Unit 12 SOLUBILITY PRODUCT CALCULATIONS Subjects

Objectives

At the end of this unit the student will be able to :

1- Write the Ksp expression for the ionization of any salts.
2- Calculate Ksp from solubility and vice versa.
3- Tell if a precipitate will form when mixing solutions .
4- predict
whether it is possible to separate metal ions by the precipitation of its
hydroxides or salts .
5- predict whether a complexing agent will dissolve the metal precipitate or not .
6- Understand the concept of common ion effect .
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Introduction
The concept of solubility product is very useful in explaining many phenomenons. Various
fields in which it can be used are:-
1. Calculation of solubility: If we know the solubility product of a meagerly soluble
salt like AgCl we can calculate the solubility of the salt and vice versa.
2. In predicting the precipitation in reactions: If we know the solubility product of a
salt, we can find whether on mixing the solution of its ions, precipitation will occur or not.
3. In inorganic qualitative analysis:
The concept of solubility product and common ion effect play a vital role in
the separation of basic radicals i.e. cations into different groups of qualitative analysis.
4. Purification of sodium chloride: Sodium Chloride obtained from sea water or lakes is
always impure. It can be purified on the basis of common ion effect .
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The Solubility Product Concept

When adding Cl- solution to a beaker

containing Ag+ solution , the product of
[Cl- ]X [Ag+ ] in the beaker solution will
increase until reaching what so called
solubility product constant ( Ksp ) of the
compound AgCl . Before reaching Ksp the
beaker solution is called unsaturated when
reaching Ksp the solution is called saturated
and in both states no precipitation occurs .
But when the product of [Cl-] X[Ag+]
exceeds the value of Ksp , the solution is
called oversaturated and the precipitation of
AgCl may occurs .
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The Solubility Product Concept

The state of overrsaturation is temporary ( less

than one second ) because Cl- and Ag+ will
react to form the precipitate AgCl
and the [Cl-] and [Ag+] will go back to the
saturation state .So when you see a solution of
AgCl with a solid in it you will know that the
product of [Cl-]X[Ag+] dissolving in solution is
equal to the Ksp of AgCl . What we said about
AgCl applies to all salts .
To write the expression of Ksp for any salt you
should first write the dissociation equation , for
example the dissociation equation for the salt VIDEO VIDEO
Al2S3 is : You Tube My Channel
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The Solubility Product Concept

Al2S3 → 2 Al3+ + 3 S2-

The Ksp expression for Al2S3 is the product of the concentrations of the ions, with each
concentration raised to a power equal to the coefficient of that ion in it's balanced
dissociation equation thus :
Ksp = [Al3+ ]2[S2- ]3

and do the same with any other salt e.g for CaF2 , Ksp = [Ca2+ ][F- ]2 and so on .

Saturated solution of CaF2

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The Solubility Product Concept

The higher the value of Ksp the more soluble the salt .

Example ; Which one of the following salts is more soluble in water ?

CaCO3: Ksp = 2.8 x 10-9

Ag2CO3: Ksp = 8.1 x 10-12

Solution : Since the value of Ksp for CaCO3 is higher than that of Ag2CO3 then the first is
more soluble than the later . :

VIDEO VIDEO
Solubility Equilibrium My Channel
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Factors Affecting Solubility ( Temperature )

Effect of temperature on solubility :
Generally in most cases solubility
increases with the rise in temperature.
However we must follow two behaviors :
In endothermic process solubility
increases with the increase in temperature
and vice versa.
In exothermic process solubility decrease
with the increase in temperature. Gases
are more soluble in cold solvent than in
hot solvent
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Factors Affecting Solubility ( Solvent )

Effect of solvent on solubility :

Solubility of a solute in a solvent purely depends on the nature of both

solute and solvent. A polar solute dissolved in polar solvent. A polar solute
has low solubility or insoluble in a non-polar solvent . For this reason if you
want to decrease the solubility of an inorganic salt ( polar salt ) in water you
mix the water with an organic solvent ( non polar ) .
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Predicting precipitation

Determining whether a precipitate will, or will not form when two solutions are combined :
Example : 25.0 mL of 0.002 M K2CrO4 are mixed with 75.0 mL of 0.000125 M Pb(NO3 )2 .
Will a precipitate of PbCrO4 form. Ksp of PbCrO4 = 1.8 x 10-14 ?

