agriculture

Article
Social Factors That Influence Use of ICT in
Agricultural Extension in Southern Africa
Joyous S. Tata *,† and Paul E. McNamara †
The Department of Agricultural and Consumer Economics (ACE), University of Illinois Urbana Champaign,
326 Mumford Hall, 1301 W. Gregory Drive Urbana, IL 61801, USA; [email protected]
* Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +1-217-300-3561; Fax: +1-217-244-7088
† These authors contributed equally to this work.

Academic Editor: Sanzidur Rahman

Received: 17 December 2015; Accepted: 1 April 2016; Published: 8 April 2016

Abstract: Farmbook is a novel information communication technology (ICT) tool for agricultural
extension that is currently being field tested by the Catholic Relief Services (CRS) in Southern and
East Africa. Farmbook enables extension agents to assess productivity and profitability of farming
enterprises in a faster and more reliable manner, so as to increase farmer incomes and achieve food
security. This study looked at the relationship between challenges faced by extension agents testing
the Farmbook application and select socio-economic indicators influencing their work. Specific
objectives were to identify and categorize the challenges facing extension agents in the field as they
used Farmbook, assess gender differences in the use of Farmbook by extension agents, understand
the relationship between socio-economic status of extension agents and the challenges faced in
using Farmbook. Data were collected through document reviews, administration of a structured
questionnaire and focus group meetings with field agents. Descriptive statistics and multivariate
techniques were used to analyze data. The results show that personal and wider socio-economic
conditions do have an impact on the proficiency of extension agents using Farmbook. The study
goes on to recommend measures to improve the training and ICT proficiency of extension agents
adopting Farmbook.

Keywords: Farmbook; ICT; Catholic Relief Services; agricultural extension; Zambia; mosaic plots

1. Introduction
As the world’s present population grows from 6.7 to 9.1 billion by 2050, food production will
need to double over this same period [1]. Thus, more effective extension services are needed to address
agricultural challenges including meeting the information needs of poor smallholder farmers in
developing countries. In response, agricultural extension experts and institutions around the world are
promoting the use of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) by agricultural extension and
education agents. ICTs can expedite the process of agricultural technology transfer from research and
development institutions to farmers. ICTs improve adoption of agricultural technology by supporting
farmer learning, problem solving, and accessibility to profitable markets for their crops [2].
Research findings reveal that ICTs do improve the productivity and livelihoods of poor
smallholder farmers [3]. Interestingly, Anastasios et al. [4], in their study of ICTs as agricultural
extension tools in Greece, found that ICTs supplement rather than replace traditional extension
methods. A study exploring the use of ICTs by extension agents in the Caribbean found that they use
ICTs for personal benefits and increased professional productivity, but also continue to use traditional
interaction methods with farmers [5]. However, Lasley et al. [6] have expressed the view that ICTs
could eventually replace traditional information and training systems used by extension services and
even alter the role of extension agents.

Agriculture 2016, 6, 15; doi:10.3390/agriculture6020015 www.mdpi.com/journal/agriculture

Agriculture 2016, 6, 15 2 of 10

Socio-economic factors have been cited as major determinants of extension agents’ use and
eventual adoption of ICTs. Akpabio et al. [7] found that poor ICT infrastructural development,
high cost of broadcast equipment, high charges for radio/television presentations, high cost of
access/interconnectivity and electricity power problems were amongst the constraints affecting ICT
utilization by agricultural extension officers in the Niger Delta, Nigeria. Anastasios et al. [8] showed
that Internet access in rural Greece was influenced by income and gender for “basic users”, by the
existence of a young member in the family for “interactive users”, and by the digital divide between
rural versus urban location and farmer’s competency for the “farm oriented users”.
In addition, Mwombe et al. [9] showed that age, gender, income and acreage of bananas planted
had an influence on the intensity of use of ICT tools, as a source of agricultural information for
smallholder banana farmers in Gatanga district, Kenya. Results from a comparative study on ICT
use in agriculture in Botswana, Ghana, Kenya and Uganda found that low capacity and inadequate
infrastructure were major challenges to ICT use in agriculture [3]. The study showed that although
cellular phones, the Internet, radio, and web-based applications have become increasingly important
in sharing and disseminating agricultural information and knowledge, and in marketing goods and
services, there is low capacity and usage of ICTs and that inadequate ICT infrastructure in rural areas
is a major problem.
In view of these findings that socio-economic factors influence the adoption of ICTs by agricultural
extension agents, this study seeks to understand how socio-economic factors influenced the pilot
roll-out of Farmbook, a new ICT tool, among extension agents in Southern Africa. The study proceeds
by assessing the relationship between challenges faced by extension agents using Farmbook and select
socio-economic indicators including gender. The study is informed by the Diffusion of Innovation
(DoI) theory [10].

