, their management and ope-
ration. Processing of data.

4. -
Physical hydrology

Physical hydrology including major topics in hydrology such as precipitation, evapotranspiration,

soil water and groundwater processes. Watershed hydrology, lake hydrology and quantitative as
well as qualitative hydrological aspects.

5. Hydrochemistry

Elementary chemistry. The hydrological cycle of the dissolved substances. Planning of samp-
ling, analysis of data, budget and mass balance equations. Influence of man on the water
quality.

(1) These syllabi do not reflect a complete study programme but the entity offered in this
field at the University of Lund.

41
6. Hydrological computations

The characterization of hydrological observations. Hydrological data processing. Hydrological

mapping. Hydrological dimensioning including also risk analysis, hydrograph analysis and run-
off models. Hydrological prognoses and their practical applications.

7. General hydraulics

Hydrostatics and basic hydrodynamics. Turbulence. Uniform flow in open channels. Pressure
flow in conduits. Flow over and through structures. Hydraulic jump and its connection with
upper and lower backwater. Groundwater hydraulics.

8. Non stationary hydraulics

Water hammer equations. Pressure waves in conduit nets. Valves and pumps. Method of charac-
teristics. Cavitation. Calculation of mass oscillations for instance in surge shafts. Kine-
matical and dynamical waves in channels.

9. Hydrogeology

Geology and hydrological factors of importance for the occurrence and development of groundwa-
ter. Groundwater exploitations. Geothermic processes.

10. Advanced course in hydrology

Hydrological models: stochastic, deterministic, conceptual, etc. Stochastic hydrology inclu-

ding stochastic processes, correlation analysis, frequency analysis, the structure of hydrologi-
cal time series. Monte Carlo methodology. Urban hydrological processes: frequency analysis
of precipitation, distribution functions for precipitation, methods of calculations of run-off
from impermeable surfaces, qualitative and quantitative aspects of urban run-off and the impact
of run-off on receiving bodies.

11. Water resources planning

Water resources planning in different countries: legal, administrative and socio-economic

aspects. Integrated water resources planning as a concept within the framework of regional or
national physical planning.

42
TABLE 11.3 - CURRICULUM FOR EDUCATION IN HYDROLOGY IN THE UNITED STATES

J
c
.1U -LL
-D U mnm
I SEMESTER

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Fundamentals of chemistry 4 4
Freshman composition 3 3
College algebra and trigonometry 5 -
Engineering graphics 3 -
Analytic geometry and calculus 5 5
Descriptive geometry 3
Introduction to hydrology 1
Analytic mechanics 5
Geology for engineers 3
Introduction to meteorology and climatology 3
Fields of static and moving charges 3
Introduction to optics and acoustics 3
Historical geology for engineers 3
General botany 4
Introduction to analytic chemistry 3
Calculus and differential equations 5
Introduction to statistics 3
Introduction to crystallography and mineralogy 3
Spectrographical petrology 1
Contemporary economics 3
Structure and physical properties of soils 3
Structural geology
Fluid mechanics
Hydrology
Physical climatology
Introduction to geological surveying methods
Humanistic-social studies
Field geology 3
Field hydrology 3
Principles of geomorphology 3
Photogrammetry 3
Resource economics 3
Humanistic social studies 3 6
Electronics 6 3
Geology of groundwater 3
Preparation of geological reports 2
Hydrological systems 3

TOTAL 15 16 16 16 18 18 24 17

43
Annex IIIA
Curricula and syllabi for some Unesco-sponsored post-graduate
programmes in hydrology
INTRODUCTION

The curricula and syllabi listed in this annex are taken from official programmes published by
the organizers of each programme. Listed are only programmes that are given regularly every
year or every two years and extend over a period of at least six months. The information
presented is, in most cases, the latest available at the time of editing this publication.

A. INTERNATIONAL COURSE ON WATER RESOURCES ENGINEERING -

"JAROSLAV CERNI" INSTITUTE FOR
DEVELOPMENT OF WATER RESOURCES AND THE FACULTY OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, UNIVERSITY OF
BELGRADE, BELGRADE

Duration of programme: 3 months. Language: English.

List of courses Hours

1. Hydropower development with emphasis on small and medium size projects. 52

2. Hydraulic structures and dams 71
3. River engineering 63
4. Water supply and sewerage 68
5. Water resources management 47
6. Groundwater hydrology and hydraulics 48
7. Sedimentation engineering 32
8. Scale models in hydraulic engineering 19
9. Hydrodynamic measurements and data processing 21
10 Mathematical modelling and computer applications -30

Total : 451

Syllabi of courses

1. Hydropower development with an emphasis on small and medium projects

The role of hydroelectricity in modern power systems. Review of recent developments in plan-
ning, design, construction and operation of hydropower plants. Assessment of hydropower poten-
tial on a national or regional scale. Classification of plants by size, type, energy produc-
tion, etc. Design criteria: selection of sites, energy and power requirements, hydrological
conditions, energy production, etc. Market for energy from small and medium plants: industry,
domestic use, rural development, etc. Relation to regional or national power networks. Mecha-
nical and electrical equipment. Operation and maintenance and management of power stations and
smaller power systems.

2. Hydraulic structures and dams

Objectives of dams and reservoirs. Selection of sites. Environmental impact. Types of dams.
Safety considerations. Site investigations. Construction materials. Laboratory studies.
Appurtenances. Hydraulic works. Foundation treatment. Equipment. Cost estimates. Ope-
ration and maintenance.
Design particularities of different types of dams: earth dams, concrete gravity dams,
multiple arch and arch dams.
Hydraulic structures in water resources systems: water intakes, settling basins, canals
and canal structures. Water conveyance tunnels: elements of rock mechanics, site investiga-
tions, design considerations, construction methods.
Seismicity and hydraulic structures.

3. River engineering

Introduction to alluvial river mechanics. Objectives of river engineering works. Field

investigations. Morphological studies and computation. Fluvial hydraulics: steady flow and
unsteady flow calculations, prediction of river bed development. Elements and principles of

44
channel improvement works. Dredging. River training structures: influences and loads, ma-
terials, typical structures; design problems, construction and maintenance works. Special
engineering works: underwater pipeline crossings, cut-offs, protection of bridges against
scour, etc. Flood control: structural and non-structural measures. Levees and dykes.
R-eservoirsand retention basins.

4. Water supply and sewerage

Water borne diseases and toxic substances in natural waters. Parameters of water quality and
WHO standards for drinking water. Protection of water resources from pollution and eutrifica-
tion. Sanitary control of available water resources. Planning for water demand. Surface
and groundwater intakes. Water treatment for suspended colloidal and dissolved solids removal:
disinfection. Water distribution systems, selection of pipes and construction materials, hy-
draulics of conveyance systems, construction problems, appurtenances and special structures.
Waste water collection: estimation of quality, collection systems; appurtenances and
special structures; waste water treatment; primary, secondary, tertiary, package treatment
plants. Waste water and sludge disposal, and re-use. Problems of marine disposal.
Field and laboratory investigations: monitoring of water quality, water and waste water
treatment processes.
Specific problems of water supply and sewage disposal in small settlements.

5. Water resources management

Complexity of water resources systems: spatial and temporal distribution of water resources
and users, stochasticity and time dependence. Relation to economic and social development and
environmental effects. Economy of water resources projects.
Optimization methods and models: objectives, constraints, criteria. Simulation of
system performance.
Project management. Financing, tenders, project organization, execution and supervision.

6. Groundwater hydrology and hydraulics

Hydrodynamics of aquifers. Site investigations, mathematical modelling, use of input data,

calibration of models and determination of aquifer characteristics.
Patterns of groundwater use. Wells and other intake structures. Clogging of wells and
safe yield. Artificial recharge.
Seepage problems at dams, barrages, weirs and levees. Seepage control at engineering
structures. Seepage losses from canals and their control. Electrical and other analog
methods, laboratory techniques, calibration and analysis.

7. Sedimentation engineering

Review and refreshment of theoretical background to sedimentation mechanics. Practical prob-

lems of sediment transport in rivers. Scour and deposition induced by engineering structures.
Prediction of reservoir sedimentation. Field measurements and data processing.
Sedimentation control methods. Economic and social aspects of sedimentation and sedimen-
tation control.

8. Scale models and hydraulic measurements

Dimensional analysis and similarity criteria. Models of closed conduits: water ducts, tun-
nels, regulators. Cavitation problems. Models of hydraulic structures: spillways, tail
races, stilling pools, etc. River models: fixed and movable bed models, scale distortion,
modelling of sediment transport and of local scour. Coastal models, stability of breakwaters
and other structures. Littoral drift and siltation problems.
Measurement of hydraulic phenomena in laboratory and field. Instruments for manual and
automatic measurements. Unattended stations. Remote sensing. Planning of laboratory expe-
riments. Measurements of unsteady dynamic quantities: sensors, signal conditioning, data
acquisition and storage, data processing, error analysis. Mini and micro processors: their
advantages and demerits. Examples and demonstrations in laboratory work: automatic control
of experiments, interactive and off-line work.

45
10. Mathematical modelling and computer applications in water resources design

Introduction to computers: hardware and software, organization of computer centres, program-

ming languages. Programme organization with modular structure. Communication between user
and computer, interactive and batch work. Subroutine libraries oriented to hydraulic engineer-
ing. Applications: open channel flow in canals and rivers, flood routing in rivers and re-
servoirs, groundwater flow, urban hydraulic systems. Information systems and data banks,
simulation of water resources systems.
Guide to programme packages, applications to selected problems, design problems solved by
computer techniques.

B. INTERNATIONAL POST-GRADUATE COURSE ON HYDROLOGY -

ORGANIZATION FOR INTERNATIONAL TECHNI-
CAL AND SCIENTIFIC CO-OPERATION (TESCO) -
RESEARCH CENTRE FOR WATER RESOURCES (VITUKI),
BUDAPEST -
HYDROLOGICAL METHODS FOR DEWLOPING WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

Duration of programme: 6 months. Language: English.

List of courses

1. Engineering hydraulics
2. Computer programing I
3. Computer programming I1
4. Probability calculus
5. Mathematical statistics
6. Hydrometeorology and water balance
7. Hydrological measurements
8. Network planning
9. Surface water hydrology
10. Stochastic processes in hydrology
11. Nuclear methods
12. Hydrological models
13. Hydrological forecasting
14. Systems hydrology
15. Numerical methods
16. Data collection and processing
17. Groundwater hydrology
18. Hydrology of the soil-moisture zone
19. Hydrology of the shallow groundwater
20. Hydrological processes in large sedimentary basin
21. Hydrology of solid rock terrains
22. Groundwater recovery
23. Hydro-geophysics
24. Soil-physics
25. Water resources planning
26. Water resources regulation
27. Hydrological aspects for the protection of the aquatic environment
28. Quality characteristics of water resources
29. Water supply and waste-water treatment
30. Flood control, flood-plain management
31. Hydrology of land drainage
32. River training
33. Hydrology for irrigation
34. Sediment transportation I
35. Sediment transportation I1
36. Organization and administration of hydrological services.

C. INTERNATIONAL COURSE IN GENERAL HYDROLOGY WITH EMPHASIS ON GROUNDWATER HYDROLOGY -

NATIONAL COMMITTEE FOR THE INTERNATIONAL HYDROLOGICAL PROGRAMME, BUENOS AIRES

Duration of programme: 5 months. Language: Spanish. The programme is composed of four

sections. Lectures and practical training are given in three locations: Santa Fe, Mendosa
and San Juan.

46
List of courses

Section 1 -
Basic subjects
1.1 Mathematics
1.2 Statistics
1.3 Computation methods
1.4 Elements of fluid mechanics
1.5 Applications of geology in hydrogeology

Section 2 -
Surface hydrology
2.1 The hydrological cycle
2.2 Elements of photogrammetry and photo-interpretation
2.3 Geomorphology
2.4 Soil studies
2.5 Vegetation and physical conditions
2.6 The atmosphere and meteorological variables
2.7 Evaporation from water surfaces
2.8 Precipitation
2.9 Surface detention and infiltration
2.10 Surface run-off
2.11 Systems of information
2.12 Regulation of rivers. Determination of the capacity and operation of reservoirs.
2.13 Hydrological systems
2.14 Analysis of intense precipitation
2.15 Hydrological models for the calculation of peak flows in watersheds of mountain streams
2.16 Hydrological studies of alluvial watersheds and the hydrological effects of forests

Section 3 -Groundwater hydrology

3.1 Groundwater basins. Preparation and interpretation of geological and hydrogeological
maps.
3.2 Methods of geophysical investigations as employed in hydrogeological investigations
3.3 Elements of fluid mechanics
3.4 Theory of fluid flow in porous media
3.5 Hydraulics of confined underground flow of water
3.6 Application of tracers and radio-isotope techniques in groundwater hydrology
3.7 Relationship between fresh and salt water
3.8 Mathematical modelling in groundwater hydrology
3.9 Projects and structures for trapping of groundwater
3.10 Artificial recharge of aquifers
3.11 Chemical aspects of groundwater

Section 4 -
Practical applications
The integral evaluation of the hydraulic and hydrological properties of a watershed. The
preparation of plans for the use of its water.

D. INTERNATIONAL COURSE FOR HYDROLOGISTS - INTERNATIONAL INSTITUTE FOR HYDRAULIC AND

ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING, DELFT, NETHERLANDS

Duration: 11 months.

I Compulsory courses Notes

e Hydrology 1 e Compulsory course with examination

e Hydrology 2 o Compulsory course
e Statistical analysis * Facultative course
e Groundwater flow 1
e Meteorology 1
o/o Geology
o/e Soil sciences
e River hydraulics 1
o River hydraulics 2
o Computer programming
o Aerial survey
o Geomorphology
o Hydrometry
o Groundwater recovery
47
0 Water quality
0 Engineering economy
0 Systems analysis 1
0 Mathematics 1
0 Mathematics 2
0 Water law and management
0 Water resources planning

I1 Facultative courses

* Groundwater flow 2
* Meteorology 2
* Groundwater recovery
* Systems analysis 2
* Reservoir operation
* Data collection and processing
* Erosion control
* Urban hydrology
* Hydrology of coastal areas
* Deterministic hydrology
* Geophysics
* Hydrological models )
* Hydrological forecasting
* Remote sensing
* Stochastic hydrology
* Analogue computation
* Network design
* Numerical methods
* Water management policy analysis
* Groundwater quality
* Hydrological services

111 Laboratory courses

o Water quality
o Interpretation of aerial photographs

1. Hydrology 1

a. Introduction; the hydrological cycle; hydrographs; economy and hydrology; interna-

tional organizations; the International Hydrological Programme.
b. Precipitation; measuring devices; distribution and characteristics of rainfall;
"horizontal" precipitation.
C. Evaporation; evaporation from free water surfaces and evapotranspiration; measuring
devices; lysimeters; formulae and theories on evaporation; the energy approach; use and
application of methods and formulae.
d. Infiltration. The role of infiltration in the hydrological cycle; infiltration as a
factor in run-off and infiltration as recharge of groundwater; comparison of methods.

2. Hydrology 2

a. Surface flow: yield; characteristics of drainage basins. Minimum flow and depletion
curves; relation with geohydrology.
b. Surface flow: floods; maximum floods and frequency of occurrence; analysis of flood
hydrographs; method of the unit hydrograph and other methods for estimating surface run-off;
groundwater hydrographs; synthetic hydrographs; long-term and short-term forecasting of
yield and floods; flood routing.
C. Physical aspects of erosion; wind erosion.

3. Statistical analysis

Definition of terms used jointly in hydrology and statistics, types of hydrological data,
classification and presentation of data for purpose of analysis; elementary theory of proba-
bility, permutation and combination; frequency distributions of discrete variables and their
application to hydrological variables, binomial, multinomial, hypergeometric.

48
 Poisson; frequency distributions of continuous variables and their application to hydro-
logical data, normal, logonormal (two and more parameters), Gamma and Beta (one and more para-
meters), main types of Pearson distribution and distribution of extreme values; different
plotting position formulas, use of probability paper, testing goodness of fit and other hypo-
theses, the Chi-square distribution, maximillr! likelihoad method.; comparison of means and
variances, analysis of variance; regression and correlation analysis, simple linear regression,
regression relation, multiple linear regression; tests of significance, student t-test, Fisher
F test and tests of significance of correlation coefficient.

4. Groundwater flow 1

Physical phenomenon of viscous flow in porous media.

Mathematical treatment of a number of important flow problems. Confined, semiconfined
and unconfined steady flow. Principle of superposition and method of images. Application
of complex variables. Graphical method, numerical methods and analogue models.

5. Groundwater flow 2

Non-steady flow. Tidal fluctuations of groundwater levels. Pumping tests. Two fluid flow
in coastal aquifers.

6. Meteorology 1

a. Atmosphere physics: general introduction, atmospheric gas laws, phase changes of

water, psychrometer formula, moisture variables, thermodynamics of vertical atmospheric motion,
radiation.
b. Micrometeorology: vertical turbulent transport, advection and exposure, mass transfer
and energy balance evaporation theories.
C. Meteorological observation: general problems, requirements for stations.
d. General meteorology: vertical stability, precipitation formation, artificial control
of precipitation, general circulation, large-scale weather systems, meteorological forecasting
possibilities.
e. Climatology: synthetic parameters and classification, moisture indices, seasonal
circulation patterns, local winds, diurnal and annual courses, influences of latitude and
topography, climatic periodicities and changes.

7. Meteorology 2

a. Meteorological instrumeiits: response theory, thermometers, radiation meters, hygrome-

ters, snow and dew measurement, wind meters, radar, radiosonde. Principles of observation and
recording for attended and unattended stations.
b. Observation exercises: measurements of temperature, humidity, solar radiation and
wind. Keeping, checking and adjustment of records.

8. Geology

a. Composition and texture of rocks in relation to the processes which lead to their ori-
gin, transformation and destruction; description of the various types of igneous rocks, sedi-
mentary rocks and metamorphic rocks; review of the main exogenous and endogenous processes;'
action of wind, water, climate in terms of weathering, erosion, transport and sedimentation;
volcanism and intrusions, tectonic movements, folding, faulting, jointing. Influence of
various processes on strength and permeability of rocks.
b. Some aspects of hydrogeology are reviewed, in particular with respect to geochemistry.
A number of test cases are discussed to illustrate various geological and hydrological fea-
tures mentioned during the lectures.

9. Soil science

a. Chemical and physical properties of soils; soil organic matter, soil organism, soil
moisture relationships, soil structure.
b. Soil formation, soil mapping, soil classification. Land classification.
C. Salty soils.
d. Pedology and agrohydrology.
-

49
10. River hydraulics 1

a. Fluid properties. S.I. units.

b. Uniform flow in open channels and pipes. Reynolds number. Velocity distribution.
Resistance equations (Chezy, Manning).
C. Equations of continuity and motion in one-dimensional flow.
d. Gradually varied flow. Critical depth. Froude number, backwater curves.
e. Unsteady flow, surge waves, flood waves.
f. Flow over and in hydraulic structures, hydraulic jump, head losses.
9. Sediment properties, initiation of motion.
h. Sediment transport, bed forms, alluvial roughness.
i. Stable channels, deposition and erosion, local scour.

11. River hydraulics 2

a. Introduction -
river characteristics, use of rivers.
b. Sediment transport measurement procedures.
C. River dynamics:
-
characteristics of natural rivers, depth-width-slope-discharge relation, meandering,
river bends.
-
effects of river engineering works, dams, weirs, short cuts, canalisation, dred.ging.
d. Flood control -retarding reservoirs, flood plains, diversion.
e. River models -
mathematical and scale models.

12. Computer programming

a. Use of digital calculators.

b. A course on the FORTRAN programming language.
C. Development of computer p r o g r m e s for the solution of hydrological problems.

13. Aerial survey

How an area is covered by aerial photographs. Types of photographs; geometrical properties

of photographs; differences between a vertical photograph and a map; binocular vision; dif-
ferent ways of observing photographs; parallaxes, floating marks.
Necessity of ground control; slotted template method; plotting with simple instruments;
principle of the reconstruction of bundles of rays; spatial triangulation principle; flight
planning in connection with application of the photographs for civil engineering.

14. Geomorphology

Evolution of land form; weathering processes; slopes and their development; land forms crea-
ted by river work.
Geomorphology of limestone areas; land forms developed under arid conditions; the use of
geomorphological maps; principle of geomorphological and geological photo-interpretation.
The course serves as a reference for practical applications in interpretation work.

15. Hydrometry

Methods and equipment used for measuring stages and discharges. Construction and use of
stage - discharge relations. Processing .of the measured data.
Accuracy and errors inherent to the measurements.
Measuring weirs and 'flumes.

16. Groundwater recovery

a. Geophysical aspects
i. Introduction; occurrence of groundwater; practical importance of groundwater; objec-
tives of study in groundwater projects; terminology.
ii. Recapitulation of geology; importance, some terms, effects on porosity and permeability.
iii. Aquifers, different types of aquifers (recharge and flow), semipervious and impervious
layers, some figures and formulae for porosity, permeability and specific yield, determination
of geohydrological constants for large areas.
iv. Fresh and saline groundwater; origin and migration of salt. Principle of Badon Ghyben-
Herzberg and its application to different types of aquifers.
V. Seepage; prediction of the amount of seepage. Practical consequences of seepage.

50
vi. Exploitation of groundwater resources; consequences of groundwater abstraction; con-
cept of safe yield purpose of artificial recharge, other aspects of groundwater control,
groundwater mapping.

b. Technical aspects
i. Introduction; formulae for the drawdown curves of galleries, single wells and well
systems with confined or unconfined flow under different geo-hydrological and boundary condi-
tions.
ii. Design of galleries, wells and well systems. Test pumping analysis.
iii. Methods of well construction. Construction of well casing and well screen. Well com-
pletion and well maintenance.
iv. Pumping equipment for wells.
V. Radial collector wells.

17. Water quality

a. Composition of natural waters. Factors determining natural water quality (rainwater,

lakes, rivers, groundwater, estuaries).
b. Standards and criteria for various types of water uses (drinking water, cooling water,
industrial process water, irrigation water, swimming and recreation).
c. Mechanisms of water pollution caused by water utilisation (chemical, physical, biologi-
call .
d. Consequences of water pollution. 0 balance of rivers, eutrophication of lakes.
2
e. Principles of water quality control. Water and waste water technology.
Preventive measures (schist0 somiasis) and development of waste utilisation methods
(biogas, algae ponds).

18. Engineering economy

Principles of engineering economy. Capital, interest and interest rates, time value of money,
depreciation, other costs, benefits, rates of return.