Solution : The term Q is called the ion product (or the trial Ksp ) for the solution mixture after
the mixing of the solutions and before the reaction of the ions at any state ( unsaturation ,
saturation or supersaturation ) . So we will calculate Q using the dilution equation :
C1 V1 = C2 V2
The concentration of CrO42- in the mixture and before the reaction
= ( 0.002 M X 25 mL) /100 mL = 0.0005 M
Similar calculation for Pb2+ yield [Pb2+ ] = (0.000125 M X 75 mL ) / 100 mL = 0.0000934M
Q = [CrO42- ][Pb2+ ] = 0.0005 X 0.0000934 = 4.69X10-8
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Predicting Precipitation

Q is greater than Ksp so a precipitate of lead(II)

chromate will form. If Q ≤ Ksp the solution
will be either saturated ( if equal) or
unsaturated
( if less than ) and in both states there will be
no precipitation .
Q < Ksp Unsaturated solution
Q = Ksp Saturate solution
Q > Ksp Oversaturate solution

VIDEO VIDEO
You Tube My Channel
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Calculating Ksp From Solubility

What is the solubility of a salt ? It is the maximum amount ( moles , mmoles , g …etc ) of
this salt that can be dissolved in a certain volume of solution ( L , 50 mL , 500 mL …ect.).
The molar solubility is the solubility in moles of a salt in liter of a solution .

Calculating Ksp of a salt from it’s Solubility : From the definition of Ksp and molar solubility
one can calculate the Ksp of a salt from it’s molar solubility or vice versa .

VIDEO VIDEO
Ksp Concept My Channel
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Calculating Ksp From Solubility

Example : : Calculate the solubility product constant for PbCl2 (mw= 278.1 ) , if 50.0 mL
of a saturated solution of PbCl2 was found to contain 0.2207 g of PbCl2 dissolved in it
( i.e.solubility in 0.2207g / 50 mL ) ?

Solution : First we write the Ksp expression :

Ksp = [ Pb2+ ][Cl- ]2
Second we convert the solubilty in 0.2207 g / 50 mL to molar solubility thus :
0.2207 ( g )
Molar So lub ility of PbCl2  278.1  0.0159 moles / L
3
50 (mL) X 10 ( L)
Third, create an "ICE" table :.
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Calculating Ksp From Solubility

PbCl2 (s) → Pb2+(aq) 2Cl-(aq)

Initial Concentration
0.0159 moles/L 0 0
(I)

Complete dissolution
0 + 0.0159 M + 0.0318 M
(C)

Fourth, substitute these concentrations into the equilibrium

expression and solve for Ksp. :
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Calculating Solubility from Ksp

Ksp = [Pb2+ ][Cl- ]2 = [0.0159][0.0318]2 = 1.61 x 10-5

Calculating the Solubility of a salt from its Ksp :

Example :Estimate the molar solubility of Ag2CrO4 in pure water if the solubility product
constant for silver chromate is 1.1 x 10-12 ?

Solution : Ag2CrO4(s) --> 2 Ag+(aq) + CrO42-(aq)

Ksp = [Ag+]2[CrO42-]

Let "x" be the number of moles of silver chromate that dissolves in one liter of solution (its
molar solubility).
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Calculating Solubility from Ksp

Make an "ICE" chart :

2
Ag 2CrO4  2 Ag   CrO4
( I ) before dissolution x 0 0
(C ) after complete dissolution 0 2x x

Substitute into the Ksp expression and solve for x.

1.1 x 10-12 = [2x]2[x]
Molar solubility of Ag2CrO4 = x = 6.50 X10-5 M
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Effect of the Common Ion on Solubility

Effect of the common ion on solubility : The solubility of an ionic compound decreases in
the presence of a common ion. A common ion is any ion in the solution that is common to
the ionic compound being dissolved. For example, the chloride ion in a sodium
chloride solution is common to the chloride in silver chloride. The presence of a common
ion must be taken into account when determining the solubility of an ionic compound. To
do this, simply use the concentration of the common ion as the initial concentration.

VIDEO VIDEO VIDEO

My Channel My Channel My Channel
VIDEO VIDEO VIDEO
Common ion effect Common ion effect Common ion effect
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Effect of the Common Ion on Solubility

Example: Estimate the molar solubility of barium

sulfate in a 0.02 M sodium sulfate solution. The
solubility product constant for barium sulfate is
1.1 x 10-10 ?