1.1. What is Farmbook

Farmbook is an ICT application developed and currently being field tested by the Catholic Relief
Services (CRS) at the request of a consortium of non-governmental organizations (NGOs), under the
Southern African Agro-Enterprise Learning Alliance. Farmbook enables extension agents to help
farmers plan their businesses, assess productivity, and profitability of their farming enterprise. This
application was also developed as a means to manage field agents and to help remote field agents
to easily share their data with project managers [11]. It also allows field agents to register people
into households, register farmers into farmer groups, enables farmers to run profitability analyses
for specific products, enables farmer groups to develop business plans, supports crop production
scheduling and allows field agents to record farm visits, training and assets transferred.
This application provides farmers with access to a business planning software that is focused
on improving their product and market opportunity [11]. It provides customized business plans
that can help individual farmers analyze farm preparation costs, type and cost of investment loans,
sales, revenues and profits. The analysis generated can be printed by the field agents and shared
with farmers on their return visits. The data generated from Farmbook can also be used for overall
monitoring and evaluation.

1.2. Theoretical Framework

This study is informed by the Diffusion of Innovation (DoI) theory [10]. Rogers defined diffusion
as “a process by which an innovation is communicated through certain channels over time among
members of a social system” [10]. The theory presumes that a new idea, practice or object is adopted
based on its perceived attributes, the social system in which it is diffusing, communication channels
and the length of time the idea has been around [10]. The theory presents five attributes that make an
innovation attractive, namely perceived relative advantage, compartibility, complexity, trialability and
observability of the results of the innovation to potential adopters.
Agriculture 2016, 6, 15 3 of 10

This theory has been widely used to inform the design of several information systems projects,
and in managing the diffusion of agricultural innovations [12,13]. An important critique of Rogers
diffusion theory is its inherent assumption that diffusion is a one-way top-down process from sender to
receiver; development communication experts now acknowledge that effective adoption of innovation
is more likely through participatory processes than through top-down processes [14]. Rogers diffusion
theory also focused more on the perceived attributes of the innovation as the driver of adoption and
less on the social and economic factors [15,16]. This study thus contributes to understanding the role
of social and economic factors in the diffusion of innovation.
In this study diffusion is viewed as a process by which the innovation, in this case Farmbook,
is communicated through certain channels, including public and private extension systems, farmer
based organizations, and farmers groups over time among smallholder farmers (particularly farmers
doing farming as a business or collective marketing). In this study, Farmbook is presented as an
innovation that can be used to substitute the traditional business planning methods currently used by
extension agents in developing countries. The traditional process of business planning is lengthy, time
consuming, performed with paper and pen, is highly prone to error, difficult to conduct on a large
scale, and high in transaction costs.

1.3. Objectives
The overall objective of this study is to assess the influence of select socio-economic factors on
adoption of Farmbook ICT by extension field agents in Southern Africa. Specific objectives were:

1. To identify and categorize the challenges hindering extension agents from the effective use
of Farmbook
2. To understand the relationship between selected national development indicators and the effective
use of Farmbook by extension agents
3. To assess gender differences in the use of Farmbook by extension agents
4. To understand the relationship between socio-economic status of extension agents and the
challenges faced in using Farmbook
5. To understand the relationship between proficiency in the use of the Internet and the use of
Farmbook by extension agents
6. To recommend adaptive measures to improve the training received by extension agents adopting
Farmbook in order to enhance their effective use of the technology

1.4. Research Question and Hypothesis

An effective agricultural and advisory system must increase farm household income, build
social capital, achieve household food security, improve family nutrition and education and achieve
long-term food security [17]. However, for this to happen, extension agents must have the right tools
to work with and the competence to use these tools effectively. Given that Farmbook technology is one
of such novel tools that is being introduced and adopted by extension agents, their competence in the
use of this new technology will be directly related to personal and societal socio-economic conditions
affecting their work [18,19]. The key question guiding the research reported in this paper is therefore
as follows:

‚ What is the relationship between challenges faced by extension agents using Farmbook and the personal
and societal socio-economic context influencing their work?