19. Systems analysis 1

a. Principleseof systems analysis: a systematic approach to decision making. Defining

alternative solutions.
b. Simulation models. A search for optimal solutions.
C. Linear programming models. Optimization and sensitivity analysis, L.P. algorithms,
use of existing computer programmes.
d. Dynamic programming models. Optimization and sensitivity analysis. Development of a
computer programme.
e. Introduction to stochastic optimization models.

20. Systems analysis 2

a. Resources management in a world with limits. Some comments on world models studies.
Role of systems analysis in environmental management.
b. Scientific and engineering perspectives on systems. Basic concepts, definitions and
terminology. Procedural framework for systems engineering.
C. Systems modelling. Model formulation and use. Mathematical function models. Produc-
tion functions. Supply and demand models. Commensuration in time. Commensuration in kind.
d. Functional optimization. Criterion function. Marginal analysis in systems design.
e. Applications in water resources engineering using linear and dynamic programming models.
f. Engineering-economic and systems evaluation. Multi-objective systems design.

21. Mathematics 1

a. Main physical quantities in English engineering dimensions and in metric dimensions.

Application: conversion of some uniform flow formulas from English units in metric units.
b. Geometric formulas; e.g. area, perimeter, centroid, first moment of an area, second
moment of an area or moment of inertia; volume, surface area, centroid, mean height. Applica-
tion: magnitude of force exerted on a plane area.
C. Definitions of trigonometric functions, double angle and half angle formulas, sum diffe-
rence and product of trigonometric functions. Definitions of hyperbolic functions, relation-
ship between hyperbolic and trigonometric functions. Application: oscillations of a liquid
in a U-tube, wind waves formulas.

51
d. Basic calculus; binominal formula, quadratic equation, cubic equation, quartic equation,
exponential and logarithmic functions, complex numbers.

22. Mathematics 2

a. Matrix algebra. Some definitions. Solving sets of linear equations directly and by
matrix inversion using exact and iterative methods. Use of computer.
b. Differential and difference equations. Some exact solutions. Solving simple differen-
tial equations using numerical procedures.
C. Fourier and Taylor series.
d. Laplace transforms.

23. Water law and management

The role of water in metabolic processes and in human activities is reviewed. The contribution
of water to special, economic and environmental wellbeing and as a key component of development
is analysed in terms of the knowledge systems, leading to an understanding of the management of
the resource. A number of conceptual approaches are explored and a decision-making model is
introduced to situate legislation and administration. Legislation is related to planning and
regulatory functions and to the administration of water. The case is made for water legisla-
tion in both federal and unitary systems of government. Administration is studied in terms of
structure and processes. The notions of stability, coordination and efficiency are considered
and tested in the discussion of a number of case studies.

24. Water resources planning

a. Principles of engineering economy; comparative cost, interest and depreciation.

b. Social and economic aims of projects; economic versus financial analysis; analysis of
cost and benefits; private and social sphere. Assessment of imponderables; the realization
rate.
C. Decision problems as encountered in water resources development; the decision process;
sources of finances; the use of simulation techniques.
d. The work of the United Nations and its agencies with respect to water development pro-
jects in developing countries. The operations of the World Bank, the United Nations Develop-
ment Programme, the regional organization and bilateral schemes.

25. Reservoir operation

Assignment, types and main characteristics of reservoirs. General requirements for the design
of reservoirs. Analysis of factors affecting the operation of reservoirs. Basic hydrological
data for computation of reservoir operation. Water losses from the reservoir. Evaporation
and infiltration losses. Numerical and graphical presentation of hydrographs, duration curves
and mass inflow and mass outflow curves. Reservoir operation for design purposes by analysis
of hydrograph, duration curve and mass curve. Numerical procedure for reservoir operation.
Reservoir operation by statistical methods. Probability of water supply and flood protection.
Evaluation of minimum watex supply rate and maximum flood protection rate; reservoir capa-
city, height of dam and rule curves. Conflict of interests.
The interdependence of two purposes and reservoir size. Design of the free board above
maximum still water level for design of a dam. Wind waves and set-up in reservoirs.

26. Data collection and processing

a. Collection of data. Type of recording, codes, ways of registration, nature of the pro-
cess, length of the recording interval.
b. Processing of data. Error detection, correction, data reduction, actual processing.
C. Storage of data. Files, data bases of information and of data.

27. Erosion control

a. Soil erosion affected by human activity: soil deterioration and soil conservation.
Allied sciences.
Classification of erosion.
b. Factors affecting surface erosion. Sediment yield. Surface erosion control.
C. Linear erosion. Sediment balance. Rousing. Quantitative approaches. Linear ero-
sion control.

52
28. Urban hydrology

Rational formula, Izzard's method for computation of overland flow, soil conservation service
procedure (U.S.A.), unit hydrograph, Road Research Laboratory hydrograph method (Great Britain),
Chicaqo method with emphasis on construction of hyetographs, computation of depression storage,
flood routings above the surface, gutter, lateral and main canals. Use of the standard graphs
of the Chicago method.

29. Hydrology of coastal areas

Morphology of coastal areas; sources of salt; measures to combat salt intrusion; reservoirs
in coastal areas; water and salt balance.

30. Deterministic hydrology

Deterministic methods in systems hydrology: the systems viewpoint; nature of hydrological

systems; some systems mathematics; blackbox analysis; first set of exercises; linear concep-
tual models; linear methods of flood routing; non-linear conceptual models; second set of
exercises; the role of systems hydrology.

31. Geophysics

Review of the various prospective methods. Seismic refraction method; electrical resistivity
method, its use and application in groundwater studies.
Groundwater quality and mapping of groundwater reservoirs, mathematical and physical inter-
pretation, case histories, well-logging methods.

32. Hydrological models

a. Model-prototype relationship in hydrology, collection of data on prototype catchment,

experimental and representative basins.
b. Physical models: rain simulators, catchment models, registration equipment.
C. Mathematical models: digital simulation of catchment behaviour - solution of equations
of motion and continuity, conceptual modelling of the hydrological cycle; catchment as a sys-
tem. Analogue simulation - catchment as a routing model (reservoir and channels), conceptual
electrical analogy of the cycle. Hybrid simulation- digital and analogue.

33. Hydrological forecasting

a. Types of hydrological real-time forecast.

b. Operation of a forecasting service,
C. Data requirements
i. Conventional real-time data acquisition system.
ii. Special systems of data acquisition (radar and satellites).
iii. Data transmission and processing codes.
d. Forecasting of stages and flows.
i. Short-term forecasts of floods.
ii. Medium-term forecasts of floods.
iii. Seasonal and low flow forecasts.
iv Annual forecasts.
e. Lake level forecasts.
f. River ice information and break-up forecasts.
9. Issuing, evaluation and verification of forecasts.
h. Relationship between meteorological and hydrological forecasts.

34. Remote sensing

Remote sensing. Definition: remote sensing in nature. Main actual uses of remote sensing.
Survey of remote sensing techniques. Interpretation of data. The earth's resources, techno-
logy satellite, application of remote sensing to meteorology, oceanpgraphy, glaciology of the
polar caps, hydrology, environmental protection. Biological applications: crop survey, vege-
tation mapping, pest and disease spotting.
Medical uses.

53
35. Stochastic hydrology

Various types of hydrological sequences: periodic series, almost periodic series, ergodic and
non-ergodic series, stationary random series, noise, first and second order Markov series, mov-
ing average schemes.
Use of Fourier methods, cross correlation and auto-correlation calculation; spectral and
cross-spectral analysis; separation of time series in deterministic and stochastic components;
detecting of trends and discontinuities: application to programming of reservoirs.

36. Analogue computation

\

Digital and analogue computers: sequential and continuous operations. Types of analogue
machine; hybrid machines; basic components: sign changer, summer, integrator, potentio-
meter multiplier, function generator; control modes, single shot and repetitive working;
applications to reservoir lag, surge chamber, flood routing and soil consolidation computation;
patch pannel preparation and demonstration of the analogue machine of the International Insti-
tute.

37. Network design

a. Objectives of network planning and design.

b. Characteristics of hydrological elements and their influence on network design: preci-
pitation and evaporation, surface run-off, groundwater, water quality.
C. Techniques for network design: systems analysis and design theory, statistical sampling,
regionalization.
d. Examples of operating networks.
e. Networks in problem areas.

38. Numerical methods

a. An introduction to the classification of Elliptic, Parabolic and Hyperbolic equation sys-

tems; discussion of examples. General approach to obtaining approximate solutions.
b. Explicit schemes: stable and unstable behaviour. A sufficient condition for stability.
1mplic.it schemes: unconditional stability. Truncation errors. The tri-diagonal algorithm.
C. Salution of problems governed by hyperbolic equations. Stability; optimization of
stability and the elimination of truncation errors.
d. Solution of problems governed by parabolic equations. Consistency; acceleration of
convergence.

39. Water management policy analysis

General description of the water resources management system. Application of the theory of
hierarchical multi-level systems. Multi-objective policy analysis in general. Multi-criteria
decision model GELPAM (Gelderland Policy Analysis Model). Application of GELPAM on a specific
water management problem with multiple decision makers. Evaluation of the results.

40. Groundwater quality

Processes determining groundwater quality (hydrogeological, chemical, physical and biological).

Problems concerning field survey and sample handling. Groundwater quality and variations in
groundwater quality related to type of soils and human activities. Sources of groundwater pol-
lution and their effects on groundwater quality. Presence and behaviour in groundwater of
germs and some other organic and inorganic pollutants (NI P, organic micropollutants). Ground-
water quality monitoring; flowlines and residence time of polluted groundwater. Protection
of groundwater; sanitation and prevention.

41. Hydrological services

a. Functions of hydrological services.

i. Establishment and operation of networks.
ii. Data collection, processing and publication.
iii. Preparation and dissemination of forecasts.
iv. Analysis of data for design of projects.
V. Research and development.
vi. Training.

54
b. Organization of hydrological and related services.
i. Existing patterns.
ii. Technical and administrative considerations.
iii. Recommendations.
C. Administration of hydrological and related services.
i. Headquarters activities.
ii. Regional and field activities.
iii. Interagency co-ordination.

E. POST-GRADUATE COURSE IN OPERATIONAL AND APPLIED HYDROLOGY - FEDERAL POLYTECHNICAL

SCHOOL OF LAUSANNE, INSTITUTE OF RURAL ENGINEERING, LAUSANNE, SWITZERLAND

Duration of programme: 10 months. Language: French.

List of courses

a. Basic courses

1. Theory of probability.
2. Statistics
3. Computation
4. Fluvial hydraulics

b. Basic and specialized hydrology courses

1. The importance of operational hydrology and of meteorology for the different sectors of
the national economy.
2. Planning of observation networks as a function of their rational scientific and economic
motivation.
3. Measurement of the meteorological elements in the hydrological cycle.
4. Measurement of water levels and calculation of discharge.
5. Measurement of various other hydrological elements.
6. Automatization of hydrological measurements including their transmission.
7. Observation and prospecting for groundwater.
8. Mechanical means for data treatment.
9. Statistical analysis of data and calculation of risks.
10. Analysis of data as a base for the design of projects in rural engineering.
11. Analysis of data for hydroelectric energy projects.
12. Analysis of data for water distribution and water treatment projects.
13. Hydrological forecasting.
14. Hydrological balance of watersheds for the purpose of complex water exploitation projects.
15. Special research and scientific problems in hydrology.
16. Problems of the organization of hydrological services and the training of their personnel.

C. Practical training and field trips

1. Technical visits to a regional office of hydrological and meteorological services.

2. Study tour to a number of research institutes and water management centres.
3. Practical experience for a period of eight weeks in an institute for research, manage-
ment or collection of water data.

F. INTERNATIONAL POST-GRADUATE COURSE IN GENERAL AND APPLIED HYDROLOGY - THE INSTITUTE OF

HYDROLOGY OF THE HIGH COUNCIL OF SCIENTIFIC INVESTIGATION, MADRID

Duration of programme: 6.5 months. Language: Spanish.

List of courses

1. Climatology.
2. Statistics
3. Photo-interpretation
4. Geophysics
5. Geology
6. Fluvial hydraulics
7. Agricultural hydrology

55
8. Applied hydrology
9. Forest hydrology
10. Karstic hydrology
11. Subterranean hydrology
12. Surface hydrology
13. Hydrochemistry
14. Instruments
15. Isotopes
16. Meteorology
17. Models
18. Computers
19, Pollution
20. Dams
21. Practical work

Syllabi of courses

1. Climatology

Climate: definitions, elements and factors. Climatological series. Homogenization of

series, practical cases. Double masses. Temperature: variations, variation with'height.
Pluviometry: measures, criteria, distribution. Rainfall: table of precipitation. Clas-
sification of climate. Classification of Koppen. Deserts.

2. Statistics

Randomly distributed phenomena. Algebra of occurrence. Conditional probability. Repeated

tests with replacement. Variable and randomly distributed statistics. Function of density
and function of distribution. Mathematical expectation. Moments with respect to origin and
centrals. Relation between them. Mode, median, Generant function of moments. Binomial
distribution. Distribut'on of Poisson. Normal distribution N(0,l) and N( p,cr 1 .
law. Gamma Variable, x3n of Pearson, t of Student. Distributions of Gumbel and ofGalton's
Frechet.
Bidimensional variables. Function of distribution. Function of density. Moments with
respect to origin and centrals. Relation between the two. Straight lines of regression of
y/x, of x/y, orthogonal co-efficient of correlation. Contrast of hypothesis. Pearson's
test for Xa. Kolmogoroff test. Applications. Ven Te Chow method. Poisson process.
Shane method for flood calculation.

3. Photo-interpretation

Aerial photography: introduction and methodology. Photo-interpretation: definition and

characteristics. Basic elements of photo-interpretation. Photo-interpretation: general
method and application. Photo-interpretation in hydrology: introduction. Evaluation of the
hydroloqical cycle. Rainfall. Loss of water. Photo-interpretation in hydrology: availa-
bility of water in the river basin. Estimation of water consumption. Photo-interpretation
in hydrology: sedimentation. Examining of the damage produced by flooding.

4. Geophysics

Geophysical method in hydrology. Electric survey. Seismic survey. Practical application

of geophysics in hydrology.

5. Geology

General introduction. Petrology. Genesis and basic rock types. Basic stratigraphy. Basic
tectonics. Principles of geomorphology. Rock alteration processes. Their effect on hydro-
logy. Carbonated rocks. Hydrology and characteristics in connection with hydraulics works.
Evaporitic rocks. Hydrological behaviour and in public works. Hydrology of metamorphic and
plutonic rocks. Hydrology of volcanic rocks. Methods of geologjcal prospecting in hydrology.

6. Fluvial hydraulics

Introduction to biphase flow. General statement. Properties of fluid. Properties of the

sediment. Basic parameters. Fall velocity of particles. Revision of the concepts of fixed
contour flow. Beginning of drag. Analysis of different criteria. Application of the pro-
ject to stable river-beds. Solid transport. Carrying and suspension. Evaluation of solid

56
discharge. Methodology. Comparative analysis. Fluvial morphology concepts. Longitudinal
profile. Plant. Bottom (sill). Works in river-beds. Singularities. Defences. Channel-
ing.

7. Agricultural hydrology
~

Soils.
c_
~
General characteristics. Plant-soil relationship. Physical and chemical properties
of soils. Soil classification. U.S.D.A. classification 7th approximation. Soil evaluation.
Storie index. Methodology of the studies of soil evaluation and classification. Water rela-
tionship. Parameter that makes its study necessary. Permeability. Infiltration. Humidity
equi-valent. Weathered state. Determination of permeability: basics. Determining of
moisture content. Basics and use in irrigation. Natural and practical data in irrigation.
Their meaning and application in irrigation. Mode of use. Surface of individual areas in
irrigation. Times of year for irrigation. Methods of irrigation. Study of the calculation
of individual areas in surface irrigation; its application. Irrigation systems; their use.
Theory of Crevat in surface irrigation. Parameters of soil related to irrigation. Individual
areas of irrigation. Area of irrigation. Infiltration. Speed of infiltration. Efficiency
by spraying. Strip-irrigation. Irrigation by furrows.

8. Applied hydrology

Method of double-mass curves. Calculation of the curves of flood discharge depths. Outlines
of isohyets. Hydrographs. Correlation and distribution laws. Methods of regulation. Hy-
drological balance. Methods of flood estimation. Use of photo-interpretation in hydrology.
Relation between hydrological elements and physico-geological elements. Methodology in hydro-
graphic studies. Physico-geographical characteristics. Hydrological statistics. Climato-
logical and meteorological characteristics. Practical methodology for rainfall studies. Prac-
tical methodology for contributional studies. Practical methodology for the study of regulation
and protection. Practical methodology for the study of maximum growth. Practical methodology
for the study of infiltration areas. Practical methodology for the study of subterranean
water. Practical methodology for the study of erosion, drag and sedimentation. Integral
exploitation of the hydrographic basin. Studying and planning of hydraulic resources. Econo-
mic studies.

9. Forest hydrology

Ecology. Systems and structure. Indicators: concept and conditions. Indices and graphs
of Gaussen. Indication of vegetable communities. Systems of classification. Forms of life
and their meaning. Use of vegetation. Main kinds of vegetable formation. Hydrological
characteristics. Phreatophytes. Limnology. Eutrophication. Causes and effects. Loads
and critical levels. Direct and indirect fight against eutrophication. Concept of forest
hydrology. Historic evolution. Definitions. The torrent phenomena. Mechanisms of hydrau-
lic erosion. Mathematical models of soil erosion by water. Factors that govern hydraulic
erosion in a basin: soil, relief, vegetation, rainfall. Transportation of materials. Gra-
nulometry. Study of bed load. Study of suspensions. The depositing of materials. Sedi-
mentation in reservoirs. Evaluation of hydraulic erosion: in experimental areas and small
basins. In larqe basins. Methods of predictinq the deterioration of a river basin. The
similary in torrential phenomena. Influence of veqetation. Interception of rainfall by
vegetation. Evaporation and transpiration. Horizontal precipitation. Role of vegetation in
the hydrological regime. Project for hydrological-forestal restoration in river basins.
Specific legislation. Models.

10. Karst hydrology

Karst. Karstic forms and the karstification process. General ideas about the morphogenesis
of karst. Hydraulic balance. Relationship between surface and the subterranean water in
karst. Special methods of recognition and study in karstic areas.

11. Subterranean hydrology

Concept of hydrogeology. Advantages and disadvantages of the exploitation of subterranean

water reserves. Classification of porous media according to storage capacity and/or water
transmission capacity. Types of aquifers. Hydraulic parameters of the different types of
aquifers. Surface-water-subterranean water relationship. Hydrogeological maps. Hydrogeo-
logical zonality. Basic concepts of subterranean hydrostatics and hydrodynamics;piezometric

57
level. Hydraulic gradient. Intrinsic permeability. Darcy's Law. Validity of Darcy's
Law. Equation of continuity in stationary and variable regimens. CO-efficient of storage.
Solution of the continuity equation. Contour conditions. Methods of images. Solution of
the equation of continuity by models. General concepts of hydraulics in the capturing of sub-
terranean water. Basic formulas of hydraulics in the capturing of subterranean water in steady
and variable regimes. Variations in level and piezometric surfaces. Pumping tests and prac-
tical methods. Hydrogeological characteristics in sedimentary rocks. Hydrogeological charac-
teristics in volcanic rocks. Hydrogeological characteristics in plutonic and metamorphic
rocks. Plan of a hydrogeological study; its phases. Principles of mechanical sounding.
Construction of wells. Testing of soundings. Development of wells. Gauging of wells.

12. Surface hydrology

Introduction to hydrology. Water and the hydrological cycle, methods of measurement. Presen-
tation of basic data in statistics. Equipment for flow measurements. Conventional gauging.
Chemical gauging. Gauging by compared solutions. General outlines. Hydrological cycle.
Rainfall. Evaporation. Indirect estimation of losses. Regulation of rivers. Study of
rising of waters; usual methods. Estimation of maximum peaks. Hydrometeorological predic-
tion.

13. Hydrochemistry

Potability of water; general characteristics. Legal provisions. Sample-taking. Ganoleptics.

Physical determination. Chemical determination. Dry residue. C.O.D. Chlorides. Sul-
phates. Nitrates. Nitrites. Ammonia. . Hardness. Calcium. Magnesium. Iron. Manga-
nese. Sodium and Potassium. Oxygen (dissolved). B.O.D. Carbon dioxide. Strange consti-
tuents. Microbiology in water. Dissolving. Solubility of salts. Mineralization of water.
Phenomena which modify water composition. Suspended matter. Physico-chemical characteris-
tics and quality of subterranean water. Quality of water for irrigation. Chemistry of sub-
terranean water. Cartographic hydrochemistry. Salinization of subterranean water. Sample-
taking of water in a river. Measurement of water temperature. Determining of dissolved
oxygen. Determination of C.O.D. Determining of "Coliform" group by membrane filters. De-
termining of ammonia, nitrites, nitrates. Determining of ph, turbidity, colour, chlorides and
sulphates hardness, calcium, magnesium and iron. Determining of detergents. Determining of
sodium and potassium by flame photometric method.

14. Instruments

Hydrometeorological variables. Instruments - general quality. Conditions of hydrometeorolo-

gical instruments. Errors. Kind of precision. Inertia. Recording; general conditions.
Correction of records. Rainfall. Basic parts of a pluviometer. Base of pluviometric
measurement. Different pluviometric models. Totalizators. Comparison pluviometric measure-
ments. Elimination of errors and conditions for installing of pluviometric instruments. The
effects of wind on pluviometric measurements. Norms of the W.M.O. Dew; basic concepts.
Measurement of dew. Evaporation; basic concepts. Evaporimeters. Types. Evaporation pans.
Measurement with pans. Evaporigraphs. Norms of the W.M.O. Basics of temperature measure-
ment and of wind and humidity measurements. Thermometry. Models of thermometers. Meteoro-
logical houses and shelters. Geothermometers.

15. Isotopes

Basic concepts of radioactivity. General considerations of tracers. Isotopes in surface

hydrology. Geonuclear testing. Use of isotopes in sedimentology (river and sea). Atmos-
pheric isotopes in subterranean hydrology. Artificial tracers in subterranean hydrology.