Solution : BaSO4(s) --> Ba2+(aq) + SO42-(aq)

Ksp = [Ba2+][SO42-]

Let "x" represent the barium sulfate that dissolves in

the sodium sulfate solution expressed in moles per liter VIDEO VIDEO
Make an "ICE" chart.. You Tube My Channel
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Effect of the Common Ion on Solubility

BaSO4(s) Ba2+(aq) SO42-(aq)
Initial ( before dissolution ) 0.020 M (from
x 0
(I) Na2SO4)
Complete dissolution
0 x 0.02 M + x
(C)

Substitute into the equilibrium expression and solve for

x. We will make the assumption that since x is going to be
very small (the solubility is reduced in the presence of a
common ion), the term "0.020 + x" is the same as
"0.020." (You can leave x in the term and use the quadratic
equation but it will not improve the significance of your VIDEO
answer.) : You Tube
1.1 x 10-10 = [x][0.020 + x] = [x][0.020]
x = 5.5 x 10-9 M
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Effect Of Ionic Strength On Solubility

Salt effect (ionic strength): Having an

opposing effect on the Ksp value
compared to the common ion effect,
uncommon ions increase the Ksp value.
Uncommon ions are those that are
different from those involved in Ksp
equilibrium . The figures on your right
show the effect of KNO3 on the
solubility of BaSO4 . As you see K+
ions surround SO42- and NO3- ions
surround Ba2+ ions . Therefore , Ba2+
ions will have difficulty reacting with
SO42- to form the precipitate BaSO4 .
 Unit 12
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Effect of pH on Solubility

Effect of pH on Solubility : Many weakly soluble

ionic compounds have solubility which depend on the
pH of the solution e.g metal hydroxides and the salts
of weak acids .
1- Effect of pH on metal hydroxides :
Example : Zinc hydroxide Zn(OH)2 has Ksp= 4.5×10-17
In pure water calculate its malor solubility ?
Solution : Assume the molar solubility = x
VIDEO VIDEO
Zn(OH)2(s) Zn2+(aq) +2 OH-(aq) You Tube My Channel
I x 0 0
C 0 x 2x
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Effect of pH on Solubility

Ksp = 4.5×10-17 = x(2x)2.

x = (4.5×10-17 )/4]1/3 = 2.2×10-6 M.
the resulting pH is : [OH-] = 2x = 4.4×10-6 M therefore
pH = 14 - pOH
= 14 - (-log( 4.4×0-6))
= 8.64
Therefore the pH of a saturated solution of Zn(OH)2 equal to 8.64 .
If pH < 8.64 ( more acidic) then [OH-] decreases (reaction shifts right to try to produce
more OH-). Solubility increases.
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Effect of pH on Solubility

if pH > 8.64 (more basic) then [OH-] increases (reaction shifts left to try to use more
OH-). Solubility decreases.
Example : At what pH the Zn(OH)2 will start to precipitate ( pHS ) and at what pH
the precipitation is complete ( pHC ) from a solution containing 0.1 M Zn2+ ?
Solution : Zn2+ + 2OH- ↔ Zn(OH)2
(I) 0.1 ? 0
Ksp = [Zn2+ ][OH- ]2 = (0.1) (? )2
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Effect of pH on Solubility
 2 K sp 4.5 X 1017
(?)  [OH ] 
2
, [OH  ]   2.1X 108 M
(0.1) (0.1)
pOH S   log 2.1X 108  7.67 , pH S  14  7.67  6.33

Since the precipitation of Zn2+ or any other metal ion is not complete 100 % so let us
assume that the precipitation is complete when its concentration is reduced 10000 times that
means C is reduced to CX10-4 . This applies to all metal ion precipitation .Therefore will
repeat the same previous calculation but instead of 0.1 M we will use 0.1X10-4 :

4.5 X 10 17 6
[OH ]  4
 2 .1 X 10 M
0.1X 10
pOH C   log 2.1 X 10 6  5.67 , pH C  14  5.67  8.33
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Effect of pH on Solubility

The precipitation of Zn(OH)2 will start at pH = 6.33 and will be complete at pH = 8.33 .