Following from this, the research null hypothesis guiding this study is as follows:

‚ Personal and wider socio-economic context have no impact on challenges faced by extension agents using
Farmbook.
Agriculture 2016, 6, 15 4 of 10

2. Experimental Section

Materials and Methods

Farmbook was introduced to extension field agents in Madagascar, Malawi, Zambia and
Zimbabwe by CRS through two extension training workshops in 2012. The first workshop took
place in Malawi from 23 to 27 April 2012 with a module introducing Farmbook to the participants.
The second workshop took place in Zambia from 22 to 28 August 2012 and included a module on
field level monitoring of the use of Farmbook. A third workshop was held in Zambia from 23 to
30 January 2013 and this enabled CRS to assess the challenges faced by field agents using Farmbook.
Data analyzed in this paper was partly obtained during the third workshop in Zambia, where the
researcher had the opportunity to hold focus group discussions with extension agents who had earlier
received the study questionnaire. A total of five focus group meetings were held with extension agents
from the four countries involved in this study.
Data were collected through the use of a structured questionnaire that was e-mailed out
from November 2012 to January 2013 to extension agents who had received Farmbook training.
The questionnaire was first pre-tested with 10 extension agents from the target countries to determine
the effectiveness of the questions. Feedback from the pre-testing exercise enabled the researchers
identify questions that were confusing to respondents and those that could lead to bias answers.
The questionnaire was then revised, improved, finalized and ready for distribution by e-mail.
Respondents were contacted by email and asked if they would like to participate in the study.
Questionnaire were emailed out to respondents who were interested along with an informed consent
form. A total of 40 questionnaires were emailed out by January 2013 to extension agents in Madagascar,
Malawi, Zambia and Zimbabwe, who had received Farmbook training. Completed questionnaires
were received from 30 extension agents giving a response rate of 75%.
From a technical-architectural point of view, the design process of the questionnaire is divided
into six levels of functionality as follows: The first section had questions on demographics, the second
had questions on extension agent field presence, the third had questions about capacity, the fourth
had questions related to challenges working with farmers, the fifth had questions related to the CRS
training and the use of Farmbook, and the sixth section had questions related to Internet accessibility.
This paper focuses on responses received to questions related to the use of Farmbook.
Data were analyzed using both descriptive statistics and multivariate techniques using JMP 10
statistical software. The questionnaire responses were first entered into Excel software and categorized;
it was then imported into JMP 10 statistical software for contingency analyses. Contingency analyses
show the distribution of a categorical variable Y across the levels of a second categorical variable X.
The data was tested for internal consistency reliability through a correlation of responses to question
36 “do you have a smart phone”, and question 37 “state the name of your smart phone”, in our questionnaire.
The Spearman’s rank correlation coefficient for Q36:37 is r = 0.93. The very high correlation coefficient
implies a high reliability of the questionnaire responses. Results from our contingency analyses are
provided in the form of mosaic plots—a graphical method for presenting and understanding results
from qualitative analyses.
The research methods employed in this study were used by Chipeta et al. [20] in their assessment
study of the Swedish International Development Agency’s agricultural extension pilot project in
Zambia. The method was also used by Belay and Abebaw [18] in their research which examined
challenges hindering the adoption of modern extension technologies in Ethiopia.

3. Results and Discussion

3.1. Respondents’ Demographic Characteristics

The questionnaire survey was carried out with 40 research participants in all and there was 75%
response rate. Our data shows that 6.7% are from Madagascar, 33.3% from Malawi, 23.3% from Zambia
Agriculture 2016, 6, 15 5 of 10

Agriculture 2016, 6, 15 5 of 10
and 36.7% from Zimbabwe. In addition 76.7% were male and 23.3% were female giving a ratio of 3:1.
ratiodistribution
Age of 3:1. Age distribution
was from 22 wasto 50from 22with
years, to 50an
years, withofan
average 35average of 3546.7%
years; with years;below
with 35
46.7%
and below
53.3%
35 and 53.3% above 35 years. On the academic front 23.3% had high school qualifications,
above 35 years. On the academic front 23.3% had high school qualifications, 20% had professional 20% had
professional qualifications, 46.7% had Bachelor’s degree, and 10% had Masters’ degree.
qualifications, 46.7% had Bachelor’s degree, and 10% had Masters’ degree. Lastly, on the broad job Lastly, on
the broad job
description description 66.7%
of respondents, of respondents, 66.7%
are principally are principally
field-based field-based
while 33.3% while 33.3%
are office-based, giving are
a
office-based,
ratio of 2:1. giving a ratio of 2:1.