16. Meteorology

Introduction to meteorology. Atmosphere processes. Criteria for stability of dry and humid
air. Clouds; classification and types. Rainfall; types of, and clouds associated with
their distribution. Hail. Atmospheric pressure. Anticyclone and storm. General atmosphe-
ric movements. Air masses and cloud fronts. Gusts of wind at great height. Surface wind.
Periodical winds. Geostrophic wind. Acceleration of Coriolis. Pressure. Temperature.
Humidity. Variations in space and time. Weather and climate. Application to rain.

58
17. Models

Introduction, justification and types of mathematical models. Basic theory. Differences equa-
tion, limits and methods of resolving the equations system. Boundary conditions. Special
cases. Semi-confined aquifers, induced infiltration and evapotranspiration. Phases in the
construction and use of models. Dimensional analysis. Magnitudes of fluid mechanics. Gene-
ral equations of hydraulics. Basic numbers. Theory of similitary: geometric similitude.
Mechanical similitude. Hydraulic similitude. Similitude of Froude, Reynolds, Weber and
Cauchy. Criteria for the selection of types of similitude. The critical and practical cri-
teria of the selection of scale in reduced-size models of free regime with fixed contours and
reduced-size fluvial models. Distorted scale models. Testing of hydraulic machinery. Test-
ing with cavitation. Recommendations for the taking of data in the prototype, with view to
construction of and experimenting with a fluvial reduced model of non-stationary beds. Methods
of visualisation of flow. Methods of measurement of hydraulic variables in models. Electro-
nic instrumentation. Project, construction, testing and servicing of a scale model for future
operation. Complementary experimenting and control over prototypes. Introduction to ana-,
logue models; definition; types. Mathematical planning of digital models. Practical appli-
cation in the use of models. Analogue models.

18. Computers

Introduction to computers. Forerunners. Numerical representation. The abacus. The age of

the machine. The Automatic Age. Peripherical units. (Imput. Output); reader, punching,
printer, plotter. Supports of information (card, tape). Codes used. Storage units. Ways
of storing. Data representation. Binary system. Codes. Processing unit. Stored pro-
gramme. Instructions. Flow diagrams. System of programming. Fortran IV. Arithmetical
systems. Control sentences. Imput/output sentences. Sentences of format. Types of speci-
fication. Other types of sentence. Practical application.

19. Pollution

Definitions, origins and indicators of pollution. Decontamination. Measurement of pollution.

B.O.D., D.I.O. Transferring of 0 to clean and polluted waters. Conditioning factors and
essential factors. Self-purificagion capacity of rivers and lakes. Biology of water. Mech-
anism of aerobic and anaerobic decomposition. Fields of application. Treatment of household
water. Processes and limiting factors. Treatment of industrial water. Special planning for
main groups. Technical water-purifying processes: statics, septic tanks, lagoons. Effici-
ency and calculations. Dynamic technical processes: (a) Trickling filters-activated
sludge; efficiency and calculation; (b) Prolonged oxidation; mixed processes. Sludge
treatment: (a) Anaerobic digestion; aerobic digestion; mechanism and technology; (b)
Thickening and dehydration of sludge; technical processes. Waste to the sea. Hydrodynamic
phenomena of dilution, technical processes. Underwater emissions; control and efficiency.
Constructive parameters and current technical processes. Built-in processes. Treatment of
sludge and residues, urban solids. Practical results. Economic and energy factors. Solar
energy and its possible applications in sludge-treatment. The decontamination of water and
the ecological challenge. Present balance.

Dam-reservoir unit. Typology of dams. Spillways: typology and operation. Multiple uses
of reservoirs. Economic optimization of reservoirs.

21. Practical work

a. Limnimeters: kinds. Float and counterweight stage-level recorders: one plume, two
plumes. Manometric or pneumatic limnographs. Photochrones.
b. Gauging with current meter. Distribution of velocity in a vertical. Average velocity
of a vertical; by points, by integration. Current meters. Kinds: miniature meters, ordi-
nary meters, salmon type current meters. Gauging with power reels. Bank-operated reels.
Cable and basket gauging with current meters: field data, calcufation of stage. Observations
for calculation (on banks, on heads).
C. Gauging with chemical tracers. Method of integration: equipment, field forms.
Method of continuous injection: equipment, field forms. Gauging of rising levels. Stream
flow curves. Statistical adjustments by 2nd grade parabolas. Adjustment by a potential:
double logarithmic paper. Adjustment by Manning formula. Charting by means of electric
reader.

59
d. Treatment of data with electronic reader and computer.
e. The river hydrographs. Determination of the hydrograph. (Flow curve). Parts of
hydrograph. Pumping curve. Curve of chronological flows.
f. Kinds of gauging stations in the official network. Of natural beds: with limograph
on the bank. Gauging equipment.
9. Canalised stretches: step weirs, wall weirs, multiple weirs, sensible canals.
h. Calculation, by students, of a gauging with current meter and chemical tracers. Presen-
tation of results.
i. Doing a complete hydrological study of surface and subterranean water consisting of:
(i) Contrasting, correcting and completing the various series of pluviometric data
over a given period.
(ii) Drawing the isohyet average for the period and also of dry and wet years.
(iii) Determining the physical data in all the stations and reservoirs.
(iv) Contrasting and correcting of annual contribution and completion of the various
series of monthly contributions.
(VI Calculation of the evapotranspiration of the zone by the Turc and the Coutagne
methods and investigating the evaporation by empirical formulas.
(vi) Calculation of maximum peak flows by empirical, statistical and hydrological
methods with calculation of the hydrograph for diverse instances of recurrence.
(vii) Obtaining of the laws of distribution of rainfall and flow.
(viii) Obtain the rating curves for constant and variable flow and for various guaran-
tees.
(ix) Given a series of reservoirs with their respective capacities, calculate the
total volume regulated by the system.
(XI Study the movement of water in a given reservoir with regard to specific con-
sumption, taking into account evaporation.
(xi) Calculate and plot the hydrograph using the rating tables, establishing at the
same time the separation of the surface and subterranean run-offs.
(xii) Calculation of hydric balance.
(xiii) Calculation of monthly and annual consumption using the Thornthewaite, Blaney-
Criddle (and mixed) methods.
(xiv) Plot the average consumption, maximum consumption, and means of consumption
curves.
(xv) Calculate the quantity of water on a monthly basis with diverse efficiencies and
in a given time.
(xvi) Estimation of the erosion and sedimentation indexes.
G. INTERNATIONAL COURSE IN HYDROLOGY - INTERNATIONAL CENTRE OF HYDROLOGY "DIN0 TONINI",
UNIVERSITY OF PADUA, PADUA

Duration of programme: 6 months. Language: English.

List of courses and their syllabi

1. Hydrometeorology
a. Properties and structure of water.
b. Analytic and synoptic meteorology.
C. Water cycle in the'atmosphere.
d. Climatology.
e. Rainfall.
f. Evapotranspiration.
9. Snowfall.
h. Elements of physical glaciology.
2. Hydrometry
a. Instruments and operational methods.
b. Open channels and river measurements.
C. Organization of Hydrographic Services.
a. Use of tracers and isotopes in investigation of surface and groundwater.
e. Data automatic processing.
3. Surface water hydrology

a. Hydrological cycle. Rainfall-run-off relationships.

b. Drainage basin morphometry.
C. Influence of forest on the run-off regimen.

60
d. Agricultural hydrology.
e. Continental erosion and erosion control.
f. Regimen of artificial and natural lakes.

4. __
-tati--is- -tics
-- - and prohahility calculations

a. Application of statistics and probability calculations to the hydrological occurrences.

b. Parametric and stochastic processes in hydrology.
C. Extreme values theory and other theoretical frequency distributions.
d. Some particular problems related to hydrology (Monte Carlo method, Markov's chains,
etc. 1
e. Mathematical modelling in surface hydrology.
f. Unit hydrograph procedures.

5. Groundwater hydrology

a. Hydrogeology.
b. Groundwater flow.
C. Groundwater management and salt water intrusion.
d. Groundwater pollution: methodology and modelling.
e. Land drainage.

6. River and coastal hydraulics

a. Principles of river hydraulics.

b. Propagation of flood and tidal waves in channels.
C. Mechanics of sediment transportation.
d. Behaviour and morphology of river mouths.
e. Beaches, lagoons and estuaries.
f. Hydrological factors in coastal engineering problems.
9. Hydraulic models.

7. Water resources development

a. Evaluation of water resources in a region.

b. Hydrological maps.
C. Planning of water development projects.
d. Water resources systems analysis.
e. Economics in hydraulic structures.
f. Hydrological aspects in water resources development: irrigation, land reclamation,
hydroelectric power plants, inland navigation, water supply.
s. Water pollution control.
h. Sea water and brackish water desalination.

8. General culture

a. Italian language.
b. Italian geopolitics.
C. Italian art.

H. INTERNATIONAL POST-GRADUATE COURSES IN HYDROLOGY -

DEPARTMENT OF WATER RESOURCES,
PRAGUE AGRICULTURAL UNIVERSITY, PRAGUE: HYDROLOGICAL DATA FOR WATER RESOURCES PLANNING

Duration of programme: 6 months. Language: English.

List of courses

1. Hydrometeorological and hydrological networks.

2. Processing of basic hydrological data.
3. Statistics.
4. Computer programming.
5. Principles of water resources planning.
6. Water quality and environment.
7. Hydrogeology.
8. Evaporation and evapotranspiration.

61
9. Deterministic models.
10. Stochastic processes.
11. Reservoir operation.
12. Hydrological forecasting.
13. Surface flow.and design discharges.
14. Isotopes in hydrology.
15. Hydrological balance of selected geographical regions.
16. Engineering operations.
17. Experimental and representative basins.
18. Subsurface flow.
19. Water resources systems.
20. Hydrological maps.

Syllabi of courses

1. Hydrometeorological and hydrological networks

Precipitation. Precipitation networks. Evaporation. Indirect estimation of evaporation.

Evaporation networks. Soil moisture and infiltration. Water stages and measuring equipment.
Discharge measuring. Water gauging networks. Water temperature. Ice phenomena. ,Suspen-
ded sediments and bed-load sediments. Sediment networks. Groundwater and springs.
Extent: lectures 8 hours; exercises 6 hours.

2. Processing and basic hydrological data

Importance of basic hydrological information for hydrological service and national economy.
Measurement accuracy and hydrological data evaluation. Water stages and discharges process-
ing. Direct discharge measuring. Indirect measuring by means of current meter. Float and
chemical measurements. Velocity formulae. Discharge rating curve. Discharge balance in
month-cycle. Discharge processing in year cycle. Year books publishing. Measuring and
evaluating levels, temperature and chemical properties of groundwater. Bed-load sediments
evaluation. Water temperature and ice phenomena evaluation. Precipitation data processing.
Computer data processing. Data bank of hydrological information.
Extent: 10/8.

3. Statistics

Basic statistical data processing. Some theoretical laws of frequency distribution used in
hydrology. Theoretical distribution to adjust the line of empirical data frequency distri-
bution. Statistical tests of significancy. Regression and correlation analyses. Statis-
tical significancy of correlations.
Extent: 6/0.

4. Principles of computer programming

Task formulation. Mathematical model of the system. Selection of the computer type.
Programming: analogue and digital.
Extent: 6/0.

5. Principles of water resources planning

Purpose of long-term studies and planning. Methods used in long-term studies and planning.
Water resources efficiency evaluation and planning. Instructions and criteria to select the
aims of long-term planning with respect to economical and social importance. Institutional
and organisatory assumptions for water resources planning.
Extent: 8/2.

6. Water quality

Utilization of water for different purposes, data processing for water quality survey, field
studies for surface water and groundwater. Water pollution control, waste water treatment,
eutrophication. Water quality management, water quality models. Water quality for irriga-
tion, salinity, water logging.
Extent: 10/0.

62
7. Hydrological data for water supply from groundwater

Relation of hydrogeology to other natural sciences. Tasks of hydrogeology in water economy.

Relation rock-water-air. Hydrogeological characteristics of different rock kinds: eruptive,
metamorphic, sediments. Hydroqeoloqical structures. Types of springs. Physical properties
of groundwater. Chemical composition of groundwater. Demands of drinking water. Mineral
water. Position of groundwater in hydrological cycle. Hydrological balance; balance equa-
tion related to groundwater. Hydrological forecasts of groundwater. Hydrogeoloqical research.
Evaluating results of hydrogeological research. Hydrogeological problems and investigations of
arid zones. Groundwater protection and hydrogeological tasks in human environment protection
and investigation.
Extent: 10/6.

8. Hydrogeological data for agriculture

Definitions. Factors influencing water consumptive use of crops. Experimental methods for
water consumptive use estimation. Meteorological factors and potential evapotranspiration.
Water needs of crops investigation in Czechoslovakia. Biological curves application for the
determination of irrigation requirements for project purposes. Biological curves used for
operational purposes.
Extent: 10/8.

9. Deterministics models

Deterministics models. Stochastics models. Principles of system approach theory and system
approach in hydrology. Lumped and distributed systems. Linear and non-linear systems. In-
put function to the system. System behaviour. Physical representation of the system struc-
ture.
Extent: 16/4.

10. Stochastic Drocesses

Random events, terminology, stationary events, density of probability and the first distribution
function, correlations, spectra. Markovian processes, definitions, matrix approach, Markovian
chains. Stochastic models in hydrology, statistical prediction, filtering.
Extent: 16/2.

11. Reservoir operation

Purpose of reservoir operation. Reservoir types. Outflow from reservoir. Reservoir volumes
and exploitation. Hydrological data. Basic methods of reservoir design to reach controlled
increases of discharge. Direct solution based on observed time series. Special standpoints
for solving controlled increase of discharge. Reservoirs with compensated operation. Flood
control by reservoirs.
Extent: 16/8.

12. Hydrological forecasting

Basic conceptions. Information sources, collecting, processing and forecasts issuing. Errors
and efficiency of hydrological forecasts. Short-term hydrometrical forecasts. Long-term hy-
drological predictions. Hydrosynoptical forecasts.
Extent: 14/4.

13. Surface water flow and design discharges

Data processing for design purposes, evaluation of design discharges-methods, open channel flow,
flood routing.
Extent: 10/4.

14. Isotopes in hydrology

Extent: 8/0.

63
15. Hydrological balance of selected geographical regions

Methods for hydrological balance evaluation, hydrological balance of mountainous regions, marsh
and swamp-lands, lakes, delta areas.
Extent : 16/0.

16. Engineering operations

Extent: 8/0.

17. Experimental and representative basins

Basin selection. Programme determination on the basis of investigation purposes. Observation

programme for representative and experimental basins. Observed elements of main hydrological
phenomena. Observation methods and instrumental equipment. Processing and publishing methods.
I
Examples of experimental basins in Czechoslovakia and abroad.
Extent : 10/0.

18. Subsurface flow

Theory of unsaturated flow and groundwater flow, physical and mathematical models.
Extent: 6/0.

19. Water resources systems

Water resources requirements, hydrological data for water resources systems. Application of
stochastic and deterministic models for a solution of water resources problems. Multi-reser-
voir operation. Design of hydro-power plants.

20. Hydrological maps

Extent: 8/0.

Optional courses in statistical mathematics, advanced hydraulics, and on models in hydrolo-

gy are available according to the individual qualifications of applicants.
Practical training takes place in research insitutes of the Academy of Sciences, Water
Research Institutes, Office for Water Resources Development and Planning, Hydrometeorological
Institutes, Irrigation Research Institute -
Laboratory of Evapotranspiration, and in other
institutions.

I. INTERNATIONAL POST-GRADUATE COURSE IN HYDROLOGY - SCHOOL OF HYDROLOGY, UNIVERSITY OF

ROORKEE, ROORKEE

Duration of programme: 2 semesters, about 12 months. Language: English.

The programme is composed of the following elements:

a. Course work 8 units

b. Seminar 4 unit
C. Field work # unit
d. Project 2 units
Total : 11 units

List of courses for autumn semester Units

1. Hydrological elements and analysis 1

2. Computer methods 4
3. Hydrometeorology (1) +
or
4. Hydrogeology (2) 32
5. Probability and statistics in hydrology 4
6. Channel and fluvial hydraulics #

(1) Subject for surface water and watershed management specialization.

(2) Subject for groundwater specialization.

64
 Units

7. Mathematics 4
8. Water resources planning and management 4
Total for autumn semester: 4

List of coEses for spring semester

a. Compulsory
9. Land use and water quality 4
10. Stochastic hydrology 4
11. Basin investigation and instrumentation 4
b. Options (one of the three options)
i. Surface water hydrology
12. Geohydrology 1
13. Systems analysis and surface water planning 1
14. Parametric hydrology 4
ii. Groundwater hydrology
15. Groundwater hydrology 1
16. Systems analysis and groundwater system 1
17. Geophysical investigation %
iii. Watershed management
18. Planning and management of watershed 1
19. Watershed behaviour and conservation practices 1
20. System ecology and environmental planning %
Total for spring semester: 4

List of topics for guest lectures (some are given each year)

1. Management of hydrological cycle.

2. Design of hydrological network.
3. Water law and policy.
4. Use of satellite and remote sensing technology in hydrology.
5. Analogue models.
6. Modern methods in discharge measurements.
7. Long-term plans of international co-operation in hydrology.
8. Bench-mark basins, representative and experimental basin programmes.
9. Interbasin water transfers.
10. Management of flood plains.
11. Operational hydrology.
12. Nuclear hydrology.
13. Snow and glacial hydrology.
14. Geomorphology.
15. Photohydrology.
16. Use of computers in hydrology and water resources planning.

Syllabi of courses

1. Hydrological elements and analysis

Hydrological cycle, water balance. Hydrological elements; precipitation, evapotranspiration,

infiltration and run-off. Organization of hydrological services and planning of network.
Instruments and methods of hydrological observations. Hydrometry; tracer technique in hydro-
metry. Discharge measurement. Run-off cycle. Rainfall-run-off relationships for estimation
of yield. Unit hydrograph methods. Mathematical modelling and IUH. Flood routing.

2. Computer methods

Machine description and organization. Fortran language, statements, subroutines and functions
errors. Numerical solution of linear, non-linear and partial differential equations. Matrix
operation. Application to hydrological problems.

65
3. Hydrometeorology

Atmospheric circulation, meteorology in hydrology. Precipitation processes, and artificial

precipitation. Climates classification and water budgeting. Weather charts preparation and
analysis. Monsoons and tropical cyclones. Hydrometeorological instruments, networks and
observations; storm analysis, probable maximum precipitation. Hydrometeorological forecasts.
Use of radar and satellite pictures in hydrology.

4. Hydrogeology

Rock cycle and hydrological cycle. Occurrence and origin of groundwater. Geological factors
in water regime studies. Land forms, geological and hydrological mapping, water table fluctua-
tions. Groundwater occurrence in different rock types. Thermal and non-thermal springs.
Groundwater in arid and semi-arid regions. Groundwater provinces of India.

5. Probability and statistics in hydrology

Statistical parameters. Curve fitting, regression and correlation analysis. Theory of pro-
bability. Probability distribution. Plotting of data and limit curves. Sampling. Sta-
tistical tests. Analysis of variance.

6. Channel and fluvial hydraulics

Energy and momentum equations. Specific energy, uniform and critical flow. Gradually varied
flow, profiles and computations. Overland flow. Hydraulic jump as energy dissipator. Sedi-
ment characteristics and initiation of movement. Transport of bed and suspended load. Collec-
tion and analysis of field data. Hydraulics of alluvial rivers. Channel routing, flow over
weirs and flumes.

7. Mathematics

Solution of ordinary differential equations in series. Fourier series and its application to
wave equation and diffusion equation. Bessel function and Legendre function. Gauss elimina-
tion technique. . Crout algorithm. Cramer's rule. Cholsky algorithm, iterative techniques.
Gauss-Seidal technique. Numerical solutions of partial differential equations. Finite dif-
ference techniques.

8. Water resources planning and management

Main elements and objectives. Integrated basin developments, principles. Estimates of water
demand and other projections. Reservoir planning, planning for multi-purpose development.
Economic analysis and cost allocation. Watershed management effect on regime of rivers.
Water law and policy. Problems of interstate and international rivers.

9. Land use and water quality

Composition and properties 'of water. Water quality and standards. Physical , chemical and
micro-biological analysis of water. Effect of geological formations on water quality. Hydro-
biology of lakes. Water quality control. Effects of forests, fisheries, agricultural nu-
trients, pesticides, etc. on water quality. Water quality modelling.

10. Stochastic hydrology

Importance of stochastic modelling. Extreme value analysis. Fitting distributions to hydro-

logical data. Estimation of minimum flows in droughts. Stochastic processes. Correlation
and spectrum analysis. Generation of random numbers. Extending hydrological data and data
generation. Range analysis. Storage analysis.

11. Basin investigations and instrumentation

Basic principles - preparation of hydrological, geomorphological and land inventory and hydro-
geological maps. Representative and experimental basins. Observation network. Subsurface
investigations, soil sampling, logging, strata charts. Data storage and processing. Basic
electrical circuits, inductance and capacitance gauge, measuring bridge circuits. Electric

66
and thermo-electric sensors. Cathode ray oscilloscope, oscillograph and bridge amplifiers.
Instruments of different orders and their response, transducers.

12. Geohydrology

Groundwater in hydrological cycle. Geological factors in water regime studies. Occurrence of

groundwater in different formations and different rock types. Well hydraulics, steady and un-
steady flows to galleries and wells, well systems, battery of wells. Well losses, partial pene-
tration and partial perforation. Well design. Methods of well construction, well casing and
screens. Development and disinfection of wells. Test pumping analysis.

13. System analysis and surface water planning

Basic system concepts; system components and constraints, objective function. System optimi-
zation; Simplex method, other algebraic techniques, dynamic programming, sequential decision
processing. Introduction to stochastic processes. Development, design and operational pro-
blems in water resources engineering. Reservoir planning and operational models. Optimum
output from two and multi-reservoir system. Conjunctive management of surface and groundwater.
Simulation methods for design of water resources systems.

14. Parametric hydrology

Systems approach in hydrology. Catchment action attenuation and translation effects. Con-
ceptual identities - linear and non-linear reservoirs, linear channels. Deterministic
systems, lumped and distributed, linear and non-linear. Instantaneous unit hydrograph theory
and its applications. Lumped hydrological models. Linear distributed parameter hydrologi-
cal model.

15. Groundwater hydrology

Properties of water bearing formations. Occurrence of groundwater. Measurement of permea-

bility. Steady and unsteady flows towards drains, galleries and wells, seepage from canals.
Groundwater hydraulics, effect of partial penetration and interference, test pumping analysis.
Groundwater inventory, replenishment, artificial and induced recharge. Groundwater investi-
gation. Groundwater development, design, construction and completion of wells, safe yield and
overdraft. Radial collector wells and infiltration galleries. Seawater intrusion in coastal
areas.