Example :A solution containing 0.1 M Ca2+ and 0.02 M Mg2+ . Is it possible to separate
one of these ions by precipitating it as hydroxide while keeping the other in solution ?
Ksp [ Ca(OH)2 ] = 5.5X10-6 , Ksp [Mg(OH)2 ] = 5 X 10-12
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Effect of pH on Solubility

Solution : when you add OH- to the solution , the metal ion with the smallest Ksp will
precipitate first because it requires less amount of OH- compared with the one with
higher Ksp value . Therefore , Mg(OH)2 will precipitate first .
The pH at which the metal hydroxide precipitate is direct proportional to its Ksp
pH α KSP
Now we will calculate the pHS at which the precipitation of Mg(OH)2 is complete thus :
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Effect of pH on Solubility

Mg (OH ) 2  Mg 2   2 OH 
K sp  [ Mg 2  ][OH  ]2


K sp
[OH ] 
[ Mg 2  ]
5 X 10 12
[OH  ]  4
 1. 58 X 10 3
M
0.02 X 10
 pOH   log 1.58 X 10  3  2.8
 pH C 14  2.8  11.2
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Effect of pH on Solubility

Then we calculate the pHS at which the precipitation of Ca(OH)2 will start thus :
6
 5.5 X 10 3
[OH ]   7.4 X 10 M
0.1
3
 pOH   log 7.4 X 10  2.12
 pH S  14  2.12  11.88

So it is possible to keep the pH of the solution in the range 11.8 > pH > 11.2 to separate
Mg2+ by precipitating it as Mg(OH)2 while keeping Ca2+ in the solution . Note that the pH
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Effect of pH on Solubility

should not reach 11.8 otherwise the Ca(OH)2 will precipitate . On the other hand the pH
should exceed 11.2 in order for the precipitation of Mg(OH)2 to be complete . Note
also that if Ca(OH)2 starts to precipitate at pH ≤ 11.2 , then the two metal ions can not
be separated and both will precipitate at the same time .

1- Effect of pH on salts of weak acids : For the salt of weak acid ( e.g sulphides ,
carbonates , oxalates and phosphates ) the smaller the value of Ksp the lower the pH at
which the salt precipitates (pH α KSP ) exactly the same as metal hydroxides .
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Effect of pH on Solubility

That means the salt with smaller Ksp will

precipitate in more acidic medium where
as the one with larger Ksp will precipitate
in less acidic medium . Take for example
the precipitation of Ca2+ as CaCO3 . At
low pH , CO32- will be turned to HCO3-
or may be to H2CO3 ( see the diagram
below at pH ≤ 8 ) while at pH ≥ 13 all
the carbonic acid species are present as
CO32- .Therefore CaCO3 will precipitate
in basic medium and will dissolve in VIDEO VIDEO
acidic medium . You Tube My Channel
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Effect of pH on Solubility

VIDEO
My Channel
VIDEO
You Tube
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Effect of pH on Solubility

Example : Which one will precipitate in more acidic medium CaCO3 ( Ksp = 4.8X10-9
or MgCO3 ( Ksp = 1X10-5 ) ?
Solution : Of course , CaCO3 because it has the lowest Ksp
Example : You have a solution containing 0.1 M Ti+ and 0.05 M Cd2+ . Is it possible
to separate these two ions by precipitating one of them as sulphide ?
Ksp ( CdS ) = 2 X 10-28 , Ksp ( Ti2S ) = 2 X 10-22
Solution : When you add S2- to the solution , CdS will precipitate first because it has
smallest Ksp .

K sp  2 X 1028  [Cd 2 ][S 2 ]  (0.05 X 104 ) X [S 2 ]

[S 2 ]  4 X 1023 M
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Effect of pH on Solubility

This means that the precipitation of CdS will be complete when the concentration of [S2- ]
reaches 4X10-23 M . Now we calculate the [S2- ] at which Ti2S starts to precipitate :

K sp  2 X 10 22  [Ti  ]2 [ S 2 ]  ( 0.1) 2 X [ S 2 ]

[ S 2 ]  2 X 10 20 M
According to these results it is possible to precipitate CdS while keeping Ti+ in solution if
you control the concentration of S2- in solution to be in the range :
2 X 10-20 M > [S2-] < 4 X 10-23 M
[S2- ] should be more than 4x10-23 M to obtain complete precipitation of CdS but not to
reach to 2X10-20 M to avoid precipitation of Ti2S .It is possible to control [S2- ] through
controlling the pH ( see reference 1 ) .
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Effect of pH on Solubility