3.2. Farmbook Challenges and Country of Research Participants

The mosaic
mosaicplot
plot in Figure
in Figure 1 shows
1 shows the relationship
the relationship between
between the the“Farmbook
variables variables Challenges”
“Farmbook
Challenges”
(Y) (Y) and
and “Country” “Country”
of research of research
participant (X). participant
The width of(X).
theThe
barswidth of thethe
represents bars representssizes
comparative the
comparative
of sizesin
the data points ofthe
thevariable
data points in the variable
“country” “country”
on the (X) axis. on the (X) axis.

Figure 1. Challenges
Figure 1. Challenges to
to using
using Farmbook and country
Farmbook and country of
of research
research participants.
participants.

The height
The height of
of the
the bars
bars in
in Figure
Figure 11 represents
represents the
the variable
variable “farmbook
“farmbook challenges”
challenges” on
on the
the (Y)
(Y) axis.
axis.
This has two data points: “farmlevel challenges” and “technical challenges”. Farmlevel challenges
This has two data points: “farmlevel challenges” and “technical challenges”. Farmlevel challenges
are related
are related to
tothe
thecontext
contextininwhich
whichthethe
farmer operates.
farmer Responses
operates. to thetoquestion
Responses “challenges
the question using
“challenges
farmbook” such as “absent farm records”, “low farmer literacy”, “low farmer IT skills”
using farmbook” such as “absent farm records”, “low farmer literacy”, “low farmer IT skills” were were
categorized as “farmlevel challenges”. Technical challenges include responses such as “software
categorized as “farmlevel challenges”. Technical challenges include responses such as “software
malfunction”, “low Internet connectivity”, and “insufficient technical support”.
malfunction”, “low Internet connectivity”, and “insufficient technical support”.
In mosaic plots, the lone standing bar on the far right shows the aggregate ratio of the (Y)
In mosaic plots, the lone standing bar on the far right shows the aggregate ratio of the (Y)
variable. Thus in Figure 1, about 75% of the research participants reported experiencing more
variable. Thus in Figure 1, about 75% of the research participants reported experiencing more farmlevel
farmlevel challenges than technical challenges. However, when this is disaggregated according to
challenges than technical challenges. However, when this is disaggregated according to the country of
the country of research participants, those from Malawi and Zimbabwe experienced more of
research participants, those from Malawi and Zimbabwe experienced more of farmlevel challenges
farmlevel challenges compared to those from Madagascar and Zambia.
compared to those from Madagascar and Zambia.

3.3. Relationship
3.3. between Farmbook
Relationship between Farmbook Challenges
Challenges and
and Gender
Gender
Women in
Women in our
our dataset
dataset reported
reported facing
facing more
more farmlevel
farmlevel challenges
challenges compared
compared to to their
their male
male
colleagues; conversely women reported lower occurrence of technical challenges
colleagues; conversely women reported lower occurrence of technical challenges to using the Farmbookto using the
Farmbook
ICT ICT application
application compared compared to their
to their male male colleagues
colleagues (Figure 2).(Figure
These2). Theseare
results results are to
similar similar to
several
several studies [21] that show that women tend to have lower levels of education compared
studies [21] that show that women tend to have lower levels of education compared to men, which to men,
whichtheir
limits limits theirparticipation
active active participation in that
in training training
usesthat
a lotuses a lot of
of written writtenand
material material
thus theand thus the
inability to
inability to keep
keep farm records. farm records.
Agriculture 2016, 6, 15 6 of 10
Agriculture 2016, 6, 15 6 of 10
Agriculture 2016, 6, 15 6 of 10

Figure 2. Challenges to using Farmbook and gender.