16. System analysis and groundwater systems

System concept, components, constraints, objective function, system optimization, linear pro-
gramming, Newton's method, dynamic programming, decision processing. Introduction to stochas-
tic processes. Implicit, explicit methods; finite difference forms, discrete Kernel approach,
stream-well-aquifer relations. Finite element methods and their applications to groundwater
models. Simulation technique in groundwater, groundwater models, accuracy and cost. Ground-
water management. Conjunctive management of surface and groundwater.

17. Geophysical investigations

Basic principles of geophysical practices. Methods and instruments used. Interpretation.and

data anomalies. Radio-active prospecting. Seismic methods. Well logging for groundwater
surveys. Case histories.

18. Planning and management of watersheds

19. Watershed behaviour and conservation practices

20. System ecology and environmental planning

67
Annex IIIB
Examples of post-graduate programmes leading to a Master’s degree in
hydrology
INTRODUCTION
The number of universities offering a complete programme of post-graduate studies leading to a
Master degree in hydrology is still relatively very small. More usually, the Master degree
offered is in water resources, in hydraulic engineering, or some related field. The programme
can, however, be chosen in such a way that hydrological topics form the major part of the pro-
gramme. The programmes are in most cases intended for one year of full-time studies. They
are usually composed of two parts: study of a specified number of courses and a research or
special study for a thesis on a selected topic. The relative weight of the two parts varies
greatly between universities. Some may require the study of some five to eight courses and
the preparation of an extensive thesis. Others may put the emphasis on the formal studies and
require some 12 to 15 courses with a limited special study, equivalent to one or two courses,
or without any requirement for a thesis.
There is also variability between universities in the method of selection of the programme
of studies. Some universities may have a completely prescribed programme. Others may have a
programme composed of some prescribed or compulsory courses and some courses to be elected from
a given list of courses. The third possibility of giving the student the complete choice of
courses from a prescribed list is also available in some universities. Examples of the three
methods of course selection are given in the first section of this annex. The examples are
taken from the first edition of this publication. The second section of this annex contains
some examples of programmes received from national committees for the IHP in response to a
request from the Division of Water Sciences of Unesco.

FIRST SECTION: EXAMPLES OF METHODS OF COURSE SELECTION IN STUDY PROGRAMMES LEADING TO A M M T E R

DEGREE

Example (a): Programme containing only compulsory courses

1. General hydrology
2. Meteorology
3. Statistical hydrology
4. Stochastic hydrology
5. Hydrological models
6. Groundwater hydrology
7. Open channel flow
8. Water quality

Example (b): Programme composed of compulsory and elective courses

Compulsory courses

1. Preparation of geological report

2. Meteorological instrumentation
3. Hydrological systems
4. Dynamics of the flow systems of the earth
5. Continental hydrology
6. Thesis

Elective courses

7. Geology
8. Meteorology
9. Mathematics/Statistics
10. Ecology
11. Chemistry
12. Resources economics

68
Example (c): Programme composed of elective courses only

Eight of the following subjects have to be chosen.

1. Hydrodynamics
2. Advanced hydraulic engineering
3. Flow through porous media
4. Advanced groundwater hydrology
5. Advanced surface-water hydrology
6. Geohydrology
7. Water resources engineering
8. Analytical methods in water resources engineering
9. Mathematics
10. Statistics
11. Engineering economy
12. Computer applications

SECOND SECTION: EXAMPLES OF PROGRAMMES OF STUDY AND OTHER REQUIREMENTS FOR A MASTER DEGREE
IN HYDROLOGY OR IN A RELATED FIELD OF STUDY

A. UNIVERSITY RAFAEL LANDIVAR, GUATEMALA

1. Basic concepts and definitions: concepts of hydrology; the water cycle; aquifers.

2. Primary components of the hydrological cycle: applied climatology, elaboration of clima-

tic data, water in the soil, evaporation and evapotranspiration, infiltration.

3. Surface-water hydrology: water courses, data treatment, analysis of hydrogrammes;

regulations.

4. Groundwater hydrology: elemental theory of the flow in porous media, hydraulics of

groundwater flow, relationship fresh water/saline water in coastal regions; projects for
well constructions; artificial recharge.

5. Relationship groundwater/surface water: springs, influence of sub-surface storage on

groundwater; man's influence on the relationship groundwater/surface water.

6. Other water resources: desalinization, re-utilization of water, artificial rain.

7. Application of groundwater hydrology to geotechnics: drainage, hydrogeological problems

in relation to the surface layers.

B. FACULTY OF ENGINEERING - UNIVERSITY OF SAN CARLOS - SAN CARLOS, GUATEMALA

Post-graduate programme leading to a Master degree in Water Resources Engineering (hydrology).
The programme is organized as part of the Regional School of Sanitary Engineering of the
University of San Carlos. The duration of the programme is one year. The list of courses
included is as follows:

First semester

1. Statistics
2. Economics
3. Water quality control
4. Fluid mechanics
5. Advanced hydrology
6. Flow in porous media
7. Special study

Second semester

8. Seminar
9. Computer programming and systems
10. Water resources systems
11. Groundwater
12. Potamology
13. Stochastic hydrology
14. Special study 69
C. MONASH UNIVERSITY, MELBOURNE, AUSTRALIA -DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING - MASTER OF
ENGINEERING SCIENCE IN WATER RESOURCES ENGINEERING

The Master of Engineering Science by Coursework programme in Water Resources Engineering is

designed to meet the rapidly growing need for engineers with formal training in water resources
engineexing aspects. The programme has been developed with an emphasis on the application of
the most recent developments and draws on the resources of several departments of the Universi-
ty.
The major section of the course covers the area of water resources planning, hydrology,
hydraulics, public health engineering, coastal engineering, and water law. Related units such
as regional planning, transport engineering, air pollution modelling, acoustics, and solar
energy can also be taken. In addition a minor thesis in the candidate's special field of
interest is required.
This course should be of particular interest to persons who are working in water resources,
and who wish to further their skills and knowledge by formal study. Consultants in water
engineering, engineers working for water authorities or local government, and others with an
interest in the water-related aspects of environmental engineering will find the course to be of
benefit.

Principal requirements for the degree

In order to qualify for the degree a candidate shall accrue a total of 48 credit points of which
42 are normally to be obtained by an approved programme of coursework units, and six by complet-
ing a minor thesis. A credit is defined as ten hours of formal contact time (such as lectures,
tutorials or their equivalent).
Candidates for the degree can specialize in the water resources option of civil engineering.
To this end a minimum of 27 credit points of coursework units must normally be selected from the
specialization area. Within these guidelines candidates are free to select their course of
study from units offered by the Department of Civil Engineering, other engineering departments
and where appropriate, other faculties within the University.

Duration

The M. Eng. Sc. degree by coursework and minor thesis is primarily intended for part-time study
though full-time enrolment is possible. Candidates will normally attend for six hours per week
over a period of thirty weeks between March and November. Most part-time candidates will take
between two and three years to complete the requirements for the degree, while full-time candi-
dates will require about one and a half years.

Thesis

In addition to the formal coursework units, candidates are required to complete a minor thesis
with a total value of six credits.
The thesis is an individual project, normally involving a critical survey or investigation
of a water resources engineering related topic.

List of courses and their syllabi

The units available in Water Resources/Environmental Engineering are as follows:

Catchment planning and management (3 credits): B/C analysis; multiple objective planning;
environmental assessment; flood plain mapping; planning and zoning; mitigation, forecasting;
law and administration.

Coastal engineering (3 credits): waves; suspended and bedload sediment; design for beach
protection, for harbour inlets and backwater.

Estuarine dynamics (3 credits): hydrodynamics of estuaries, including equations of motion,

density currents; modelling, physical and mathematical.

Flood estimation 1 (3 credits): rational method; unitgraphs; rainfall and flood frequency;
probable maximum precipitation.

Flood estimation 2 (3 credits): temporal and areal variability of rainfall; loss models;
run-off routing.

70
Groundwater hydrology (3 credits): sources; hydraulics; pump tests; logging; image well
theory; leaky aquifers; geohydrology.

Hydrological statistics (1% credits) : parameters; distributions; confidence limits; time

series; regression analysis; joint probability.

Process modelling (1% credits) : processes; model synthesis, optimization, testing.

River hydraulics (3 credits): steady flow theory and practice; standard step method, bridge
backwater; flood routing; long reaches; St. Venant; numeric routing.

Urban hydrology (3 credits): rational approach; run-off routing; process model; retarding
basins; water quality modelling.

Water and waste water treatment (3 credits) : physical, chemical, biological treatment pro-
cesses; characteristics of waste.

Water law (3 credits): Relating to water, groundwater, drainage, EPA and town planning acts.

Yield hydrology (3 credits) : duration and frequency curves; data generation; storage-yield
analysis.

Water supply and sewerage (3 credits): overview of current state-of-art of water supply in-
vestigation and design; pipe distribution network analysis; multi-pump selection and opera-
tion; water conservation, strategies for reduction of overall consumption, household re-use;
overview of state-of-art of sewerage investigation and design, lagoon and tertiary treatment
design; design of ocean outfalls; irrigation and aquifer and recharge witkn effluent.

Advanced hydraulics (3 credits): hydraulic transport of solids in pipes, sediment transport in

open channels; unsteady pipe flow (water hammer and surge tank analysis and design); physical
hydraulic models (fixed bed and mobile bed); hydraulics of bridge waterways; new developments
in open channel flow measurement; transition design in subcritical and supercritical flow;
high speed open channel flow.

Related units

Atmospheric pollution (3 credits) : meteorology; chemistry of pollutants; thermal plumes and

diffusion; large scale modelling.

Environmental acoustics (1% credits): properties of sound; measurement; environmental noises;

effects; legislation; lab. measurements.

Ocean engineering structures (3 credits): waves; generation, velocity distributions; pressure

distribution and forces on ocean structures, effect of structures on flow field. Design con-
siderations and fabrication methods.

Solar energy (3 credits): energy resources; insolation/geometric factors, collectors; use of

and conversions of solar energy; social political factors.

Traffic systems (3 credits): human factors in traffic system design, traffic safety, traffic
management and control, fleet scheduling;

Transport and regional structure (3 credits): the development process, with special reference
to the role of transport in influencing growth; social and physical impact, development models.

Soilwater (3 credits): permeability; seepage flow; flow nets; soil physics; moisture and
soil properties.

Water Resources I1 (undergraduate)

Scope and importance of hydrology: importance, history and applications; nature and availa-
bility of data; the hydrological cycle; conservation of mass and energy.

Climatology: solar radiation; circulation of the atmosphere, and Australia's position; water
resources of Australia.

71
Atmospheric moisture: elements of meteorology; movement of air and atmospheric moisture; con-
densation.

Precipitation: types of precipitation; graphical representation of data; areal averaging of

storm rainfall by arithmetic mean, Thiessen and isohyetal methods; intensity frequency duration
analysis; correction of precipitation records.

Run-off cycle: description; discussion of component phenomena including infiltration, soil

moisture and evapotranspiration; variation of components with time.

Stream gauging: discharge measurements by velocity area methods; current meter measurements;
float gaugings; other miscellaneous methods; stage discharge relations; the control; stage
measurement and recording.

Hydrograph analysis: the hydrograph; component flows; separation of components; factors

affecting hydrograph shape.

Storm run-off and loss rates: relation of storm rainfall and run-off; run-off coefficients;
infiltration indices and loss rates, applications, derivation and design values; graphical
correlation methods.

Synthesis of design storms: the problem; design point rainfall from 'Australian Rainfall and
Run-off' Design frequency; critical storm duration; reduction of point intensity for area,
temporal pattern.

Water Resources I11 (undergraduate)

The subject is in four strands, all taken by all students.

Strand (i) Water resources systems.
(ii) Surface water hydrology.
(iii) Groundwater hydrology.
(iv) Hydraulics.

-
Week Topic

1. (i) Systems analysis relating to water resources systems, reservoir system simulation.
2. (ii) Data availability for solving hydrological problems.
(iii) Australian groundwater systems, classification of aquifers.
3. (ii) Description of hydrological problems.
(iii) Derivation of confined aquifer equation, storage coefficient, transmissivity.
4. (ii) Unit hydrographs - review of theory.
(iii) Superposition solution, straight time solutions.
5. (ii) Unit hydrographs - elementary tutorial practice.
(iii) Hydrogeologic boundaries, image theory.
6. (ii) Unit hydrographs - non-uniform storms.
(iii) Two dimensional finite difference aquifer model.
7. (ii) Synthetic unit hydrographs.
(iii) Application of 2D model to regional groundwater system.
8. (i) Reservoir system simulation. System optimization -
response surface sampling.
(ii) Design storms and hydrometeorology.
9. (i) System optimization - linear programming.
(ii) Flood routing.
10. (i) System optimization - dynamic programming.
(iv) Discharge coefficients of spillway profiles.
11. (i) Benefit/cost analysis -
benefit estimation.
(iv) Energy dissipators.
12. (i) The demand for water-irrigation, urban, etc.
(iv) Tail-water effects.
13. (i) Multiple purpose systems.
(iv) Pipeline design.
14. (i) Multiple objective design and conflict in water.
(ii) Review and assessment.

72
D. UNIVERSITY OF NEWCASTLE UPON TYNE, DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, NEWCASTLE UPON TYNE,
ENGLAND

For the MSc course in Engineering Hydrology the students have to study three majors and two
minors during the first two academic terms (6 months) and then submit an individual dissertation
by the end of the academic year. The three majors and two minors can be selected from the
following:

Majors Minors

1. Introductory and fluvial hydraulics 1. Water resources management

2. Advanced and fluvial hydraulics 2. Hydraulic structures
3. Physical hydrology 3. Probability and statistics
4. Hydrological theory and design 4. Three units of mathematics
5. Hydraulic structures

E. UNIVERSITY OF ROORKEE, ROORKEE, INDIA - DETAILS OF PROGRAMME AND SYLLABI FOR MASTER OF
HYDROLOGY

Proaramme of studv

1. Physical hydrology and analogs

Pressure, density, surface tension, capillarity and their impact on hydrological process.
Phase changes and dissolution characteristics. Thermodynamic characteristics and processes of
heating and cooling. Mass transport characteristics and processes. Vapour transport and
nucleation process. Snow and glacier melt. Impact of properties and processes on overland
flow, infiltration and unsaturated flow. Multiphase flow.
Dimensional analysis and similitude. Geometric, kinematic and dynamic similarities.
Models for open channels and river systems. Other analogues. Analogue computers, their types.
Components of analogue computers; use of analogue computers; solution of differential equa-
tion. Hydrological problems; unscaled and scaled solutions.

2. Photohydrology

a. Basic principles
Basic definitions and principles of photogrammetry. Types of photographs used and their scales.
Principles of stereoscopy. Fundamentals of photo-interpretations. Elements of remote sensing.
Fields of application of point interpretation and remote sensing.

b. Application
Land form and geomorphological studies. Terrain and drainage pattern analysis. Analysis of
land use patterns, vegetal cover and soil conditions. Groundwater studies. Water pollution
studies. Determination of various hydrological parameters and surface run-offs.

3. Nuclear methods in hydrology

a. Elements of nuclear techniques

Radio active isotopes and radiations. Alpha, beta, gamma rays and neutrons. Principles of
detection and counting equipment. Natural and artificial radio isotopes.

b. Applications to hydrology
Measurement of surface flow. Estimation of sedimentation in and leakage from lakes. Snow
pack and glacier studies. Subsurface flow studies. Study of inter-relation of hydrological
elements.

4. Stochastic processes

Classification of hydrological processes. Range analysis of hydrological series. Analysis of

hydrological series by runs. Markov Chains -
transition probability matrix. Queuing processes
- general queuing models. Theory of storage, storage analysis. Stochastic routing of floods.

5. Mathematics (integral transfomn)

Complex variable. Integration of functions of a complex variable. Fourier transforms and

73
their operational properties. Convergence of complex series. Laplace transforms and their
operational properties. Application of transforms.

6. Water resources economics

Introductory concepts. Production function and costs. Demands for water resources system
outputs. Optimal allocation of economic resources. Benefit-cost analysis, its development
and meaning. Rules for and applications of benefit cost accounting. Multiple objective bene-
fit cost analysis. System techniques in water resources economics.

7. Water use and management

Problems of irrigation, agriculture. Water distribution systems and management on farms.

Irrigation intensities and cropping pattern. Institutional infrastructure requirements. Com-
plementary inputs. Integrations with other management practices. Drainage criteria; recla-
mation of water-logged and saline lands. Optimal timing of irrigation.

8. Forest and agricultural hydrology

Influence of forests on hydrological processes. Land use and land capability classifi,cation.
Causes of deterioration of watersheds. Watershed management techniques. Photostudies and
experimental basins to study forest influences. Soil classification and hydrological soil
groups. Estimation of run-off from precipitation and snowmelt. Problems of farm ponds de-
sign, irrigation and drainage systems.

9. Urban hydrology

Elements governing urban run-off. Computation of storm water run-off. Hydrograph analysis
method, Los Angeles hydrograph, Chicago hydrograph method. Road Research Laboratory methods.
Floods and urban water pollution problems. Urban road drainage. Airport drainage.

10. Flood forecasting

Forms of hydrological forecast. Data requirements; transmission and processing codes. Fore-
casting services, organization and operation. Forecast procedure, hydrometeorological and hy-
drological forecasts. Forecasts of groundwater levels. Accuracy and checking of forecasts.

11. Legal and environmental hydrology

Legislation and administration of water resources. Water rights, allocation of water, legal
system concerning water rights. Government administration, public institutions and water tri-
bunals. Principles of metering law. Water laws and its relation to man's influence on
hydrological phenomena. Prevention of pollution and ecological relation of water in biosphere.
Conservation policies.

12. Groundwater flow

Statistical hydrodynamics. Soil moisture theory. Flow in the zone of aeration. Too liquid
flow in porous media. Dispersion and diffusion in porous media. Fluid transport equations.
Linearization techniques and solution methods.

13. Drainage engineering

Basic soil characteristics. Vegetation growth and its effects on drainage. Subsurface flow
to drains, excess irrigation. Formulation of drainage criteria. Drainage by artificial
means. Sub-surface field drainage systems. Surface field drainages. Drainage of reclaimed
lands. Maintenance of drainage works.

14. Hydrogeology of hard rocks

Rock cycle. Geological and hydrological classification of rocks: (I) Igneous and metamorphic
rocks: (a) major rock types, texture and structure; (b) methods of well drilling, design and
construction. (11) Soluble rocks, limestone and dolomites: (a) major rock types, textures
and structures; (b) design and construction of wells. Development and conservation of ground-
water. Case histories.

74
15. Sub-surface investigations

Classification of surface investigation methods for groundwater prospecting. Different types

of drilling fluids; formation resistivity factor. Electrical logging. Radiation logging;
y-ray logs, yy-ray logging. Nuclear magnetic logs. S.P. logs. Data analysis and interpre-
tation.

16. Hydrogeochemistry

Chemical properties of water. Water as a solvent. Impurities and isotopic variation in water.
Ion exchange phenomenon. Chemical mass balance of river and oceans. Chemical analysis of
water and presentation of data. Chemical quality of water. Application of hydrogeochemical
surveys.

17. Conjunctive water resources planning

System configuration. Interaction of surface and groundwater. Components of this system and
economic, legal, hydrological and management constraints. Formulation of mathematical system.
Optimal parameter identification and model decomposition. Optimization with deterministic and
stochastic component. Effect on quality.

18. Geomorphology

Physical and chemical weathering, soil erosion and control. Estimation of sediment load in
rivers. Study of hill slopes. Deserts; erosion, transportation and deposition. Oceans;
waves, tides, currents, coastal erosion and submergence, coast protection. Glaciers; types
and movements, deposits. Karst topography. Geomorphic sub-divisions of Indian subcontinent.

F. UNIVERSITY OF SAN JUAN, ARGENTINA

1. The atmosphere

Definition of hydrology, historical development, the hydrological cycle, classification of wa-

ters, importance. of hydrology in hydraulic planning, connection between hydrology and fluvial
hydraulics; the atmosphere, precision of data - variations and reasons for differences; baro-
metry, dynamic reduction and correction; reasons for atmospheric mass circulation; wind zones.

2. Precipitation

General properties; vapour; characteristics of humid air; atmospheric humidity, variations

and distribution; hygrometry; condensation; adiabatic cooling; cyclones and anticyclones;
clouds; rainfall and discharge; snow, physical properties, geographical distribution; rain-
fall, mapping, typical evolutions.

3. Pluviometry

Instrumentation and systematics, installation of instruments; snow investigation; calculation

of precipitation, corrections; recording, diagrams (chronological, cumulative) , analysis of
data, harmonic analysis, application of statistical methods.

4. Precipitation

Quantitative characteristics (duration, intensity, frequency; global and its variations; iso-
lated), formula; evaporation, physical characteristics, coefficients for correction; terres-
trial evaporation; global evaporation; evapotranspiration and its influencing factors.

5. Sub-surface discharge

Infiltration, methods of calculation, volume of infiltrating water, water in the soil, soil
moisture, vertical distribution of water in the soil; groundwater, hydrogeological concept,
concept of sub-surface basin, aquifers, aquicludes, aquitardes, aquifuges; geological formation
as aquifers. Hydrological parameters: porosity, permeability, transmissivity; types of aqui-
fer; basic concepts of the hydraulics of wells; pumping tests, interpretation of results; hy-
drological and geological studies of aquifers; artificial recharge; simulation models and pre-
diction.

75
6. Surface discharge

Characteristics and influencing factors, coefficients; global discharge, formula and methods
of estimation; snow melt; regimen of typical watersheds; discharge originating from isolated
precipitation; hydrograms.

7. River floods

Reasons, formula, methods of estimation, retention, isohyets of storms, probabilities, graphical

methods, probability paper; unit hydrograph, synthetic hydrographs; hydraulics of floods,
equations, deducted relations, forecasting.

8. Hydrometry

Installation of hydrometric stations, location, equipment, instruments, methodology; elabora-

tion of data (records and graphs), extrapolation of data, analysis of records, chronological
and accumulating diagrams; physics and hydraulics of rivers, movement of water in the river bed;
generation of the transversal profile; meanders; relation between water level and discharge;
bed mobility; formula.
9. Sediment transport

Origin of material, forms of transport, transport velocity, concentration and distribution over
cross section, turbidity, calculation of data; physical characteristics of sediments. Bed
load, different methods and formula, equipment, nature of material.