Note that the pH has no effect on the

solubility of the strong acids salts
e.g. Cl- , Br- , SO42- ..etc because the
concentration of these conjugated
bases is the same wither in acidic or
basic medium . However , metal
ions can be separated by these
anions according to their Ksp values
as the hydroxides or the salts of
weak acids .
VIDEO
http://www.youtube.com/watc You Tube
h?v=3KrPFz2Dzw8#t=1061
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Complex Ions and Solubility

Complex Ions and Solubility : Because we
can use complexation reactions to 'tie up' metal
ions in water, we can use these to increase the
solubility of metal ion salts. For example, silver
chloride is weakly soluble in water but quite
readily dissolves in concentrated ammonia. The
effect of complexing agent on the solubility
metal salts is governed by two factors the value
of Ksp of the salt and the value of Kf of the
complex between the metal ion and the VIDEO VIDEO
You Tube My Channel
comlexing agent .
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Complex Ions and Solubility

Let us take the effect of ammonia NH3 and cyanide CN- as complexing agents on
the precipitation of silver halides as an example .Practically NH3 dissolves only
AgCl which has relatively large Ksp value because the value of Kf for Ag(NH3 )2+
is small . Where as CN- dissolves all silver halides because the value of Kf for
Ag(CN)2- is large . However CN- can not dissolve silver sulphide because its Ksp
value is very small ( see the following figure ) .
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Complex Ions and Solubility

To summarize the larger the Ksp value of the salt and the value of Kf of the metal complex
the more the effect of the complexing agent on dissolving the salt and vice versa .
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General Rules For Solubility In Water

There are rules that determine whether a compound is soluble in water or not. They are
as follows:

1. All common salts of the Group 1 elements and the ammonium ion are soluble.

2. All common acetates and nitrates are soluble.

3. All binary compounds of Group 17 (except Fluorine) are soluble except with silver,
mercury and lead.

4. Sulfates are soluble except with calcium, strontium, barium, silver, mercury and lead.

5. Carbonates, Hydroxides, Oxides and Phosphates are insoluble except as in rule one.
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Summary

In this unit we investigated , the concept of solubility product constant , its

importance in analytical chemistry , how to calculate Ksp from solubility and
vice versa , how to predict the precipitation when two solutions are mixed
together and the factors affecting the solubility such as , temperature , common
ion ,ionic strength , pH and the complex formation . We have drawn the
attention to the separation of metal ions by stepwise precipitation as hydroxides
or acid salts . We have used graphics, pictures and videos to illustrate the
concepts and fundamentals of this unity .
Last update : 1/1/2016 SOLUBILITY PRODUCT CALCULATIONS
Tutorial

EXERCISE 1 : The Ksp for AgCl is 1.8X10-10. What is its molar solubility ?

Your answer :

Our answer
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Answer 1 :
Let x be the molar solubility, then
AgCl = Ag+ + Cl-
x x

Molar solubility of AgCl = x = (1.8x10-10)1/2 = 1.3 X 10-5 M

 SOLUBILITY PRODUCT CALCULATIONS
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Exercise 2 : The Ksp for Cr(OH)3 is 1.2X10-15. What is the molar solubility of
Cr(OH)3 in water?

Your answer :

Our answer
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Answer 2 :
Let x be the molar solubility of Cr(OH)3, then you have
Cr(OH)3 = Cr3+ + 3 OH-
x 3x
Thus,
x (3 x)3 = 1.2 X 10-15
Molar solubility = x = 8.2X10-5 M
 SOLUBILITY PRODUCT CALCULATIONS
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Exercise 3 : Very careful experiment indicates that the molar solubility of
Bi2S3 is 1.8X 10-15 M, what value of Ksp does this compound have?

Your answer :

Our answer
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Answer 3 : If the molar solubility of Bi2S3 is

1.8 X 10-15, then
Bi2S3 = 2 Bi(3+) + 3 S2-
3.6X10-15 5.4X10-15
Ksp = (3.6X10-15)2 (5.4X10-15)3
= 2.0 X1072
 SOLUBILITY PRODUCT CALCULATIONS
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Exercise 4 : Calculate the solubility of CaF2 ( mw = 78.1 ) in g/L (Ksp = 4.0 x 10-8) ?