Figure
Figure 2.
2. Challenges
Challenges to
to using
using Farmbook
Farmbook and
and gender.
gender.
3.4. Relationship between Farmbook Challenges and Age
3.4. Relationship
Relationship between35Farmbook
Extension agents Challenges
years and and Ageexperiencing more technical problems compared
above reported
to those below agents
Extension 35 years35 in theirand
years useabove
of thereported
Farmbook applicationmore
experiencing (Figure 3). Weproblems
technical also observed that
compared
the younger agents (those below 35 years) were more enthusiastic about
to those below 35 years in their use of the Farmbook application (Figure 3). We Farmbook and were eager
We also observed that
to learn
the about
younger the application
agents
agents (those below
(those compared
below 35 towere
35years)
years) agents
were 35 years
more
more and above.
enthusiastic
enthusiastic aboutFarmbook
about Farmbook and
and were
were eager
eager to
to learn
learn about
about thethe application
application compared
compared to agents
to agents 35 35 years
years andand above.
above.

Figure
Figure 3.
3. Challenges
Challenges to
to using
using Farmbook
Farmbook and
and age
age group
group of
of extension
extension agents.
agents.
Figure 3. Challenges to using Farmbook and age group of extension agents.
3.5. Relationship between Farmbook Challenges and Educational Qualification
3.5. Relationship
Figure 4 shows between
thatFarmbook
a higher Challenges and Educational
ratio of Bachelor’s degree Qualification
holders’ reported experiencing technical
challenges
challenges with the use of Farmbook compared to the
Figure 4 shows that a higher ratio of Bachelor’s degree holders’ High
High Schoolreported
School certificate
certificate holders. Those
holders.
experiencing with
technical
professional qualifications experienced much more of farmlevel challenges
challenges with the use of Farmbook compared to the High School certificate holders. Those with than technical challenges
with thetheFarmbook
professional Farmbook
qualificationsapplication.
application.
experienced However,
However,muchnone none
of
more the of the degree
of masters’
farmlevel masters’ degree
holders
challenges than holders
reported
technical reported
experiencing
challenges
experiencing
any technical
with the Farmbookany technical challenges
challengesapplication. with
with using Farmbook. using
However,These Farmbook.
noneresults
of the These
are similar
masters’results
to those are
degree similar
of Strong
holders to those
et al.reportedof
[5], who
Strong et al.educational
found that
experiencing [5],
anywho found
technical that educational
levelschallenges
of extension levelsplayed
officers
with using of extension inofficers
a role These
Farmbook. played
technology
results a similar
role in with
acceptance
are technology
to higher
those of
acceptance
Strong al.with
levels ofeteducation higher
[5], who earned levels
found ofeducational
resulting
that education earned
in an increase resulting
levelsinoftechnology
extensionin use.
an increase in Morris
Dossplayed
officers and technology
a role[22] use. Doss
found
in technologythat
and Morris with
educational
acceptance [22]
levelfound
was one
higher that ofeducational
levels the
ofmost levelearned
was one
commonly
education citedofbinding
the most
resulting commonly
increaseincited
inconstraints
an bindingadoption.
intechnology
technology constraints
use. Doss
in technology
and Morris [22] adoption.
found that educational level was one of the most commonly cited binding constraints
in technology adoption.
Agriculture 2016, 6, 15 7 of 10
Agriculture 2016, 6, 15 7 of 10
Agriculture 2016, 6, 15 7 of 10

Figure
Figure 4.
4. Challenges
Challenges to
to using
using Farmbook
Farmbook and
and educational
educational qualification.
qualification.
Figure 4. Challenges to using Farmbook and educational qualification.