10. Flood protection

Method applied, systematics of origin of floods (limits of application), construction works,

protection of foreland, dykes, calculations, construction principles. Retention groynes,
deviation of floods, combined systems.

G. CURRICULUM OF MASTER OF ENGINEERING SCIENCE (WATER ENGINEERING) COURSE, SCHOOL OF CIVIL

ENGINEERING OF THE UNIVERSITY OF NEW SOUTH WALES, SYDNEY, AUSTRALIA
Entry requirements

For the Master of Engineering Science, an honours or good pass degree in an approved four-year
undergraduate course.

Minimum duration of courses

1 year (full time)

2 years (part time)

curriculum
Students may select an approved programme from a wide range of courses, each of 42 hours dura-
tion (28 hours lectures, 14 hours tutorials). Master of Engineering Science students normally
take nine subjects plus a project equivalent to a further three subjects. Alternatively, they
may take six subjects plus a research project equivalent to a further six subjects.

List of courses
Hydrological processes
Flood design
Advanced flood estimation
Reservoir design and yield determination
Groundwater hydrology
Groundwater hydraulics
Soil-water hydrology
Urban drainage design
Economic decision making in civil engineering
Water resources policy
Optimization techniques in civil engineering
Water resources system design
Irrigation
Drainage of agricultural land
76
Investigation of groundwater resources 1
Investigation of groundwater resources 2
Geomorphology for hydrologists

Hydromechanics
Closed conduit flow
Pipe network and transients
Free surface flow
Fluvial hydraulics
Estuarine hydraulics
Coastal engineering 1
Coastal engineering 2

Unit operations in public health engineering

Water distribution and sewage collection
Solid and liquid waste management,
Water and waste water analysis and quality requirements
Water treatment
Sewage treatment and disposal
Water quality management

Some courses of major importance are described below in more detail.

1. Hydrological processes

Hydrological cycle, atmospheric circulation (6 hours): the hydroloqical cycle and water
balance. Heat balance of the atmosphere. Circulation of the atmosphere and its effects on
climate. Effects of circulation pattern on water resources.

Meteorological elements - temperature, humidity (3 hours): measurements and variations of tem-

perature and humidity, lapse rates, absolute and relative humidity, dew point and precipitable
water.

The precipitation process (3 hours): conditions for precipitation. Definition, forms, classi-
fication and measurement of precipitation.

Evaporation and transpiration (9 hours): the evaporation process. Estimation of evaporation.

The transpiration process. Control of evapotranspiration.

Advanced stream gauging (6 hours): objectives of stream gauging, the control, current meter
gauging, chemical gauging, miscellaneous modern developments in gauging, general gauging prac-
tice, data processing, gauging network design.

Storm run-off process (6 hours): General description. Horton theory, variation of components
with time. Saturated surface flow, throughflow, partial area run-off, occurrence of different
processes. Catchment storage, channel transmission losses.

Hydrology and land use (6 hours): effects of land use on precipitation, interception, infil-
tration, evapotranspiration. Resulting.effects on yield, flood run-off, water quality, sur-
face salting and sediment production.

Instrumentation and developments in data acquisition (3 hours) : fundamentals, network design,

measurement chain, data analysis. Remote sensing.

2. Flood design

Introduction of flood estimation and design (3 hours): outline, philosophy, meaning of fre-
quency, design on frequency basis, flood estimation from rainfall data.

Rainfall data (6 hours): measurement, methods of display, estimation of areal average, inter-
pretation and correction of records, intensity-frequency-duration analysis, storm patterns,
design storms.

Hydrograph analysis (3 hours): description, factors affecting hydrograph shape, storage

effects, lag, component flows, hydrograph separation.

77
Storm rainfall-run-off relationships (3 hours): variation of components of run-off cycle dur-
ing storm, initial loss, storm rainfall-run-off relationships and models, design case.

Loss rates (3 hours): definitions, applications in engineering practice, derivation of loss

rates, variation of loss rates, availability of data.

Rational method of flood estimation (6 hours): basis, run-off coefficient, time of concentra-
tion, deterministic and statistical interpretations, application.

Unit hydrographs (9 hours) : definitions, theory, single period unit hydrographs, estimation of
flood hydrograph, changing specified time period, distribution graphs, introduction to derivation
of unit hydrographs from complex storms, design unit hydrograph.

Introduction to urban drainage (3 hours) : differences from rural, layout of drainage system,
application of rational method.

Flood frequency studies (6 hours) : method, 'data required, extension of data, types of distri-
butions, estimation of population from sample, applications.

3. Advanced flood estimation

Flood routing (9 hours): principles, effects of storage, reservoir and distributed storage,
routing procedures, graphical and numerical methods, solution of the equations of unsteady
flow.

Catchment characteristics (6 hours): numerical and graphical measures of physical characteris-

tics of catchment areas and stream systems, bankfull frequency, variation of flood velocity over
a catchment.

Hydrograph synthesis by run-off routing (6 hours): principles, computational models of rainfall

excess input and of catchment storage, evaluation of model parameters for practical application
of models, application to computation of hydrographs for selected models.

Synthetic unit hydrographs (6 hours): methods evaluating salient points on the unit hydrograph
(such as Snyder and Taylor and Schwarz), run-off routing methods, and procedures utilizing equa-
tions of hydrograph shape.

Urban drainage design (6 hours): principles, review of the rational method and evaluation of
design data. Hydrological models for discrete storms and continuous simulation of hydrographs.
Hydraulic design.

Regional empirical flood estimation methods (6 hours): review of regional flood frequency
methods and design hydrograph procedures based on rainfall and flood data, including the U.S.
Soil Conservation Service method, critical evaluation of best modern procedures and application
to Australian conditions.

Advanced unit hydrograph theory (3 hours): model formations of unit hydrograph theory, deriva-
tion of unit hydrographs by optimum fitting methods, programming techniques, use of orthogonal
functions and other systems techniques.

4. Reservoir design and yield determination

Introduction, storage yield analysis (731 hours): regulation for water supply, storage analysis
using simulation studies of historical or synthetic records, graphical and numerical techniques,
concept of probability of failure.

Extension of streamflow records (4% hours): the need, streamflow correlations, rainfall-run-
off relations, rainfall-run-off (deterministic) models, statistical methods, consistency of
data.

Introduction to hydrological systems (14 hours): hydrological systems, models and data syn-
thesis.

Deterministic catchment models (7% hours): description of some typical models, evaluation of
model parameters, application in synthesising run-off records.

78
Stochastic models (9 hours) : statistical parameters and analysis of streamflow records, time
series analysis, serial correlation, Markov and other models, elements of correlograms and
variance spectrum analysis, analysis of range, generating models and generation of synthetic
sequences.

Storage-yield-probability of failure (6 hours): interrelationship of input, output and sto-

rage state, probability analysis of storage states, Morans theory of storage.

Spillway capacity (6 hours): extreme precipitation, available moisture, transposition of

observed storms, storm models, empirical and statistical methods. Flood routing throuN
reservoirs, optimum spillway configuration.

5. Urban drainage design

Introduction of flood estimation and design (3 hours): outline, philosophy, meaning of fre-
quency, design on frequency basis, flood estimation from rainfall data.

Rainfall data ( 6 hours) : measurement, methods of display, estimation of areal average, inter-
pretation and correction of records, intensity-frequency-duration analysis, storm patterns,
design storms.

Hydrograph analysis (3 hours): description, factors affecting hydrograph shape, storage

effects, lag, component flows, hydrograph separation.

Storm rainfall-run-off relationships (3 hours): variation of components of run-off cycle dur-

ing storm, initial loss, storm rainfall-run-off relationships and models, design case.

Loss rates (3 hours): definitions, applications in engineering practice, derivation of loss

rates, variation of loss rates, availability of data.

Rational method of flood estimation (6 hours): basis, run-off coefficient, time of concentra-
tion, deterministic and statistical interpretations, application.

Urban drainage design (18 hours): hydraulic design, urban catchment characteristics, design
models, design procedures.

79
Annex IIIC
Examples of short duration specialized programmes
INTRODUCTION

The short duration specialized programmes are usually continued education programmes intended
for practising hydrologists. They are organized according to one of the following three
methods. One is a collection of post-graduate programmes offered regularly by a university
department. The courses are taken by interested professionals without completing the require-
ments for a degree. The selection of courses is done by the participants according to their
needs. Another method, more common, is for these short duration specialized courses to be
organized specifically for a group of participants according to their needs for upgrading their
knowledge on special topics. The third possibility is lor the courses to be organized accord-
ing to the special knowledge or experience of the teaching staff in the university department or
research institute offering the programme. Students for such courses come on the basis of their
interest in the programme which is advertized either on a regional or an international basis.
The examples included in this annex include these three types of short duration specialized
courses.

A. DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, UNIVERSITY OF BIRMINGHAM, BIRMINGHAM, ENGLAND - WATER

RESOURCES TECHNOLOGY IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES

Duration of programme: 20 weeks of lectures, 1 week of study tour and 3 weeks of preparation
of sHort dissertation.
-U-

Outline of subjects covered

The main areas covered are surface and groundwater hydrology, reservoir design and management,
irrigation, water quality and health, water collection treatment and distribution, sanitation,
basic hydraulics, flood alleviation, urban drainage and engineering economics. Mathematical
techniques including computing and statistics are also part of the syllabus.

List of courses

Statistics
Computer programming
Revision mathematics
Rainfall-run-off and climatic variables
Descriptive groundwater
Water quality and health
Hydraulics of pipe flow networks and streamflow gauging
Reservoir design
Steady state groundwater flow
Water collection, treatment and distribution
Flood estimation
Collection, treatment and disposal of waste water
The top 2m of soil profile
Irrigation engineering
Open channel hydraulics including river training
Flood alleviation and urban storm drainage
Time-variant groundwater flow
Reservoir management
Economics of water resources planning

B. POST-GRADUATE TRAINING COURSE ON GROUNDWATER TRACING TECHNIQUES - DEPARTMENT OF HYDRO-

GEOLOGY, UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY, GRAZ, AUSTRIA

Duration of programme: 5 weeks. Language: English.

Programme of course:

1. Lectures on: collection of field data and water tracing by sodium chloride, potassium
chloride, dyed lycopodium spores, and fluorescein dyes.
2. Exercises in mapping, water analyses, selection of data, spore dyeing techniques, produc-
tion of charcoal samples.
80
3. Lectures on: the use of radio-isotopes in water tracing, and water tracing by activation
analysis methods.
4. Exercises in microscopic techniques. Excursions in the field and preparation of field
experiments in the groundwater field of the Graz basin (Grazer Feld) and the karst areas west
and north of Graz.
5. Field experiment in groundwater tracing in gravel and sand (Grazer Feld).
6. Report on the experiment.
7. Six-days day-and-night experiment in the region of the Central Styrian Karst. Injection
of various tracers, collection and investigation of samples by working groups.
8. Final report.

C. MODEL TRAINING COURSE, HANNOVER, FEDERAL REPUBLIC OF GERMANY

This course consists partially of correspondence courses and partially of up-grading courses at
the Technical University of Hannover.

1. General: mathematics, statistics, probability, time frequency analysis, correlation and

regression.
2. Principles of water resources: water balance.
3. Principles of geosciences: geology, hydrogeology, soil science, morphology.
4. Principles of biology and chemistry for hydrology: saprobic system, self-purification,
biological and chemical parameters.
5. Principles of meteorology: precipitation, evaporation, radiation, heat balance of water
bodies.
6. Principles of limnology: physical, chemical, biological, eutrophication.
7. Selected fields of hydraulics: unsteady flow, groundwater flow.
8. River morphology: sediment transport, governing laws of the formation of the river shape.
9. Measurement, precipitation, and other meteorological parameters, flow velocity, discharge,
water level, water quality, tracers.
10. Evaluation, precipitation, discharge, statistics of extreme values, sediment and water
quantity transport, hydrological parameters.
11. Selected fields of data processing, programming, data bank techniques, data transmission,
electronics, devices.
12. Selected fields of modelling: precipitation-run-off models, flood routing models, water
quality models, heat balances, stochastic procedures, forecasting, groundwater models.

D. INTERNATIONAL HIGHER HYDROLOGICAL COURSES, MOSCOW STATE LOMONOSOV UNIVERSITY, MOSCOW, U.S.S.R.

The course treats subject areas which differ from one year to another completely. The duration
of each course was two months including a period of two weeks for visits to institutes of higher
education and research institutes. Each course comprised about 150 hours of lectures.

List of topics of courses and their programmes

1. 1969 - River run-off phenomena and hydrological calculation

Cyclic variation of streamflow. Analysis of physical and geographical factors effect on stream-
flow regime and formation. Run-off continental and global processes. Estimation of the
average perennial world runoff. Modern considerations of the run-off as a probabilistic pro-
cess. Mathenatical modelling of run-off processes. Annual run-off distribution.

2. 1970 - Problem of hydrological forecasting

Analysis of present-day and future state of world water resources. Methodical basis of hydro-
logical forecasting and problems connected with the application of methods of mathematical sta-
tistics. Short-term and long-term run-off forecasts; particularly, run-off forecasts for
mountain rivers. Interaction of surface and groundwaters. Forecasting the groundwater
regime. Estimation and forecasting of water quality in solving water management problems.

3. 1971 - Underground water hydrology

Interrelation between surface and groundwater run-off. Groundwater run-off and its role in
river recharge and in water balance of territories and catchments. Groundwater dynamics.
Modelling of groundwater dynamic processes. Geochemistry of groundwaters. Meliorative hydro-
geology. Groundwaters of arid areas. Main tasks and future activities concerning

81
investigations in groundwater hydrology.

4. 1972 - Man's activity impact on hydrological processes and phenomena

Main problems of inland waters regime reform. World water resources and their future. Hydro-
logical forecasting and its relationship with planning of water resources utilization, with
implementation of large-scale water-management projects and with river systems reform. Proba-
bilistic characteristics of river run-off; theory of its regulation. Urbanization impact on
river regimes and water quality. Irrigation, agricultural and melioration effects on run-off.
Forms and methods of toxic waste waters storage in deep earth crust aquifers. Laws for utiliza-
tion and protection of water resources, water legislation in the U.S.S.R.

5. 1973 - Hydrology of lakes and reservoirs

Lakes and man-made reservoirs of the globe, their contribution to the water cycle. Natural
and man-made reservoirs as components of hydrological system. Perennial fluctuations of levels
of lakes. Water budget of lakes and reservoirs. Methods for determining components of water
budget. Thermal regime of reservoirs; heat budget, thermophysical calculations, ice-cover
regime. Dynamic phenomena in lakes and reservoirs. Modification of banks and beds of
reservoirs, sediment budget, siltation processes. Hydrochemical regime, classification of lakes
and reservoirs by salt composition. Lymnological cycles, biomass production processes, biology
of heated waters. Modern methods for lymnological observations and studies. Complex approach
to study of lakes and reservoirs.

6. 1974 - River hydraulics and channel processes

Modern problems of river hydraulics, one-dimensional, plan and space problems. Structure of
turbulent streamflow, processes of diffusion and suspended particles transport. Channel defor-
mations, theory of channel processes. Dynamics of hydrographic network, channel processes in
deltas. Modelling of river streamflow in erodable and non-erodable beds and present-day tech-
nique of laboratory ana in situ measurements of turbulent streamflow parameters. Theory of
stratificated currents, bottom and mud flows motion.

7. 1975 - Water resources and the environment

Global water resources, their present-day and future state. Regional and global water balances.
Man's activity impact on water balance elements. Interchange of matter and energy in geosphere.
Multipurpose hydraulic projects and water utilization impact on surface and groundwater regimes.
Groundwater resources. Closed technological cycle of water consumption. Water component in
long-term geographical forecasting. Basic principles of regional geographical forecasting.
Ecological effects of waste heat disposal. Time-space characteristics of man's activities
effect on hydrological cycle. Theory and practice of hydrological modelling. System approach
in hydrological problems.

8. 1976 - Hydrological forecasting in water management

Forecasting of river discharges and water levels on the basis of river flow motion regularities.
Run-off forecasting and water storage in river systems. Forecasting of rain floods. Long-
term forecasts of summer flood of mountain rivers and spring flood of lowland rivers. Fore-
casting of summer, autumn and winter run-off. Calculation of river hydrograph for the period
of snow floods. Short-term forecast of river, lake and reservoir freezing and ice breaking up.
Automatic processing of urgent hydrological information. Hydrological forecasting service
organized in the U.S.S.R. Mathematical methods in the problem of forecasting. Representative
and experimental basins and their contribution to forecasting.

9. 1977 - Experimental investigations of hydrological processes and phenomena

Investigations on the experimental and representative basins. Large- and medium-scale classi-
fication. Main results for IHD period. Water budget research. Surface and subsurface waters
interaction. Investigations of reservoirs and lakes. Large-scale measuring of diffusion in
lakes. Pollution and purification control. Budget methods of control. Aerospace and remote
sensing methods of investigations. Aeroplane and satellite surveys. Aerospace information
utilization in hydrological processes investigations. Stereophotogrammetric surveys. Stable
and radioactive isotopes and nuclear radiation application in hydrological research work. Lu-
miniscent substances methods of studies. Physical, mathematical and stochastic simulation of
hydrological processes.
10. 1978 - Scientific basis of groundwater research and protection
General regularities of groundwater formation. Varieties of groundwater resources and their
vertical stratification. Artesian basins, river valleys, fissured and karst-fissured strata
as the basic structures for groundwater accumulation. General regularities of the surface and
subsurface waters interrelation. Groundwater resources and regularities of its formation.
Regional maps of prognosticated groundwater resources. Methods of operational reserves evalua-
tion. Regional regime and forecast of groundwater operational conditions as a scientific basis
of groundwater protection from pollution and depletion. Intensive withdrawal of water from
deep layers: technogeneous processes impact.

11. 1979 - Calculation methods for run-off

Characteristics of run-off and methods for their calculation. Long-term run-off variation.
Stochastic models of run-off variation. Methods of correlational and spectrum analysis of
long-range flow observations. Annual run-off. Annual distribution. Maximum and minimum
water discharges. Calculation of snow and rain floods. Calculation of main run-off charac-
teristics in case of insufficient or no hydrometric observations. Calculation of run-off for
water system management and projects. Hydrological modelling in water management projects,
in planning water resources utilization and water system management. Methods for estimation
of initial hydrological information. Premises for standardizing calculational run-off'charac-
teristics.

12. 1981 (there was no course in 1980) - Modern problems of irrigated lands hydrology
Water resources of arid and semi-arid regions and territories with insufficient humidity. Spe-
cific features of the arid regions' river regime and the interannual run-off distribution.
Moisture transfer over arid lands and irrigated areas, interrelation of atmosphere and underly-
ing surface; relief and soil cover influence. Water and heat balance of irrigated and non-
irrigated lands. Moisture, heat and salt exchange in the near earth air layer and the aeration
zone. Regime of evaporation, transpiration and infiltration as a function of the irrigation
intensity and physical properties of soils. Runoff regulation in catchments and its interrela-
tion with irrigation regime. Influence of irrigation on the surface and underground run-off,
consideration of different irrigation techniques. Effectiveness and intensity of drainage
systems. Balance of underground waters on irrigated areas. Salination of soils and ground-
water mineralization. Salt regime and balance and the hydrochemical regime of groundwater.
Forecasting of groundwater level. Mathematical models of surface and sub-surface run-off
formation on irrigated land.

E. NATIONAL COMMITTEE FOR THE INTERNATIONAL HYDROLOGICAL PROGRAMME IN CHINA, NANJING, CHINA

Topics of short-term training programmes in China

1. Application of new techniques and equipment in hydrometry.

2. Short-term hydrological forecasting.
3. Medium- and long-term hydrological forecasting.
4. Data processing.
5. Maximum probable precipitation.
6. Water quality analysis and monitoring.
7. Watershed hydrological experimentation.
8. Algorithmic language and programming.
9. Network design.
10 * Hydrological computation and design.
11. Reservoir operation with hydrological forecasting.
12. Groundwater forecasting and development.
13. Remote sensing techniques in hydrology.

The durations of these programmes are given as several weeks, probably three to seven weeks,
for each programme. The programmes are organized by institutions-ofhigher education. The
participants are practising hydrologists, engineers and technicians.

83
F. REGIONAL TRAINING COURSE ON THE HYDROLOGY OF SNOW AND ICE, SANTIAGO, CHILE - ORGANIZED
BY UNESCO WITH THE AID OF UNDP

Duration of course: 1 month.

1. Introduction

Role of snow and ice in hydrology. Glacier types; glacier variations related to water re-
sources. Physical properties of snow and ice, a review.

2. Physical properties of snow and ice in relation to practical application

Classification of snow. Thermal properties: metamorphism of snow, sublimation, superimposed

ice. Mechanical properties: snow densification, rammsonde measurements, avalanches, seismic
waves. Electrical properties: Albedo, artificial increase of albedo to promote snow melt,
satellite measurements. Isotope composition: environmental isotopes and water resources.

3. Glacier mass balance

Various methods of study and their application. Field techniques. Methods of calculation,
including use of computers.

4. Glacier hydrology

Hydrology of streams from glacierised and glacier-free basins. Water power production in
glacierised areas. High-mountain hydrology, including special gauging methods. Run-off
prediction for glacier streams. Water balance of a glacierised or snow-covered basin.
Sediment transport in glacier streams. Silting of reservoirs and lakes.

5. Heat balance

Radiation measurements: instrumentation and calibration. Turbulent heat transport, evapora-

tion, condensation, sublimation, sensible heat. Use of appropriate meteorological instruments.
Complete heat balance determinations. A programme of combined mass and heat balance studies.

6. Glacier dynamics

Ice movement and deformation, dangerous crevasses. Glacier slip on the bed-rock for temperate
glacier. Glacier response on climatic changes. Catastrophic advances (surges).

7. Morphological effects of glaciers

Terminal moraines and their formation, moraine dammed Lakes. Ablation moraines, rock glaciers.
Glacier erosion, moraines and typical land forms. Earthquake effects. Glacier darned lakes,
water pockets within glaciers.

G. GRADUATE COURSE IN HYDROLOGY, THE SCHOOL OF CIVIL ENGINEERING OF THE UNIVERSITY OF NEW
SOUTH WALES, SYDNEY, AUSTRALIA

Entry requirements: Degree in engineering or science, but a lesser qualification from persons
with experience will be considered.
Duration of course: 14 weeks (full time); March to June each year.