Your answer :

Our answer
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Answer 4 :

The reasons why we do not involve [H2O] and solids in the equilibrium expression is
that its concentrations remains unchanged .

Solubility of CaF2 = [Ca2+ ] = x and [F- ] = 2x

Ksp = 4.0X10-8 = (x) (2x )2 , x = 2.2 X 10-3 moles / L
= 2.2X10-3 X 78.1 = 0.017 g CaF2 /L
 SOLUBILITY PRODUCT CALCULATIONS
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Exercise 5 : A solution is prepared by mixing equal volumes of 0.01M MgCl2, and 0.02M
Na2C2O4 at 18°C. Would MgC2O4 precipitate out? Ksp of MgC2O4 at 18°C = 8.57 x 10-5.

Your answer :

Our answer
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Answer 5 : When mixed, the total volume gets doubled and hence the effective
concentrations of the ions would be half of the initial concentration, i.e., in solution
[Mg2+] =(0.01/2)=0.005 mol/L
[C2O42-] = (0.02/2) = 0.01 mol/L
Q = 0.005 X 0.01 = 5X10-5 , Q < Ksp , so precipitation do not take place .
 SOLUBILITY PRODUCT CALCULATIONS
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Exercise 6 : What is the molar solubility of PbCl2 in 1.00 M HCl ? Ksp = [Pb2+][Cl-]2 = 1.7×10-5

Your answer :

Our answer
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Answer 6 : Let us assume the molar solubility equal to x :

PbCl2(s) ↔ Pb2+ (aq) + 2 Cl- (aq)
I x 0 1.00 M
C 0 x 1.00 + 2 x
Ksp = [Pb2+][Cl-]2 = 1.7×10-5.
x (1.00 + 2x)2 ≈ x ( 1.00 )2 = 1.7×10-5 , x = 1.7X10-5 M
In the absence of the common ion : 1.7X10-5. = (x)(2x)2 , x =
1.6X10-2
So The solubility is significantly reduced due to common ion effect.
 SOLUBILITY PRODUCT CALCULATIONS
Tutorial
Exercise 7 : Calculate the pHS at which Fe(OH)3 starts to precipitate and the pHC at which
the precipitation is complete from a solution of 0.1 M Fe3+ ? Ksp for Fe(OH)3 = 4X10-38 .

Your answer :

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 SOLUBILITY PRODUCT CALCULATIONS
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2
Answer 7 : K sp  [ Fe ][OH  ]3
K sp 4 X 10 38
[OH  ]  3  3  7.4 X 10 13
[ Fe 3 ] 0.1
14
1 X 10
 [H  ]  13
 0.0135 M  pH S  1.9
7.4 X 10
38
 4 X 10 11
[OH ]  3
4
 1.6 X 10
0.1 X 10
14
 1 X 10 4
 [H ]  11
 6.25 X 10  pH C  3.2
1.6 X 10
 SOLUBILITY PRODUCT CALCULATIONS
Tutorial
Exercise 8 : You have a solution containing 0.1 M Mn2+ and 0.2 M Fe3+ . Is it possible to
separate the two ions by precipitation of one of them as hydroxide while keeping the other in
solution ? Ksp Mn(OH)2 = 2X10-13 , Ksp Fe(OH)3 = 4X10-38

Your answer :

Our answer
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Last update : 1/1/2016 SOLUBILITY PRODUCT CALCULATIONS
Tutorial

Answer 8 : First we calculate the pHC at which the precipitation of Fe(OH)3 is complete :

4 X 1038
[OH  ]  3
4
 1.3 X 10 11
 [ H 
]  7.7 X 10 4
 pH C  3.1
0.2 X 10

Second we calculate the pHS at which the precipitation of Mn(OH)2 starts :

K sp  [ Mn 2  ][OH  ]2
K sp 2 X 1013
[OH  ]  2
  1.4 x10 6  [ H  ]  7.1 X 10 9  pH S  8.2
[ Mn ] 0.1
 SOLUBILITY PRODUCT CALCULATIONS
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The results of the above calculations indicate that it is possible to precipitate Fe(OH)3
while keeping Mn2+ in solution by controlling the pH to be in the range : 8.2 > pH > 3.1
‫‪Last update : 1/1/2014‬‬ ‫‪Page.No‬‬

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