The results suggest that the highly educated extension agents, those with Master’s degrees,
The results
resultssuggest
suggestthat
thatthe highly
the educated
highly educatedextension agents,
extension thosethose
agents, with with
Master’s degrees,
Master’s could
degrees,
could be trained on the more sophisticated aspects of the Farmbook technology so that they can fulfil
be trained
could on theon
be trained more sophisticated
the more aspects
sophisticated of theofFarmbook
aspects technology
the Farmbook so that
technology theythey
so that can can
fulfil the
fulfil
the role of providing technical support to the others.
rolerole
the of providing technical
of providing support
technical to the
support to others.
the others.
3.6.
3.6. Relationship
Relationship between
between Farmbook
Farmbook Challenges
Challenges and
and Ability
Ability to
to Use
Use the
the Internet
Internet
3.6. Relationship between Farmbook Challenges and Ability to Use the Internet
Figure 5 reveals
Figure 55 reveals that
reveals that the
that the more
the more comfortable extension agents
agents are
are with
with using
using the
the Internet
Internet the
the less
Figure more comfortable extension agents
comfortable extension are with using the Internet the less
less
the
the ratio
ratio that
that reported
reported experiencing
experiencing technical
technical challenges
challenges with
with Farmbook.
Farmbook. Extension
Extension agents
agents who
who were
were
the ratio that reported experiencing technical challenges with Farmbook. Extension agents who were
excellent
excellent atat using
using the
the Internet
Internet were
were most
most comfortable
comfortable with
with Farmbook
Farmbook technology
technology and
and those
those least
least able
able
excellent at using the Internet were most comfortable with Farmbook technology and those least able
to
to use
use the
the Internet
Internet were
were most
most uncomfortable.
uncomfortable.
to use the Internet were most uncomfortable.

Figure 5. Challenges to using Farmbook and ability to use the Internet.

Challenges to using Farmbook and ability to use the Internet.

Figure 5. Challenges
3.7. Relationship between Farmbook Challenges and Internet Access in the Field
3.7. Relationship between
Figure 6 shows thatFarmbook Challenges
extension and Internet
agents with InternetAccess
accessininthe Field
the field had the smallest ratio of
agents (9%) reporting technical challenges in the
Figure 6 shows that extension agents with Internet use of Farmbook.
Internet access Among
access in the field hadthose
the with no Internet
smallest ratio of
access in the field 50%technical
reported experiencingthe technical challenges
use of Farmbook. in the use of Farmbook. Thus,
Among those with no Internet
agents (9%) reporting challenges in Farmbook. Among
Internet access is crucial for successful adoption of Farmbook.
access in the field 50% reported experiencing technical challenges in the use of Farmbook. Thus,
Farmbook. Thus,
Internet access is crucial for successful adoption of Farmbook.
Agriculture 2016, 6, 15 8 of 10
Agriculture 2016, 6, 15 8 of 10

Figure
Figure 6.
6. Challenges
Challenges to
to using
using Farmbook
Farmbook and
and Internet
Internet access
access in
in the
the field.
field.