Brochure: A brochure for each year's course can be obtained from the Head, School of Civil
Engineering, the University of New South Wales, Pro. Box 1, Kensington, NSW 2033, Australia.

Admission procedure: Applications should be sent to the above address before 31 December of
each year. Persons wishing to obtain an Australian Government award should apply through their
local Australian diplomatic post, preferably by 30 September of each year.
Students may specialize in either surface water hydrology or groundwater hydrology. All
students take a common core of subjects, plus two elective subjects. The common core, elec-
tives and syllabi of all subjects are listed below.

84
Common core

1. Special course work (40-40) (1)

2. Hydrological processes (28-14)
3. Flood design (28-14)
4. Groundwater hydrology (28-14)
5. Investigation of groundwater resources 1 (28-14)

Electives

Surface water option

6. Advanced flood estimation (28-14)

7. Reservoir design and yield determination (28-14)

Groundwater option

8. Groundwater hydraulics
9. Investigation of groundwater resources 2 (28-14)

Syllabi

1. Special course work

Statistics and computing for hydrologists. Basic hydraulics. Special lectures, excursions
and demonstrations arranged to suit the needs of the class.

2. Hydrological processes

Hydrological cycle, water and energy balances, atmospheric moisture, precipitation process,
evaporation and transpiration, storm run-off process, land use and management, stream gauging,
instruments.

3. Flood design

Introduction to flood estimation, design rainfall data, hydrograph analysis, storm run-off, loss
rates, rational method, unit hydrographs, introduction to urban drainage design, flood frequency.

4. Groundwater hydrology

Occurrence and distribution of groundwater, confined and unconfined aquifers, aquifer characte-
ristics. Analogue models, Hele-Shaw analogue, resistance-capacitance network. Digital
models of aquifer systems, solution using high-speed computers. Water movement in the unsatu-
rated zone, instrumentation, hydrological characteristics of unsaturated soil, steady state
systems, infiltration, drainage, computer solutions. Groundwater recharge. Groundwater
quality, salinity. Sea water intrusion.

5. Investigation of groundwater resources 1

Occurrence and extraction of groundwater, investigation and drilling methods, systems approach,
optimization techniques, conjunctive use studies, quality of groundwater.

6. Advanced flood estimation

Flood routing, catchment characteristics, run-off routing, synthetic unit hydrographs, urban
run-off, regional empirical flood estimation methods, advanced unit hydrograph theory.

7. Reservoir design and yield determination

Storage-yield analysis, extension of run-off records, deterministic catchment models, stochastic

hydrology, storage probability studies, spillway capacity and reservoir flood routing.

(1) The two figures in brackets after each subject name show the total hours of lecture and
tutorial time respectively.

85
8. Groundwater hydraulics

Mechanics of flow in saturated porous materials. Steady and unsteady flow to wells, constant
discharge and constant drawdown conditions. Leaky aquifers, partial penetration, multiple
aquifer boundaries, delayed yield from storage. Step drawdown analysis. Regional studies.
Introduction to conformal transformation solutions.

9. Investigation of groundwater resources 2

Geophysical methods, remote sensing, photo-interpretation, arid environment studies, analogue

models, case studies.

H. REGIONAL TRAINING COURSE ON THE USE OF COMPUTERS IN HYDROLOGY, TOKYO, JAPAN -

ORGANIZED BY
UNESCO WITH THE COLLABORATION OF ESCAP AND THE NATIONAL COMMISSION FOR UNESCO IN JAPAN

Duration of course: 1 month (85 hours of lectures).

1. Introduction

Hydrological data, origin of data. Analysis of series from the hydrological viewpoint.
Reliability, homogeneity, significance of data.

2. Treatment of data

Numerical and statistical techniques. Statistics, regression and correlation. Processing and
retrieval of data. Role of computers in hydrological information systems and for evaluation of
data.

3. Introduction to the use of computers

Programming languages. Simulation techniques. Analogue and/or digital computers. Analogue

computers. Digital computers. Hybrid computing techniques.

4. Application to hydrological problems

Groundwater flow. Flood routing, riverflow. Watershed models, run-off hydrology. Forecast-
ing. Water quality.

In addition to lectures, the course includes 40 hours for exercises, workshops and discussions.

I. A SHORT COURSE ON PRACTICAL TECHNIQUES FOR REGIONALISING AND TRANSFERRING HYDROLOGICAL

VARIABLES, INSTITUTE OF HYDROLOGY, WALLINGFORD, UNITED KINGDOM

Duration of programme: 4 weeks.

The four main topics in the syllabus are (i) description and indexing of catchment, climate and
flow characteristics; (ii) correlation and regression analysis and the fitting and use of
probability distributions; (iii) flood and flow modelling; (iv) low flow analysis. Addi-
tional lectures are included on related topics.

List of topics

Flow routing Case studies

Soil moisture accounting Rainfall run-off modelling
Statistical applications Overseas applications
Microprocessors and instrumentation Geomorphological characteristics
Overseas flood estimation Data archiving
Crop water use Groundwater modelling
Interpretation and mapping Evapotranspiration
Low flow hydrology Flood estimation
Frequency analysis

Programme of course (by weeks)

1. Introduction, regression studies, catchment and climate characteristics and visits to a

low lying area, the Hydraulics Research Station and the Institute of Hydrology.

86
2. Advanced regression topics, probability, risk and frequency analysis, visits to the Water
Data Unit and the Institute of Hydrology.
3. Low flow studies, visits to research catchments, a Water Authority and the Institute of
Hydrology.
4. Flood event models, hydraulic routing, reservoir routing. Case studies from overseas,
visit to institute or' iiydroioqy arid departiiie.

87
Annex IV
Curricula and syllabi for some undergraduate and graduate options in
training for degrees in fields other than hydrology
INTRODUCTION

A good method of becoming a professional hydrologist: without following a complete undergraduate

training programme in hydrology, is to adopt hydrology as an option of specialization in under-
graduate or graduate studies towards other degrees. This should be followed by special courses
of advanced study in specific topics for a complete hydrological education. However, in many
cases, the hydrological option of programmes for other degrees can give an adequate basis for
professional work in hydrology.
Following this option usually implies the study of a wider spectrum of courses related to
hydraulics and water resources engineering rather than a programme devoted only to hydrological
topics. It is beneficial in the sense that it gives the student some broader outlook about the
use of the results of hydrological studies. The examples of hydrology option programmes in
this annex were received from national committees for the IHP in response to a request from the
Division of Water Sciences of Unesco.

A. FACULTY OF ENGINEERING, KASETSART UNIVERSITY, BANGKOK, THAILAND - BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING

PROGRAMME IN WATER RESOURCES ENGINEERING

Total required credit not less than 150.

First year

First semester Credits Second semester Credits

1. Engineering drawing 2 (1-3) 1. Descriptive geometry 2 (1-3)

2. Calculus for engineering 1 3 (3-0) 2. Workshop practice l(0-3)
3. Analytic geometry 2 (2-0) 3. Calculus for engineering 2 3 (3-0)
4. General chemistry 1 4 (3-3) 4. Solid analytic geometry 2 (2-0)
5. General physics 1 4 (3-3) 5. General chemistry 2 4 (3-3)
6. English 3 (3-0) 6. General physics 4 (3-3)
7. Introduction to political 7. English 3 (3-0)
science 3 (3-0)
21 (18-9) 19 (15-12)

Second year

First semester Credits Second semester Credits

1. Engineering mechanics 1 3 (3-0) 1. Fluid mechanics 3 (3-0)

2. Electric circuits 3 (3-0) 2. Fluid mechanics lab. 1(0-3)
3. Electrical lab. engineering l(0-3) 3. Engineering mechanics 2 3 (3-0)
4. Digital computer programming l(1-0) 4. Mechanics of materials 3 (3-0)
5. Survey 1 3 (2-3) 5. Survey 2 3 (2-3)
6. Calculus for engineering 3 3 (3-0) 6. Materials testing lab. l(0-3)
7. Differential equation for 7. Advanced mathematics for
engineering 3 (3-0) engineering 3 (3-0)
8. Introduction to economics 3(3-0) 8. Humanities (electives) 3 (3-0)
20 (18-6) 20 (17-9)

88
Third year

First semester Credits Second semester Credits

1. Flow in open channels 3 (3-0) 1. Introduction to environmenkal

engirreering 3 (3-9)
2. Principle of hydrology 3 (3-0) 2. Introduction to coastal
engineering 3(3-0)
3. Water resources engineering 3 (3-0) 3. Applied hydrology 3 (3-0)
4. Groundwater 3 (3-0) 4. Soil mechanics 4 (3-3)
5. River mechanics environment 3 (3-0) 5. Structural analysis 3 (3-0)
6. Hydrology lab. l(0-3) 6. Reinforced concrete 3(3-0)
16 (15-3) 19 (18-3)

Fourth year

First semester Credits Second semester Credits

1. Hydrogeology 3 (3-0) 1. Design of hydraulic structures 4(3-1)

2. Economics of water resources 3 (3-0) 2. Water resources planning
evaluation 3 (3-0)
3. Erosion and sedimentation 3 (3-0) 3. Engineering watershed manage-
ment 3 (3-0)
4. Technical electives (1) 3(- -1 4. Technical electives (1) 3(- -1
5. Minors (2) 3(- -1 5. Minors (2) 3(- -1
6. Humanities (electives) 3 (3-0) 6. Seminar
18(- -)

B. DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, HYDROSYSTEMS DIVISION, VIRGINIA POLYTECHNIC INSTITUTE AND

STATE UNIVERSITY, BLACKSBURG, VIRGINIA, U.S.A.

List of courses in hydrology, water resources and related subjects and syllabi for courses in
hydrology and water resources. Most of the courses are for 3 hours of lectures and 3 hours of
class exercise per week for one semester of about 10 weeks.

Underaraduate courses

1. Hydrosystems

Analysis of hydraulic components of engineering projects: flow in closed conduits and open
channels, introduction to engineering hydrology, the hydrological cycle and development of hyd-
rographs.

2. Open channel flow

Analysis of free-surface flow of liquids; calculation of flow profiles; channel transitions

and controls; supercritical flow phenomena.
3. Hydrology

Analysis of hydrological data, concepts of frequency and probability applied to hydrological

synthesis problems. Groundwater hydraulics, flow to wells. Flow routing and hydrological
considerations in design of structures. Water law.
4. Hydraulic engineering

Application of the principles of fluid mechanics to hydraulic engineering; flow measurement;

computer analysis of flow in pipes and pipe networks; hydraulic models; analysis, selection
and testing of pumps.
5. Hydraulic structures

Hydraulic analysis and design of engineering structures for water control, including dams,
spillways, stilling basins, drainage structures, hydraulic models.

(1) Technical electives are the courses in the Department of Water Resources Engineering which
are restricted electives and subjects in the graduate course.
(2) Minors are the courses in the Department of Civil Engineering and Irrigation Engineering.
89
6. C s

Hydrological background of models like TR-20, HEC-1 and HEC-2. Explanation of input data
requirements and interpretation of programme output. Application of programmes to solution of
hydrological problems on actual watersheds.

7. Hydropower engineering

River operations studies for power, flood control and other uses; selection of pumps and
turbines; cavitation and water hammer; design of penstocks, surge tanks and other plant com-
ponents.

8. Environmental water management

Analysis of the laws and administrative structure that constitute the institutional framework
for the environmental aspects of water resources management. Emphasis on water quality control
and environmental constraints on water resources development projects.

Graduate courses

1. Hydraulic engineering design: hydromechanics

Application of the principles of fluid mechanics to the analysis and design problems in hydrau-
lic engineering with major emphasis on potential flow, conformal mapping and free streamline
solution.

2. Hydraulic engineering design: sediment transport

Properties of river sediment; turbulent flow in open channels; initiation of sediment motion;
stable channel design; equations and theories for bed load transport and suspended sediment;
forms of bed roughness; resistance to flow.

3. Hydraulic engineering design: coastal hydraulics

Tides, currents, wave theories, coastal structures and wave forces, inlets and estuaries, beach
processes.

4. Experimental design in hydraulics

Laboratory methods for the experimental design of hydraulic engineering structures and projects;
similitude and dimensional analysis; hydraulic models; laboratory instrumentation and equip-
ment; planning of tests and analysis of data.

5. Water resources engineering: advanced hydrology

Formulation of the physical.laws of hydrology and application to practical problems and statis-
tical treatment of hydrological variables. Analysis of overland flow, flow in rivers, erosion,
evaporation and morphology. Problems in extreme values of streamflow, persistence and varia-
bility.

6. Water resources engineering: water resources planning

Analysis of the water resources planning process and examination of public policy relative to
water resources development. Includes consideration of criteria for determination of project
feasibility, with emphasis on the theory and mechanics of economic evaluation.

7. Water resources engineering: analysis of water resources systems

Use of mathematical modelling techniques in the formulatiion of plans for the development, con-
servation and protection of water resources systems. Modelling techniques reviewed include
optimization, simulation, and decision theory.

8. Groundwater and seepage

Derivation of basic groundwater flow equations. Dupuit theory of unconfined flow. Conformal
mapping. Hodograph techniques. Closed form solutions of elementary groundwater flow problems.

90
9. Transient flow in hydraulic systems

Analysis of transient phenomena in open and closed conduits, using method of characteristics and
impedance methods. Transients caused by turbopumps. Valve stroking.

10. Water law

Principles of law as applied to water rights and water allocations. Federal, state and local
legislation and case law as related to water use and water resources development.

11. Dynamic meteorology

Fundamentals of dynamic meteorology; precipitation physics; applications of meteorological

studies in hydrological engineering.

12. Special study: transport processes in waterways

Physical aspects of mixing, convection and diffusion processes in reservoirs, rivers, estuaries
and coastal waters with emphasis on modelling techniques; hydraulic design aspects of waste
disposals.

13. Special study: advanced analysis of water resources systems

Through the use of current literature and case studies, sophisticated and advanced systems being
used to aid in the formulation of plans for water resources systems are analysed.

14. Advanced engineering hydraulics

Fluid turbulence, unsteady flow, hydraulic transients, flow in porous media, and other advanced
topics in engineering hydraulics.

15. Advanced groundwater and seepage

Categories of seepage: steady, transient, confined and unconfined. Review of closed from and
experimental procedures and limitations. Finite difference, finite element and characteristic
methods for one-, two-, and three-dimensional flow. Darcy, non-Darcy and unsaturated flow.
Applications: foundations, cofferdams, earth banks, tidal beaches, flow toward wells, disper-
sion, diffusion and salinity.

Selected supporting courses

1. Computational fluid dynamics

2. Dynamics of the ocean
3. Theory of stratified flows
4. Watershed engineering
5. Parametric watershed models
6. Applied finite element methods in civil engineering
7. Stream sanitation
8. Applied systems engineering
9. Numerical methods for partial differential equations
10. Theory of continuous media
11. Mathematical theory of incompressible fluids
12. Introductory viscous flows
13. Turbulence and turbulent flows
14. Perturbation methods
15. Applied optimization methods
16. Mathematical programming
17. Dynamic programming
18. Introduction to numerical analysis
19. Applied mathematics for engineers
20. Applied partial differential equations
21. Numerical analysis
22. Applied statistics
23. Probability and distribution theory
24. Stochastic processes

91
C. PROGRAMME OF STUDIES FOR A HYDRAULIC ENGINEERING AND HYDROLOGY OPTION IN CIVIL ENGINEERING
AT TECHNION - ISRAEL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, FACULTY OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, HAIFA, ISRAEL

The total programme in civil engineering comprises 165 study units over a period of four years
(eight semesters). Each study unit is equivalent approximately to 14 hours of lectures or
about 2 8 hours of class exercise. The programme consists of some 125 units of required courses
and 40 units of electives.
The courses in hydraulics, hydrology and related subjects in the list of required courses
are :

1. Fluid mechanics -
3 units
2.
3.
Hydraulics and hydraulics laboratory
Elements of engineering hydrology -
-
3 units
3 units
4. Environmental engineering -
4 units

The list of elective courses includes the following courses in hydrology, hydraulic engi-
neering and related subjects:

1. Groundwater hydrology -
2 units
2. Advanced surface hydrology -
2 units
3. Flow in porous media -
2 units
4. Hydrodynamics -
2 units
5. Hydraulic engineering -
3 units
6. Drainage engineering -
3 units
7. Water resources engineering 1 -
3 units
8. Coastal engineering -
2 units

D. CURRICULA AND SYLLABI OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, KYOTO UNIVERSITY, JAPAN

For undergraduate students

1. Probability and statistics

Brief review of fundamental concepts of probability theory (probability distribution, Bayes

theorem, joint distributions and related topics); exercises: their application to the
phenomena and systems of interest in civil engineering.

2. River hydrology

Fundamental concepts and laws contained in the hydrological cycle run-off system models
(deterministic and stochastic); exercises: to develop the students' own run-off system
model by utilizing the given data of rainfall and run-off discharge.

3. Water resources engineering

Fundamental concepts on planning and management of water resources systems and their methodology
(including economical feasibility).

For graduate students

1. Stochastic process

Brief review of fundamental concepts of stochastic process with special emphasis placed on
analysis and synthesis of hydrological time series.

2. Groundwater hydrology

Basic subjects in order to analyse the role of groundwater in the hydrological systems. Lumped
parameter models for simulation and prediction of groundwater yield.-

3. Advanced course of hydrology

Integrated hydrological processes. Exercises: their exercise on the appropriate subjects,

such as flood routing, river morphology, run-off system analysis, flood forecasting, statistics
of hydrological events.
4. Water resources system analysis

Analysis of both deterministic and stochastic hydrological processes (including hydrological

criteria, public investment theory, optimization methods, statistics, computer simulation, and
public policy issues). Exercise: case study to provide the experience in water resources
planning.

E. CURRICULA AND SYLLABI IN HYDROLOGY AT SEOUL NATIONAL UNIVERSITY, KOREA

Description of undergraduate courses:

1. Elementary fluid mechanics 1

Fundamentals, fluid statics, kinematics of fluid notion, flow of an incompressible ideal fluid,
flow of a compressible ideal fluid, the impulse-momentum principle, flow of real fluid.

2. Elementary fluid mechanics 2

Similitude and dimensional analysis, fluid flow in pipes, liquid flow in open channel, fluid
measurements, elementary hydrodynamics, fluid flow about immersed objects.

3. Hydraulics and lab. 1

Properties of water, hydrostatics, fundamentals of hydrodynamics, laminar and turbulent flow,

steady flow in pipe, steady flow in open channel.

4. River engineering

Water resources and river engineering, hydrometeorology, hydrology, geomorphology, investigation

for river planning, river planning, hydraulics for rivers, river engineering.

5. Water resources engineering

Probability concepts in water resources planning, engineering economics, irrigation and drainage,
hydropower engineering, navigation, flood control, water resources planning.

6. Hydropower engineering

General introduction of hydropower engineering, planning of hydropower, general theory of dams,

gravity dams, rockfill and earthfill dams, surge tank, turbine and powerhouse, spillway.

7. Hydraulics and lab. 2

Fluid resistance, fluid measurement, water wave, sediment transport, groundwater and seepage,
dimensional analysis and hydraulic similarity.

8. Introduction to hydrology

Water and hydrology, precipitation, streamflow, evaporation and transpiration, surface hydrology,
groundwater hydrology, streamflow hydrograph, relationship between precipitation and run-off,
probability in hydrology, stochastic hydrology, sedimentation.

Description of graduate courses:

1. Open channel hydraulics and lab.

Basic principle, theory of uniform flow, conitinirity and momentum principle, theory of gradually
and rapidly varied flow, spatially varied flow, unsteady flow.

2. Advanced hydrology

Precipitation mechanism, sampling method, distribution of precipitation in time and space,

frequency analysis, statistical inference, correlation and regression, evapotranspiration, infil-
tration, hydrological simulation, flood estimation.

93
3. Theoretical hydrology

Transport process, energy balance of earth, mathematical models, deterministic process, stochas-
tic process.

4. Groundwater hydrology

Basic principle, Darcy equation, continuity equation of steady flow, well hydraulics, unsteady
flow, unsaturated flow theory, application.

5. Water resources system

Procedure for water resources system planning, guidelines for investigation, analysis and design
of water resources system, application of linear and dynamic programming, case study.

6. Hydraulic and hydrological modelling theory

General theory of hydraulic and hydrological modelling, dimensional analysis and similitude,
modelling of fluvial channel, theory of mathematical modelling, modelling of river basins.

94
Annex V
Examples of hydrology subjects included in programmes for other degrees

INTRODUCTION

Before the introduction of the International Hydrological Decade, hydrology was taught as an
independent course of study only in a few universities. Some hydrological topics were covered
usually within other courses such as hydraulics, water supply and sewerage, hydraulic engineer-
ing, etc. In some universities, hydrology did appear as a separate subject but, in many cases,
it was one of the optional courses. The situation has completely changed in recent years.
Most universities include now a course on hydrology in the civil engineering programmes and in
other engineering programmes such as agricultural engineering, environmental engineering, trans-
portation engineering, etc., as well as in some non-engineering programmes such as geography,
geology, forestry, etc.
The basic course is taught under a variety of names such as:

Hydrology
Applied hydrology
Engineering hydrology
Elements of hydrology
Elements of engineering hydrology
Hydrology and meteorology
Hydrology and climatology
Hydrology and hydrometeorology
Hydrology and hydraulic engineering
Applied hydrogeomorphology.

In some institutions, the basic course is divided into two parts which usually go under the
names of: Part 1 -
Surface hydrology; Part 2 -
Groundwater hydrology; or some similar names.
The syllabus for this basic course, or the combined syllabus for the two courses if the
course is given in two parts, includes usually the range of topics listed in the first edition
of this publication under the heading 'Hydrological topics which are indispensable for all hyd-
rologists' (section 2.2). The list which is reproduced below as Section 1 of this annex re-
presents topics now considered essential to all professionals taking a course in hydrology even
though they are not classified as hydrologists.
Examples of syllabi for the above courses are given in Sections 2 and 3 of this annex.
Section 2 lists some of the syllabi received from national committees for the IHP in response to
a request from the Division of Water Sciences of Unesco. Section 3 reproduces some of the
syllabi which appeared in the first edition of this publication under the course names given
above.

SECTION 1 - HYDROLOGICAL TOPICS WHICH ARE ESSENTIAL FOR ALL STUDENTS OF HYDROLOGY

1. Introductory material

Definitions and relation of hydrology to other sciences. The hydrological cycle. Physical
characteristics of the watershed. Importance of data. Variability and randomness of hydro-
logical phenomena. International organizations and associations dealing with hydrology. The
International Hydrological programe.