4.
4. Conclusions
Conclusions
Farmbook
Farmbook is an an innovation
innovationthat thatcan
canbebe used
used to to substitute
substitute thethe traditional
traditional manual,
manual, costly,
costly, and
and time
time consuming
consuming business business
planning planning
methods methods
currently currently
used byused by extension
extension agents inagents in developing
developing countries.
countries.
FarmbookFarmbook
allows extensionallows agents
extension agents people
to register to registerintopeople into households,
households, register
register farmers intofarmers
farmer
into farmer
groups, groups,
enables farmersenables
to runfarmers to run
profitability profitability
analyses analyses
for specific for specific
products, enablesproducts,
farmer groupsenables to
farmer
developgroups
business to plans,
develop business
supports cropplans, supports
production crop production
scheduling and allows scheduling
field agentsand to allows field
record farm
agents to recordand
visits, training farm visits,
assets training and assets transferred.
transferred.
In
In addition,
addition, the theapplication
applicationprovides
providesfarmers
farmerswith withaccess
accesstotoa abusiness
business planning
planning software
software that is
that
focused on improving their product and market opportunity, and
is focused on improving their product and market opportunity, and helping them access credits. helping them access credits. It
provides
It provides customized
customized business
businessplansplansthat
thatcan
canhelp
helpindividual
individualfarmers
farmersanalyze
analyzefarmfarm preparation
preparation costs,
type
type and cost of investment loans, sales, revenues and profits.
The
The null
null hypothesis
hypothesis that that guided
guided this
this study
study was was that socio-economic
socio-economic factors factors have
have nono impact
impact on on
the
the challenges
challenges facedfaced by extension agents using Farmbook. Our Our results
results havehave however
however shown
shown thatthat
socio-economic
socio-economic factors factorsincluding
includinggender,
gender,age, age,educational
educational qualification
qualification andandInternet access
Internet accesshave an
have
impact
an impact on challenges
on challenges faced by extension
faced by extension agents using
agents Farmbook.
using Farmbook. TheseTheseresultsresults
correspond with
correspond
Mwombe
with Mwombe et al.’s et[9]al.’s
findings that socio-economic
[9] findings factors like
that socio-economic age, gender,
factors like age,income gender,andincome
acreageand of
bananas planted had an influence on the intensity of use of ICT
acreage of bananas planted had an influence on the intensity of use of ICT tools as a source oftools as a source of agricultural
information
agricultural for smallholder
information banana farmers
for smallholder in Gatanga
banana farmersdistrict,
in GatangaKenya. The results
district, Kenya.also
Thesupport the
results also
conclusion
support thethat social and
conclusion that economic
social and factors are important
economic factors are variables
important in the diffusion
variables of agricultural
in the diffusion of
innovation.
agricultural innovation.
Our
Our finding
finding show
show thatthat extension
extension officers with advanced degrees faced less technical challenges challenges
using Farmbookthan
using Farmbook thantheirtheir less-educated
less-educated colleagues.
colleagues. This finding
This finding underscores underscores
the need for theprofessional
need for
professional
developmentdevelopment
and capacityand capacity
building building
of officers of officers
lacking lacking
advanced advanced
degrees. degrees. Government
Government role should
role should
include raisinginclude raisinglevels
educational educational levels
of staff and of staff opportunities
increasing and increasing opportunities
to pursue advanced to degrees
pursue
advanced degrees for both men and women extension staff. This emphasizes
for both men and women extension staff. This emphasizes the need for in-service and on the job the need for in-service
and on the
training andjob training
capacity and capacity
building building
in the use of ICTsinforthe use of ICTs
extension for extension
officers. The highlyofficers.
educated The highly
extension
educated
staff couldextension
be trainedstaff on the could
morebe trained on aspects
sophisticated the more sophisticated
of the aspects of so
Farmbook technology the Farmbook
that they can
technology
fulfil the role soofthat they cantechnical
providing fulfil thesupport
role of to providing
the others. technical
This wouldsupport have to the
thelong-term
others. This would
benefit of
have the long-term
ensuring benefit ofbecomes
that the technology ensuringlocally
that the technology
owned, becomessustainability
thus enhancing locally owned, of thus enhancing
this agricultural
sustainability
extension approach.of this agricultural extension approach.
A
A second
second finding from our analyses worth flagging up is that survey participants with Internet
access
access inin the
the field and who were proficient at using the Internet experienced fewer challenges using using
Farmbook
Farmbook compared to their colleagues who had no Internet access in the field and who were not
compared to their colleagues who had no Internet access in the field and who were not
proficient in intheir
theiruse useofofthethe Internet.
Internet. Government
Government policies
policies towardstowards
improvedimproved infrastructure
infrastructure and
and access
access to Internet and other mobile communication technologies for rural people would improve the
overall use of Farmbook and other ICTs [23].
Agriculture 2016, 6, 15 9 of 10

to Internet and other mobile communication technologies for rural people would improve the overall
use of Farmbook and other ICTs [23].
Another role of government and the international community should be to increase awareness
of ICTs including Farmbook and integrate such technologies for use within government extension
programs. In addition, both the public and private sectors should work together to support further
ICT development and applications like Farmbook.
No innovation is without drawbacks—thus some of the limitations of the technology are as follows:
both extension agents and farmers need to be included in further improvement of the technology and
developing content for Farmbook. Farmers will find it more beneficial in some cases if it is in their
local languages. There is also a need to have a team on the ground to resolve technical problems as
soon as they arise rather than out-sourcing problem solving to experts based abroad. Lastly, there is
also a need to empower in-country nationals to own the technology.

Acknowledgments: This work was supported by the United States Agency for International Development
(USAID) (grant No. AID-OAA-L-10-00003) through the Modernizing Extension and Advisory Services (MEAS)
program at the University of Illinois Urbana Champaign, USA. The authors wish to thank Emmanuel Nuesiri for
reviewing earlier draft of the paper. We also wish to thank Shaun Ferris, Rupert Best and Geoffrey Heinrich of
Catholic Relief Services for their help during field work and data collection. Finally we are very grateful to the
blind reviewers for reviewing the article.
Author Contributions: Joyous S. Tata and Paul E. McNamara conceived the outline and wrote the paper.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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