2. Precipitation

Forms and mechanisms of precipitation. Determination of amounts, intensity and duration and
spatial and temporal distribution of precipitation. Measurements of precipitation and their
accuracy. Snow. Estimation of missing data.

3. Evaporation and evapotranspiration

Definitions. Determination by measurement and by computations. The energy and mass transfer
approaches. Evaporation from water surfaces, soil, snow and ice. Transpiration. Total
evaporation and total losses. Evaporation control.

95
4. Infiltration

Soil moisture. Laws governing infiltration. Measurement. Infiltrometers. Empirical for-

mulae.

5. Groundwater

The origins and occurrence of groundwater. Types of aquifer. Hydrological properties of

various pervious materials. Interrelation between groundwater and surface water. Depletion.
Springs and wells. Water-table fluctuations. Movement of groundwater. Recharge of ground-
water reservoir. Simulation by physical or electrical models. Quality of water.

6. Surface run-off

Elementary hydrograph, separation of depletion flow and surface flow. Minimum flow. Types of
run-off. Depression storage, overland flow, surface detention. Unit hydrograph techniques.
Properties of the drainage basin. Synthetic hydrograph. Flood and droughts. Use of the
unit hydrograph. Measurements. Statistical and other methods. Quality of surface water.

7. Water balance

Calculation of yield. Short-term and long-term variations. Water balance of lakes, swamps,
watersheds and regions. Experimental drainage basins and representative basins.

8. Hydrometry

Collecting hydrological data as a technical and an organizational problem. Decision on dura-

tion and frequency of observations and on their required accuracy. Various methods of measur-
ing water-levels, velocities and solid and liquid discharges. Storage and processing of data.
Cost of measurements.

9. Rivers and lakes

The natural river as a medium of transport of water and sediments. The river as changed by
man's influence.. Morphology of river-beds. Natural and artificial lakes.

SECTION 2 - SOME SYLLABI RECEIVED FROM IHP NATIONAL COMMITTEES

A. UNIVERSITY OF BUENOS AIRES, FACULTY OF EXACT AND NATURAL SCIENCES, BUENOS AIRES, ARGENTINA
DEPARTMENT OF METEOROLOGY

Duration of course: one semester. Time allocation: 4 hours of lectures and 4 hours of
exercises per week.

Hydrology

Definition of hydrology and its essential parts. The hydrological cycle. Precipitation
regime, precipitation maps: Intense storms, intensity-duration-frequency relations, area
effects. Interception. Evaporation from water surfaces and from the soil. Modern theories
of evaporation from wet surfaces, empirical equations, evaporation from natural wet surfaces.
Transpiration, the process and factors influencing it. Transpiration from vegetation. Eva-
poration reduction. Physical and functional properties of watersheds, topographic and geologic
properties, vegetation cover, drainage density. Natural storage capacity of surface and
groundwater reservoirs. Surface flow variability, the hydrograph of run-off. Springs and
various types of streams, classification of streams. Analysis of hydrographs and its separa-
tion into components. Infiltration capacity and its variation, factors affecting infiltration,
indices of infiltration curves. Infiltrometers, rainfall simulators. Hydrograph analysis.
Groundwater, hydrogeology, aquifers. Influence of physical and climatic factors on run-off.
Hydrological balance of watersheds. Estimation of various types of run-off. Handling of
hydrological data. Estimation of extreme values.

96
E. AUSTmIA

The University of New South Wales

1. Geomorphology for hydrologists

Introduction. Hillslope forms and processes. Geomorphic parameters in drainage basins.

Channel networks. Forms of river channels in relation to sediment load. Fluvial depositio-
nal landforms. Run-off -processes and channel initiation. Influence of geomorphic characte-
ristics on hydrological response. Role of geomorphology in representative basin and water
resources studies. Effect of long-term climatic fluctuations on channel forms and networks.
Effects of short-term climatic fluctuations on channel forms and networks. Effects of human
activities on channel forms and networks.

The Universitv of Melbourne

2. Arid zone hydrology

Arid zone rainfall characteristics; data collection and instrumentation; run-off processes;
infiltration, transmission loss; recharge processes; flood characteristics and design; water
yield; storage of water; evaporation and evaporation suppression; sediment transport and
measurements.

3. Arid zone water resources management

Water as a resource: demand for and suppiy of water; works and management to match demand
with supply. Special features of the arid zone: climate; water uses, quantification of
demand quantities and qualities, arid zone grazing system modelling; water supplies, quantities
and qualities; measurement of flow rate, volume, quality. Engineering works: design, con-
struction, operation and maintenance of works, including excavated tanks, dams, pipelines,
pumps, windmills, engines and motors, troughs; costs; reliability; energy sources for pump-
ing. Special practices: water spreading; irrigation including trickle irrigation; evapo-
ration reduction; desalination.

4. Surface hydrology (18 lectures and 6 tutorials)

Precipitation: atmospheric circulation, hydrological cycle, rainfall processes, measurement

and data, error analysis and regression, spatial and temporal patterns, rainfall frequency.
Streamflow: gauging, hydrographs, rational method, unitgraph and run-off routing models,
flood frequency, yield from small and large catchments, rainfall-run-off models.

5. Agricultural water management (18 lectures and 6 tutorials)

Surface energy balance: radiative exchanges, conduction, turbulent transfer, heat balance of
plants and animals. Evaporation: principles of evaporation as an energy consuming and as a
diffusive process; lake evaporation; crop evapotranspiration, including soil and plant factors,
and crop water requirements. Irrigation: methods, efficiency, salinity control. Drainage:
surface drains, flood mitigation. Erosion control: water and wind processes - land use and
planning.

6. Groundwater hydrology (18 lectures and 6 tutorials)

Unsaturated flow: moisture and temperature gradients, infiltration, redistribution. Satura-

ted flow: confined, unconfined and leaky aquifers, well hydraulics, recharge of aquifers, sub-
surface agricultural drainage, seepage through earth banks. Analogue solutions.

7. Hydrology (18 lectures and 8 tutorials)

Hydrostatics, basic concepts of fluid flow in both closed conduits and open channels. Meteoro-
logical data, drainage basins, rivers and streamflow, streamflow measurement, flood hydrographs,
stream morphology and sediment transport. Urban hydrology and urban drainage systems. Water
supply, water quality, sewerage, site works associated with pipelines.

8. Forest hydrology (24 lectures and 48 hours practical work)

a. Basic principles of hydrology (10 lectures):

Hydrology, the hydrological cycle.
97
 Basic hydraulics. Water properties and flow.
Precipitation -meteorological data.
Hydrological and physical features of drainage basins.
Rivers and streamflow. Streamflow variability and measurement, stream morphology, flood
hydrographs.

b. Forest and forestry influences on the hydrological cycle (14 lectures):

Movement of water through forests. Interception, evapotranspiration, subsurface water,
streamf low.
Erosion and sedimentation in relation to forests. Mechanics of water erosion. Sediment
yields. Effects of forest operations on soil erosion.
Forests and streamflow. Effects of forest operations on streamflow.
Forests and water quality. Measures of water quality. Natural water quality. Effects
of forest operations on water uuality. The nutrient cycle.

9. Post-graduate courses (as part of a Master of Engineering Science degree by major thesis or
mainly through course work)

9a. Advanced surface hydrology

This course builds on the material presented before and will treat the following topics: Mat-
rix solution of unitgraphs, instantaneous and synthetic UH, application of run-off routing,
review of flood routing, rainfall-run-off process modelling including overland flow, low flow
analyses, frequency analysis of flood and low flow events, stochastic data generation and
storage yield analysis.

9b. Special studies in agricultural engineering

For graduate students desiring further study of special topics. These could be in hydrology.

C. CANADA - EXAMPLES OF CURRICULA AND SYLLABI FOR COURSES IN HYDROLOGY AND RELATED TOPICS IN
UNDERGRADUATE AND POST-GRADUATE STUDIES AT CANADIAN UNIVERSITIES

+
a. Atmosphere -hydrometeorology, evaporation and evapotranspiration, infiltration and ground-
water, topographical characteristics of a watershed, discharge and floods, probability and sto-
chastic methods in hydrology, applications.

2. Civil engineering, undergraduate

a. Hydrological cycle, evaporation and transpiration, snow and snowmelt, infiltration, sub-
surface water, unit hydrograph and S-curve analysis of flood waters, well hydraulics, stream
flow river and reservoir routing techniques, statistics of extreme values.

b. Types and physical properties of aquifers, Darcy's Law, hydraulic conductivity of isotropic,
anisotropic and multilayered soils, uniform flow, undirectional and radi:al flow, steady and un-
steady flow nets, methods of images, partially penetrating wells, leaky aquifers, application of
mapping techniques to seepage problems.

3. Civil engineering, undergraduate

a. Unsteady flow in closed conduits: Analysis of water hammer in penstocks and in pumps;
discharge levies by graphical and characteristics methods; influence of friction; optimum gate
closure.

b. Steady flow in open channels: Energy and momentum principles, uniform and gradually
varied flow, backwater curves. Flow through transitions, bends and obstructions.

c. Unsteady flow in open channels: Surge waves in power canals, locks and navigation canals,
flood routing.

d. Rivers and canals: Morphology of rivers. The consequences of disturbing river regimen
by engineering works. River-bed scour around flow obstructions. River regulation and control
for navigation. Fishways. Mobile boundary open channel flow. Sediment transport. Tidal

98
discharge computations and convergence of estuaries. Dredging practices. Inland waterways.
Hydraulic models.

e. Estuary hydraulics: Estuary dynamics and classification, the effect of engineering works
on salinity intrusion, physics of estuary pollution, the use of computers and hydraulic models.

f. Hydrology: Advanced applications of statistical methods, hydrograph analysis and routing

techniques, flow forecasting procedures.

g. Water resources development: Availability of water, quantitative and qualitative require-

ments for water - municipal, agricultural, industrial, etc., drainage and flood control, water
resources management.

h. Water resources systems: Application of systems engineering concepts to the planning,

design and operation of water systems.

i. Forest watershed management: A quantitative analysis of forest industry influences on

hydrological components of watersheds, fishery aspects of ecology of streams and lakes, evalua-
tion and control of forest industrial water pollution, effects of land management on quality,
quantity and timing of water flow, research in forest hydrology.

4. Geography, undergraduate

a. Introduction to hydrology: Principles of hydrology at site, watershed and larger regional

scales. Introduction to techniques of measurement and analysis.

b. Atmosphere and environment: The relation of the principles of climatology/environmental

interactions. Large and small-scale interaction between the atmosphere and the soil, vegeta-
tion, water, cities and man. Topics in applied climatology including air pollution, weather
modifications, physiologic climatology.

c. Urban meteorology: The impact of urbanization upon atmospheric processes and climates.
The energy and water balances of cities, models of the urban atmosphere.

d. Regional hydrology: Hydrological regionalization and the design of observation networks.

Nature of hydrological parameters: illustration by studies of precipitation and surface water
run-off. Regionalization of various geographical scales.

e. Fluvial geomorphology: Introduction to open channel flow and sediment transport. River
morphology and channel types. Paleohydrology. The development of channel networks.

f. Permafrost and the arctic environment: An analysis of permafrost, periglacial forms, un-
derground ice. Occurrence and characteristics of frozen ground. Theory of ground ice forma-
tion, classification of patterned ground.

g. Watershed geomorphology: The drainage basin as a fundamental unit of geomorphic enquiry.

The role of experimental and representative basins. Sediment sinks and sources, mass fluxes of
sediment and sediment routing models.

5. Geological engineering, undergraduate

a. -
Geomorphology: Geomorphological problems and concrete application. The periglacial
environment, impact on the development, unstable equilibrium, instability of slopes, landslides.
The pedological equilibrium as a reflex of climate and material. Historical concepts of geo-
morphology, evolution of ideas. Interpretation of topographical maps, identification of geo-
morphological forms.

b. Photo-interpretation: Teledetection, the electromagnetic spectrum, imageries, radar,

infra-red, Landsat. Air photos, types of films and cameras. Geometry of the photos, instru-
ments for detection. Photo-interpretation of bed rock and soils. Utilization of air photos
for geological mapping and for practical application.

6. Geological sciences, undergraduate

a. Groundwater hydrology: Theory of groundwater flow, flow networks, regional groundwater

resource evaluation, well hydraulics, role of groundwater in geological processes.

99
b. Groundwater contamination: Principles of groundwater chemistry, contamination in natural
groundwater flow systems, sources of contamination, mass processes, hydrochemical behaviour of
contaminants, nuclear waste disposal.

c. Advanced groundwater hydrology: Finite-difference models of steady-state and transient

groundwater flow in the saturated and unsaturated zones, application to regional groundwater
flow; groundwater recharge, subsurface contributions to streamflow, aquifer evaluation and
groundwater contamination.

7. Soil science, undergraduate

a. Physical behaviour of soils: A study of the physical behaviour of soils as related to

their use with emphasis on water movement and retention. Laboratory exercises in methods used
to investigate physical properties and behaviour of soils.

b. Soil physics: Thermodynamics of soil water, soil hydrology with emphasis on the flow of
water in layered soils.

8. Water resources engineering, undergraduate

a. Hydrology: Quantitative study of natural water circulation systems with emphasis on basic
physical principles and interrelationships among major processes, characteristics of mass and
energy; inputs to and outputs from watersheds; factors governing precipitation occurrence,
evaporation rates, soil-water storage changes, groundwater recharge and discharge, run-off gene-
ration; methods of streamflow analysis; mathematical modelling.

9. Civil engineering, post-graduate studies

a. Hydraulics of open channels: Equations of open channel flow. Rapidly varied flow.
Gradually varied flow in regular and natural channels. Unsteady flow. Application to flood
waves and tides in natural channels. Sediment transport, bed and suspended load.

b. Hydraulics and porous media: Equations for saturated flow. Application to filtration

problems. Partially saturated flow. Infiltration. Two-phase flow. Salt water intrusion.

c. Advanced fluid mechanics: Fundamental equations and relations of fluid mechanics; simi-
larity and dimensional analysis; applications to the study of the hydraulic process of hydro-
logy and water treatment.

d. Applied hydrodynamics: Two-dimensional irrotational flow, conformal mapping, channel

flows, free streamline flows; irrotational flows with point vortices and vortex sheets.
Axisymmetric irrotational flow, methods of solution. Effects of viscosity, boundary layers,
free turbulent shear flows.

e. River engineering: Introduction to fluvial processes and flow regimes; modes of sediment
transportation; suspended and bedload transport theories; sediment measuring techniques and
their limitations; secondary circulation and the meander process; hydraulics of bridge water-
ways and pipeline crossings; local scour at bridge piers; erosion protection.

f. Waste disposal on land: Definition of the waste problem. Site selection criteria. En-
vironmental impact assessment. Site design and operation.

g. Environmental assessment of civil engineering projects: Procedures and methods of systema-

tic evaluation of the environmental impact of civil engineering projects including waste water
disposal systems, solid waste disposal systems, and water resources development systems.

10. Water resources engineering, post-graduate studies

a. Water resources systems: Conservation of water resources. Multi-purpose project plan-

ning; study of domestic and €oreign water development projects. Techniques for simulation,
optimization, linear and dynamic programming.

b. Physical hydrology: Equations of overland and channel flow, computer and laboratory
models of small basins. Flood waves in natural channels. Heat transfer to land, water and

100
snow structures; evaporation, snow melt. Infiltration equations, methods of solution. Equa-
tion of groundwater flow, application to problems of recharge and depletion.

c. Groundwater and seepage: Types and physical properties of aquifers. Darcy's law; hyd-
raulic co~~ducti~ityof isotmpic, anisotropic and multilayered soils; iinifom flow; ..nidiro,c-
-
~

tional and radial flow steady and unsteady flow net; methods of images, partially penetrating
wells; leaky aquifers; application of mapping techniques to seepage problems.

d. Dispersion processes in hydrological flows: Fundamental equations of diffusion and dis-

persion. One-dimensional dispersion equations. Applications to open-channel flows and ground-
water flows. Field techniques. Transport of wastes in streams and estuaries, rates of waste
removal and conversion. Mathematical and computer models of the differential equations gover-
ning the content of conservative and non-conservative substances.

e. Statistical methods in hydrology: Concepts of probability and random variable applied to

hydrology. Statistical distributions, their approximation and analysis. Statistical infe-
rence, including tests of significance and estimation theory. Linear and multivariate correla-
tion and regression techniques. Data generation and simulation techniques for design of water
resources systems. Introduction to hydrological and meteorological time series.

f. Stochastic hydrology: Spectral analysis of hydrology time series. Stochastic operations

and prediction theory of a stationary process. Univariate and multivariate spectral analysis.
Estimation of frequency response functions; analysis and optimization of linear and non-linear
systems for random processes.

g. Hydrological systems analysis: Concepts from modern systems analysis in hydrology. Lin-
ear, non-linear, discrete, deterministic and stochastic systems. Methods of analysis in the
time and frequency domain.

h. Applied hydrology: Detailed discussion of the components of the hydrological cycle. Ad-
vanced techniques of analysis of hydrological data including synthesis and simulation.

D. CONGO, PEOPLE'S REPUBLIC OF; UNIVERSITY MARIEN NGOUABI, BRAZZAVILLE - DEPARTMENT OF

GEOLOGY

Hydrological terms.
Water in the soil and hydrogeological parameters.
Aquifers and aquicludes.
The different types of aquifers in relation to the geological situation, permeability and hydro-
dynamics.
Springs.
Water movement in aquifers.

E. EXAMPLES OF CURRICULA AND SYLLABI FOR COURSES IN HYDROLOGY AND RELATED TOPICS IN UNDER-
GRADUATE PROGRAMMES OFFERED AT VARIOUS UNIVERSITIES IN THE FEDERAL REPUBLIC OF GERMANY.AND
IN WEST BERLIN

1. Berlin, West

a. Curriculum of hydrology

Undergraduate studies

i. First term
Introduction to problems of hydrology:
Hydrological cycle and balances.
Hydrology on the land (rivers and lakes).
Fundamental hydrographic quantities - sedimentation - run-off measurement and its evalua-
tion.
Statistical forecast of flood waves.
ii Second term
Introduction to hydrometeorology (heat balance, atmospheric layers, humidity, precipita-
tion) :
Evapotranspiration from lakes, soil, snow and ice.
Infiltration and groundwater flow - relations between precipitation and run-off -unit
hydrograph.

101
 Dimensioning of reservoirs - introduction to project planning.

Post-graduate studies

Instantaneous unit hydrograph:

Reservoir routing -
channel routing -
statistical and probability analysis of hydrological
data -
completion for forecast of floods and low water -
stochastic dimensioning of
reservoirs.
Practical exercises.

b. Hydrological and related courses

The university offers special courses for civil engineering students governing the following
topics :
i. Computer programming and data processing including numerical methods and optimization.
ii. Fluid mechanics.
iii. Geophysics.
iv. Soil science.
v. Water quality.
vi. Urban hydrology.

The course of hydrology includes the following topics: hydrological cycle -

channel and fluvial
hydraulics, sedimentation -
statistical forecast of floods -
hydrometeorology -
groundwater flow
with computer models
planning -
-
parametric and stochastic hydrology
precipitation and run-off.
-
hydrological forecasting -
project

2. Bochum

a. Courses in hydrology offered in the fifth, seventh and eighth semesters

i. Principles of hydrology (fifth semester): Hydrological cycle, precipitation, evaporation,

run-of f , groundwater , rainfall-run-of f models (unit hydrograph) , floods (flood routing) ,
statistical analysis of hydrological time-series.
ii. special topics in hydrology (seventh semester): Deterministic and stochastic methods,
modern methods and their applications, on-line flood forecasting, man-made influences,
synthetic generation of hydrological data.
iii. Remote sensing in hydrology (seventh semester): Practical applications of remote sensing
and data collection and transfer, results of recent research developments on remote sensing.
iv. Hydrometric exercises (eighth semester): Measurements of flow velocities in a river,
measurements of sediment deposits from a ship in a lake.

b. Courses in related topics

i. Principles of water resources systems analysis: Water resources systems, benefit-cost

analysis, mathematical models for planning multipurpose water resources systems: simula-
tion, linear and dynamic programming. Regional water resources planning.
ii. Analysis of water resources engineering projects: Presentation of foreign and national
case studies including planning and operation of water resources systems.
iii Applied hydraulics: Open channel flow, close conduit hydraulics, groundwater flow, multi-
phase flow.
iv. Introduction to constructive aspects of waterworks: River regulation measures, dam con-
struction and design, alternative design possibilities.
v. Transportation and hydraulic constructions: Transportation, hydroelectric power plants,
river regulation, canal construction, locks and harbours.
vi. Planning and operation of reservoirs: Mathematical models for design and operation of
reservoirs with multiple purposes. Single and multi-reservoir systems. Conjunctive use
of reservoirs and other facilities (groundwater, thermal power plants, etc.).
vii. Dam construction: Design and structural characteristics of different types of dams.
Operation gates and spillways.

3. GLlttingen (Institute of Soil Sciences and Forest Nutrition)

a. Undergraduate level

i. Soil water.

102
b. Graduate level

i. Soil physics.
ii . Principles of agrophysics.
iii. Advanced soil physics.
iv. Laboratory course in soil physics.

C. Graduate study leading towards advanced degrees (M.S., Ph.D.) in the following fields is
possible :

i. Computer programming and data processing in hydrology.

ii. Numerical methods in subsurface hydrology.
iii. Water quality, geochemistry and quality modelling.
iv. Physical dynamical hydrology.
V. Models and analogues.
vi. Remote sensing and regional water budget studies.
vii. Agricultural hydrology.
viii.Forest hydrology.
ix. Soil science.
x. Ecology and environmentology.

4. Munchen

Models and analogues: Development and application of simulation models, limits of mathematical
modelling; rainfall analysis and design storms; run-off models for urban drainage systems;
water quality modelling for rivers; network models in water supply; cost-benefit analysis and
optimization models; optimization models for solid waste collection.

5. Stuttgart

a. Hydrology

References.
i. Hydrological cycle:
Rainfall (precipitation)
Evaporation -
Interception
Evaporation
Transpiration
Evapotranspiration
Infiltration
ii. Subsoil run-off:
Subterranean water
Groundwater
iii. Surface run-off:
Surface run-off from spring discharge
Surface run-off from groundwater discharge
Run-off from the surface
Relations between precipitation and surface run-off
Influence of form, kind and size of the drainage basin on the surface run-off
iv. Methods of flood prediction:
Water-(level)-gauge-related-curves of comparable water levels
Travel-time-curve
6 Q-method
V. Synthesis of flood hydrographs:
Unit hydrograph method
Flood plan
vi. Variation of flood waves:
Hydraulic method
Hydrological methods -
Muskingum method
Kalinin-Miljakov method
Advantages and disadvantages of hydraulic and hydrological methods

b. Water resources management

i. Definition and aims

103
ii. Foundations:
Run-off parameters
iii Water resources effects of interventions to natural run-off regime:
Change of rainfall, evaporation and infiltration
Change of discharge by water ordering or water addition
Change of water surface level by transforming the cross section
Change of discharge by filling and emptying of storages -
Graphical methods
Numerical methods
iv . Dimensioning of storages; plans of water resources policy
V. Control of run-off:
Regulation of water level and water volume -
Head water control
Tail water control
Combined control
Programme-controlled run-off regulation
Advantages and disadvantages o'f head water and tail water control
Control regulation

F. GHANA - UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY, DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, KUMASI,

GHANA

1. Hydrology (compulsory to all undergraduate students)

Hydrological cycle. Precipitation and its measurement. Analysis of precipitation data.

Evaporation and evapotranspiration. Infiltration and its measurement. Infiltration indices.
Surface run-off -
river gauging, flow rating curves. Rainfall-run-off correlation. Hydro-
graph analysis -
unit hydrograph for various durations. Flood routing through reservoirs.
Storage estimation. Statistical analysis of precipitation and streamflow data. Groundwater
hydrology -
Darcy's Law. Their non-equilibrium formulation; method of images, determination
of aquifer constants from pumping tests.

2. Optional courses in water resources engineering

a. Hydropower: Storage and regulation of reservoirs. Types of dams. Forces on dams.

Spillways. Types of hydropower schemes. Cost and value of hydropower. Turbine selection
and operation. Surge tanks.

b. Sediment transport: Measurement and description of sediment characteristics. Types of

sediment motion. Initiation of sediment motion. Design of stable alluvial channels. Local
scour. Reservoir sedimentation.

c. Coastal hydraulics: Introduction to the hydrodynamics of deep and shallow water waves.
Wave reflection, refraction and diffraction. Coastal erosion and littoral drift. Sea-walls,
groynes, breakwaters, etc.

d. Irrigation and drainage engineering: Water requirements. Soil-water relationship.

Methods of irrigation. Irrigation canals and structures. Drainage of irrigated lands. Storm
drainage. Land and highway drainage.

G. ISRAEL - TECHNION - ISRAEL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, FACULTY OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, HAIFA,

ISRAEL

Syllabus for required course in 'Elements of engineering hydrology'

Time allocation: two hours of lectures and two hours of class exercise per week for one
14-week semester.
Components of the hydrological cycle and hydrological balance equations. Rainfall mea-
surement and analysis of data. Intensity-duration-frequency diagrams. Design storm. Run-
off measurements. Hydrograph analysis, unit hydrograph. Infiltration measurement and analy-
sis. Evaporation and evapotranspiration. Rainfall run-off relationships on a yearly and
seasonal basis. Antecedent moisture index. Relations for individual storms. Reservoir
flood routing soil moisture. Hydraulic properties of the soil. Types of aquifers. Hydrau-
lics of steady groundwater movement. Flow to wells in confined and phreatic aquifers. Draw-
down near a single well and for a group of wells. Meteorological variables measurements and

104
analysis. Definition of terms in meteorology. The standard atmosphere. Moisture and rela-
tive humidity. Adiabatic processes in the atmosphere. Cloud formation. Synoptic maps.

H. MALAYSIA

1. University of Technology, Faculty of Civil Engineering, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia

Hydrology

a. Fundamental concepts of hydrology

Introduction to engineering hydrology, irrigation, flood control, hydro-electric power genera-

tion, water resources developments, etc.
The hydrological cycle and water balance equation. Chain of events describing precipita-
tion, interception, percolation, surface run-off, evaporation, transpiration, and groundwater
flow.
Meteo-hydrological data: climatic influences such as humidity, pressure, wind, tempera-
ture. Topographical influences such as lakes, marshland, stream flow. Geological influences
such as the underlying rocks affecting groundwater flow and soil water.

b. Precipitation

Types and sources of precipitation: rain, snow, sleat, ice, dew, fog. Convective, orographic,
cyclonic and frontal precipitation. Types of cooling: adiabatic, contact and rotational.
Recording precipitation (rainfall): description of the various types of recording and non-
recording instruments. Siting of a raingauge. Errors in measurement of precipitation.
Computation of rainfall intensity: method of determining depth of precipitation over an
area by arithmetic mean, isohyetal map and Thiessen polygon.
Analysis of precipitation data: representation of a precipitation intensity by hydro-
graphs, mass curves and running or moving means plot. Analysis of dry and wet periods using
residual mass diagram. Use of double mass curve for checking the accuracy of a particular
rain gauge in a catchment.

c. Surface run-off

Streamflow measurements: velocity-area measurements of discharge, flow rating curves, stream-

flow hydrographs. Measurements of stage using gauges. Estimation of discharge using current
meter. Other methods of flow measurement using weirs, floats and rods, salt dilution.
Estimation of run-off: presentation of mass curves for river flows, effects of rainfall
intensity and duration over a catchment. Time of concentration and time of flow. Run-off
from a moving storm. Time-area relationship. Maximum and minimum discharge from a catchment.
Effect of catchment characteristics on run-off: catchment area, slope, orientation of
shapes, altitudes, stream patterns, soil types and vegetation, etc.

d. Intensity-duration-frequency relationship

Frequency of precipitation. Definition of frequency, water years, probable maximum precipita-

tion and maximum probable flood. Calculation of the frequency of occurrences of an event
using California, Haze-, and Kimball methods.
Definition of recurrence interval. The discharge-return period, normal probability and
Gumbel extreme value theory. Log-Pearson Type I11 distribution.
Intensity-duration-frequency relationship. Use of empirical formulae to express intensity-
duration relationships.

e. Evaporation and transpiration

Factors affecting evaporation: solar radiation, wind, relative humidity and temperature.
Transpiration process. Definition of evapotranspiration and potential evapotranspiration.
Quantitative determination of evapotranspiration rate. Water budget by storage equation
approach. Empirical formulae by Penman, Thornthwaite and Papadakis. Evaporation pan.

2. University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia - Civil Engineering Department

Hydrology

Engineering hydrology, general, hydrological cycle, physical aspects, rainfall, streamflow,

105
evaporation and evapotranspiration, infiltration, hydrological data collection in Malaysia,
quantitative hydrology, hydrograph analysis, routing, simulation models, floods, statistical
analysis, regression, correlation, frequency analysis, depth area duration analysis, flow dura-
tion analysis, rainfall intensity duration, frequency analysis, data generation, probable maxi-
mum precipitation, application of Malaysian hydrological procedures, design rainstorm, flood
estimation, hydrograph estimation, low flow estimation.

I. MOZAMBIQUE - UNIVERSITY EDUARDO MONDLANE, MAPUTO, MOZAMBIQUE

Course offered in the Faculty of Civil Engineering in the second semester of the third year.

1. Introduction

Scope of hydrology. The hydrological cycle. The atmosphere.

2. Hydrographical basins

Generalities. Basin shape and area. The soil. Altitude and slope. Drainage network.

3. Statistical and probability analysis of hydrological data

Frequency analysis. Regression and correlation analysis. Analysis of variance, covariance

and time series. Sequential generation of hydrological information.

4. Rainfall

Introduction. Measurement methods. Average depth of rainfall over area. Frequency analysis.
Extreme values frequency.

5. Evaporation and evapotranspiration

Introduction. Methods of estimation (water balance method, meteorological methods, Penman).

Effective evapotranspiration and groundwater balance. Empirical formulae.

6. Soil water

Water retention potential of soils. Groundwater flow, Darcy's Law. Permeability. Continui-
ty, Laplace equation. Dupuit-Forchheimer theory.

7. Streamflow

Discharge measurements. Discharge curves. Annual discharge. Minimum discharge.

8. Flood discharge

Determination of run-off from precipitation. Discharge-storage relationship. Flood routing.

Unit hydrographs.

9. Practical applications

Spillway design. Flow under bridges. Urban hydrology.

J. NIGERIA - FACULTY OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY, UNIVERSITY OF ILORIN, ILORIN, NIGERIA

Hydrology (for final year undergraduate students)

Elements of hydrology. Precipitation, infiltration, subsurface percolation, evapotranspiration,

energy balance. Analysis of stream flow, peak and minimum flows, frequency analysis, mass dia-
grams. Groundwater, confined and unconfined aquifers. Hydrological data collection and analy-
sis.

K. TUNISIA

1. Surface hydrology

Hydrological cycle. Precipitation. The hydrometeorology of a river basin. Hydrometry.

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Data and their treatment. Discharge. Hydrological regimes. Sediment transport. Set-up of
a hydrological service, installation of stations. Practical and analytical hydrology.

2. Geology

3. Hydrogeology

Properties of aquifers. Methods of water prospection and exploitation. Cartography. Tech-

niques and economical aspects of water pumping. Test pumping. Hydrogeological water balance.

4. Drilling and water exploitation

5. Probability and statistics, applications in hydrology

Mathematical background.

6. Computers and their use

Hardware. Software.

7. Chemistry and bacteriology of water

8. Economy

9. Topography, geomorphology

10. Hydraulics

11. Conservation of water and soil

L. UNITED KINGDOM

1. Department of Environmental Sciences, University of Lancaster, Lancaster, England

a. Catchment hydrology

The principal catchment processes (precipitation, evaporation/transpiration, infiltration) are

studied. The combined effect of these processes to produce both surface water run-off and
groundwater flow are examined. Quantitative methods of analysis of the steady flow of water
and the movement of flood waves are applied to natural rivers. Streamflow data requirements
and methods of measurement are discussed.

b. Catchment geomorphic processes

The various processes controlling and modifying the morphology of a catchment are reviewed. A
more detailed study follows, firstly of the influence of topography on sediment generation and
movement, and secondly of the role of water in transporting and distributing sedimentary
materials.

c.

This course is an introduction to the physical behaviour of the whole terrestrial atmosphere,
in which the major atmospheric phenomena are related to underlying physical principles. Topics
include the atmospheric boundary layer, cloud-forming processes, electrical phenomena in the
atmosphere, large scale dynamics, climatic modelling, and the characteristic structures and pro-
cesses of the ionosphere and magnetosphere.

d. Meteorology in the service of the community

A course designed to illustrate the contribution made by meteorological science to today's

society. The lectures, by dealing with selected topics, attempt to show the diversity and
significance of applications of meteorology. Wind effects on structures, storm surge forecast-
ing and probable maximum precipitation are examples of the type of topic introduced in this
course.

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e. Groundwater resources and hydraulics

The course deals in greater detail with the processes of flow through the ground. Well con-
struction, pumping tests, water chemistry, and unsaturated flow are covered and applied to
practical problems of regional hydrogeology (abstraction, recharge, and saltwater occurrence).

f. Remote sensing

This course deals with techniques available for investigating the atmosphere and the interior
and surface of the Earth and the planets by remote sensing.

2. Middlesex Polytechnic, The Burroughs, London, England

Option course - BSc. Geography/Environmental Science

Applied Hydrology - Syllabus outline

a. Introduction

The hydrological cycle and models of hydrological system; the river network and components of
the working system.

b. Hydrometeorology

Hydrological controls and principles of interception, evaporation and infiltration. Soil mois-
ture and sub-surface run-off. Groundwater movements and effects; pollution and waste disposal.
Rainfall-run-off reactions; sources and volumes of surface run-off. Gauging methods. Prob-
lems of surface run-off; flooding, storage, detention and surface water pollution.

c. Channel hydraulics and morphology

Concepts, processes and forms of water and sediment in river channels. Concepts of river
regime, dominant discharge and hydraulic geometry. Flow resistance, sediment bedload functions
and sediment models. River pollution; processes, sources and modelling.

d. Class contacts

Four hours per week including three hours practical.

e. Practicals

Point/areal rainfall analysis. Intensity-frequency-duration analysis. Modelling groundwater

movements. Soil moisture determinations. Soil water quality analysis. Hydrograph analysis.
Gauging methods; direct, indirect, dilution, etc. Flow visualisation studies. Bedform and
flow analysis in flume tanks. Nutrient budgets/analysis. Hydrocarbon analysis in river
sediments (GC/HPLC). Water quality indices. Water quality analysis; nutrients, heavy metals,
solids, chlorides, etc. Oxygen sag calculations. Hydraulic geometry. Evapotranspiration
calculations.

3. National College of Agricultural Engineering, England

Compulsory for the second year of the BSc programme in Agricultural Engineering.

Hydrology and meteorology

Hydrometric instruments and networks: instrumentation, its use, operation, data recording for
precipitation, run-off, temperature, pressure, humidity, radiation, wind, sediment and water
chemistry. Station layout and network layout principles.
Storm analysis: precipitation data analysis, storm types and models, storm maximisation
and transposition, probable maximum precipitation.
Land and subsurface processes: interception, infiltration, depression storage, overland
flow, interflow, evaporation, groundwater storage and movement.
Catchment response: flow measurement, rating curves, hydrograph analysis, unit hydrograph,
peak flow and yield in ungauged catchments.
Floods: frequency analysis of single stations, regional flood frequency, flood routing.
 Stream flow regulation: calculation techniques to determine storage and yield for
impounding reservoirs, reservoir routing, probability of failure of yield.
Agrometeorology: mapping and zoning of meteorologic variables, climate on the ground.

M. URUGUAY - UNIVERSITY OF THE REPUBLIC, FACULTY OF ENGINEERING AND AGRICULTURE

Courses in hydrology in hydraulic structures:

Definitions
Atmosphere
Precipitation
Climatology
Evapotranspiration
Hydrometry
Unit hydrograph
Floods

Courses in hydrology in agricultural engineering:

Distribution of water
General hydrology
Surface and sub-surface hydrology
The hydrological cycle (precipitation, hydrometry)
Agricultural hydrology
Irrigation and drainage, canals
Hydrometeorology

SECTION 3 - EXAMPLES OFSYLLABI PUBLISHED IN THE FIRST EDITION OF 'CURRICULA AND SYLLABI IN
HYDROLOGY' FOR COURSES IN HYDROLOGY

1. Hydrology

a. Introduction. The hydrological cycle. Hydrographs. Economy and hydrology. Interna-

tional organizations. The International Hydrological Decade.
b. Precipitation. Measuring devices: Distribution and characteristics of rainfall. 'Hori-
zontal' precipitation.
c. Evaporation. Evaporation from free water surfaces and evapotranspiration. Measuring
devices. Lysimeters. Formulae and theories on evaporation. The energy approach. Use and
application of methods and formulae.
d. Infiltration. The role of infiltration in the hydrological cycle. Infiltration as a
factor in run-off and infiltration as recharge of groundwater. Comparison of methods.
e. Surface flow; yield. Characteristics of drainage basins. Minimum flow and depletion
curves. Relation with geohydrology.
f. Surface flow; floods. Maximum floods and frequency of occurrence. Analysis of flood
hydrographs. Method of the unit hydrograph and other methods for estimating surface run-off.
Groundwater hydrographs. Synthetic hydrographs. Long-term and short-term forecasting of
yield and floods. Flood routing.
g. Physical aspects of erosion. Wind erosion.

2. Hydrology

Introduction: hydrological cycle; precipitation; measurement of precipitation; processing

precipitation data; mass curves and hyetograph; average depth of precipitation.
Water losses: elementary treatment of infiltration theory; evaporation; transpiration.
Run-off: factors affecting run-off; hydrographs; stage-discharge relationship; prepa-
ration of stage-discharge curves; unit hydrograph theory; derivation of unit hydrograph.
Peak flows: estimation of peak flows; use formulae; envelope curves; probability
methods.
Groundwater: occurrence and distribution; aquifers; Darcy's Law; hydraulics of wells
under steady flow conditions in confined and unconfined aquifers; effects of partial penetra-
tion of wells; characteristics of well losses.

3. Hydrology

Study of the problems of long-term basin yield and of short-term streamflow prediction from the

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viewpoint of the response of linear and non-linear physical systems to periodic, transient and
random inputs. Presentation of physical hydrology in a manner suitable for problem formula-
tion, with attention given to those statistical techniques needed in forecasting, fitting and
evaluation.

4. Hydrological transport processes

The hydrological cycle and its interrelations with man; statistical analysis and simulation of
hydrological data; floods; over-all mass balance; transport and dispersion of solutes, sedi-
ments and contaminants in rivers, lakes, estuaries; river morphology; physics of flow through
porous media, including dispersion of solutes, flow toward wells, groundwater recharge, drai-
nage, sea water intrusion in aquifers and estuaries; heat exchange and density stratification
in natural waters; thermal pollution control.

5. Applied hydrology

Hydrological cycle, meteorology, streamflow, evapotranspiration, hydrographs, run-off relations,

run-off hydrographs, groundwater, unit hydrographs, flood routing, frequency and duration
studies, and application of hydrological techniques.

6. Applied hydrology

Mathematical statistics on hydrology. Practical procedures of treatment and processing of hyd-

rological data. Statistical correlation of hydrological data. Estimation of basic records.
Study of water management. Network planning and design. Systems of acquisition, transmission
and processing of hydrological data.

7. Hydrology and climatology

Relationship between meteorology, surface hydrology and groundwater hydrology. The hydrological
cycle. Hydrological water balance. Types of precipitation. Measurement of precipitation
and other meteorological data. Statistical analysis of rainfall data. Evaporation, trans-
piration and their effect on the hydrological balance. Surface run-off and its measurement.
Definition and properties of watersheds. Factors that affect the quantity and distribution of
surface run-off. Rainfall-run-off relationships. Hydrographs and unit hydrographs. Flood
flows. Statistical analysis of maximum flows. Aquifers and their properties. Groundwater
flow and discharge of springs. Darcy's Law and applications. Phreatic and piezometric sur-
faces near wells. Pumping tests of wells.

8. Surface-water hydrology

Its quantitative interpretation in a balance equation. Catchment areas. Genetical inter-

pretation based on the balance equation, instantaneous process of run-off on an elementary
surface and in the catchment area. Hydrographs of precipitation, infiltration, subsurface and
surface run-off.
Occurrence of surface run-off. Influencing factors: geographical and geometrical,
geographical and physical. Regime of watercourses, their classification. The action of water
on the development of river beds.
Daily means, monthly and yearly discharges. Long-term average yearly discharge. Deter-
mination based on analogy. Determination based on the balance equation, fluctuation of yearly
discharges. Distribution of discharges during the year. Average monthly discharges. Dura-
tion curve of mean daily discharges. Extreme discharges. Design discharge. Hydrograph
analysis of the flood wave. Drafting the statistical series of peak discharges and their pro-
cessing. Method of unit hydrograph and its application for the computation of the flood wave.
Determination of peak discharges without direct observation, formulae. Minimum discharges.
Definition. Computation when sufficient data based on direct observation are available. For-
mulae. Basic hydrological and hydrotechnical computations. Summary run-off curve, mathemati-
cal and graphical drafting. Transfer of floods through inundated areas and reservoirs,
influence of ponds.

9. Surface-water hydrology

Introduction to hydrology. Hydrological cycle. Hydrological balance. Evaporation and trans-

piration. Basin topography. Basin geography and geology. Hydrographical net. Soil and
infiltration. Run-over.
Use of the water. Study of flow rating. Indirect procedures to estimate flows.

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Probabilistic distribution of flow ratings. Flow regulation. Methods of regulation. Flow
forecasting. Reservoir exploitation. Flood hydrology. Methods to estimate maximum flows.
Short-run forecast of the evolution of flood flows.

10. Surface hydrolorjy

The hydrological cycle and its main components. Precipitation: measurement and interpretation
of data. Run-off: components and measurement. Infiltration. Horton's and other formulae.
Evaporation and evapotranspiration. Rainfall-run-off relationships. Graphical correlations.
Soil moisture accounting methods. The hydrograph. Unit hydrograph. Peak discharges. The
rational formula.

11. fl
Scope and purpose of engineering hydrology. Hydrological cycle: consideration of the various
sectors of the hydrological cycle, measurement and presentation of the various phenomena. Rain-
fall-intensity-duration relationships. Hydrographs and mass curves. Groundwater. Drainage
basin inventories. Flow-gauging: controls and gauging sites. River phenomena and control:
meandering, erosion, silting, flooding, transport of suspended matter and bed material and
engineering control of these factors.

12. Groundwater hydrology

Definitions. Occurrence. Advantage as a water resource. Classification of aquifers.

Groundwater movement. Darcy's Law. Anisotropy. Continuity equations. Boundary conditions.
Mathematical statement of groundwater flow problems. Well drilling and completion. The
Dupuit approximation. Hydraulics of wells in steady and unsteady flows, in confined and phre-
atic aquifers. Pumping tests. Regional groundwater balances. Artificial replenishment of
aquifers. Surface and subsurface exploration methods. Sea water intrusion and hydrology of
coastal aquifers.

13. Groundwater hydrology

Occurrence of groundwater. Porous media. Darcy's Law. Permeability, porosity, transmissi-

vity; anisotropy, stratification. Potential flow, flow nets; boundary conditions. Incom-
pressible flow analysis: exact, graphical and numerical, experimental. Effects of compressi-
bility; storage coefficient. Pumping tests. Approximate techniques of analysis.

14. Geophysical aspects of groundwater hydrology

a. Introduction. Appraisal of groundwater resources.

b. Recapitulation of geology. Permeability of rocks. Structural geology.
c. Aquifers. Origin and occurrence of groundwater. Aquifers in geological structures.
Hydrological properties of various pervious materials.
d. Prospecting methods. The use of various geophysical exploration methods in geohydrology.
Geo-electrical prospecting; the resistivity method and its use and application in water supply
geophysics. Location of groundwater reservoirs.
e. Seepage. Prediction of the amount of seepage. Practical consequences of seepage in
reclamation works. Seepage of saline groundwater.
f. Conservation and use of groundwater. Groundwater mapping. Exploitation; safe yield.
Purpose of artifical recharge.

15. Groundwater hydrology and hydraulics

Occurrence and movement of groundwater, determination of hydraulic characteristics of the

groundwater reservoir with emphasis on non-equilibrium methods, interrelationship of surface-
water bodies and the groundwater reservoir, and evaluation of groundwater problems, including
salt water encroachment, depletion of groundwater reserve, temperature rise due to recirculation
of spent cooling water, river infiltration, and industrial contamination.

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ISBN 92-3-102106-0