NC STATE UNIVERSITY COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE & LIFE SCIENCES

Understanding
and Applying
Nutrition
Concepts
TO REDUCE
NUTRIENT EXCRETION
IN SWINE
Understanding and Applying Nutrition Concepts to Reduce Nutrient Excretion in Swine

2
 Understanding and Applying Nutrition Concepts to Reduce Nutrient Excretion in Swine

S wine production in the United States has

changed dramatically over the last 50 years.
Specifically, the industry has shifted toward a
percent of the nitrogen and 40 percent to 80
percent of the phosphorus consumed are excreted
into the environment. This illustrates the poten-
highly specialized systems approach, which has tial for using dietary strategies to reduce nutrient
resulted in the concentration of production in excretion. In addition, by minimizing the amount
certain areas of the country. The disposal of of nutrients, particularly protein, that enters the
animal waste becomes a challenge in the inten- large intestine without being digested, odor
sive production of swine because the amount and formation by microorganisms in the large intes-
nutrient composition of the manure may exceed tine can be reduced. Thus, in general, methods
the capacity of the land to accept it as a fertilizer. that reduce nutrient excretion often reduce odor
Therefore, alternative methods of animal manure emission.
disposal are needed urgently. This paper will discuss general strategies to
Growing-finishing pigs are responsible for reduce nutrient excretion and describe specific
the bulk of nutrient excretion in manure (Table methods to reduce nitrogen, phosphorus, and
1). On average, each finishing pig produces micro-mineral excretion. They include feed
approximately 1.2 gallons of manure (not includ- wastage, separate-sex and phase feeding, and
ing flush water or water wastage) every day. This formulating diets based on nutrient availability.
adds up to 21 pounds of nitrogen and approxi- They also include the use of phytase, low-phytate
mately 15 pounds of phosphorus per pig per year. corn, and low-protein diets.
To reduce the environmental impact of pig
production, methods may be focused on finding General nutritional strategies to reduce
different techniques and strategies for processing nutrient excretion
manure, reducing odor, or reducing the excretion
of nutrients in manure. Nutrient excretion is a Feed efficiency
result of the inefficiencies associated with diges- Improving feed efficiency is the most logical
tion and metabolism. Typically only 20 percent approach to reduce nutrient excretion. Improving
to 50 percent of the nitrogen and 20 percent to 60 feed efficiency by 0.1 points (i.e., lowering feed
percent of the phosphorus consumed are retained per gain from 3 to 2.9) will result in a 3.3 percent
in the body (Table 2); therefore, 50 percent to 80 reduction in nutrient excretion (assuming similar

Table 1. Amounts of nitrogen output for different classes of swine, calculated for a 100-sow equivalent (89
productive sows)1
Nitrogen Output
Per Pig Per Space N Output/N Intake
Class (g/d) (kg/year) % of Total (%)
Sows
Replacement Gilts 51 186 1.7 69
Weaned Sows 42 103 0.9 73
Gestation 40 954 8.7 77
Lactation 79 459 4.2 57
Piglets
Suckling (27 d) 1 54 0.5 14
Post-weaning (to 25 kg) 11 907 8.2 47
Growing-Finishing Pigs
25 to 105 kg 38 8,360 75.8 67
Total 11,023 100.0 65
1
Adapted from Dourmad et al. (1992).

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 Understanding and Applying Nutrition Concepts to Reduce Nutrient Excretion in Swine

Table 2. Digestion and retention of nitrogen, phosphorus, copper, and zinc by different classes of swine1
Mineral Nursery Finishing Gestating Lactating
Nitrogen
Digested, % 75 to 88 75 to 88 88 —
Retained, % 40 to 50 30 to 50 35 to 45 20 to 40
Phosphorus
Digested, % 20 to 70 20 to 50 30 to 45 10 to 35
Retained, % 20 to 60 20 to 45 20 to 45 20
Zinc
Digested, % 20 to 45 10 to 20 — —
Copper
Digested, % 18 to 25 10 to 20 — —
1
Adapted from Kornegay and Harper (1997).

growth and nutrient retention). Coffey (1996) efficiency of feed utilization. First, the type of
stated that feed efficiency for growing-finishing feeder can affect feed wastage. For example, Ian
pigs (from 50 pounds to 250 pounds) has im- Taylor and Stan Curtis at the University of
proved from 4 to less than 2.85 in top-producing Illinois studied 11 self-feeders for pigs that
herds over the past 20 years. This change can be weighed 50 to 125 pounds. They measured how
attributed largely to improvements in genetics much feed fell on and through the floor and
and increased knowledge of nutrition. The found that feed wastage ranged from 2.1 to 7.7
deposition of lean tissue is more efficient than fat percent. Researchers in several countries have
deposition. Therefore, selection for lean will estimated feed wastage and have quoted values
result in improved feed efficiency. Using the of 4 percent in the United States (with a range
numbers mentioned earlier, nutrient excretion from 2 to 12 percent), 6 percent in Great Britain
can be reduced by more than 35 percent due to (with a range of 1.5 to 20 percent), and 3 to 5
improving feed efficiency over time. This prob- percent in Denmark. Reducing feed wastage by 2
ably overestimates the impact that the improve- percent can save $0.84 per pig marketed (assum-
ment in feed efficiency had on nutrient excretion ing a feed efficiency of 3 and a feed cost of $0.07
because nutrient density of the diets also has per pound). In addition, a 2 percent reduction in
increased over time. Pelleting of feeds has the feed wastage can lower the nitrogen and phos-
potential to improve feed efficiency and reduce phorus in manure by approximately 3 percent
nutrient excretion. Wondra et al. (1995) reported (based on a nitrogen and phosphorus retention of
that pelleting decreased dry matter and nitrogen 35 percent). For proper feeder adjustment, the
excretion in the feces by 23 and 22 percent, rule of thumb is that about 50 percent of the
respectively. Considering that approximately 20 bottom of the trough needs to be covered with
percent to 25 percent of the nitrogen in waste is feed and the rest needs to be visible.
excreted in the feces (Figure 1), the overall
Matching nutrient requirements
reduction in nitrogen excretion using pelleted
diets is about 5 percent. Feed efficiency was Animals require fewer nutrients as they grow
improved by 6.6 percent in that study. Summariz- heavier due to changes in the maintenance
ing eight trials on pelleting diets for swine, requirement and the composition of growth (less
Hancock et al. (1996) concluded that pelleting lean and more fat). In addition, animals consume
improved average daily gain by 6 percent and more feed as they grow heavier; therefore, the
feed efficiency by 6 to 7 percent. nutrient composition of their diet can be de-
creased as they gain weight. For example, ac-
Feed wastage cording to the National Research Council (NRC,
Proper feeder management may be an easy way 1998), a 140-pound pig requires 19.7 grams of
to reduce feed wastage and therefore improve total lysine compared to a 220-pound pig, which

4
 Understanding and Applying Nutrition Concepts to Reduce Nutrient Excretion in Swine

requires 18.5 grams of lysine. Assuming a feed phase feeding were reported in an article in Pork
intake of 5.7 pounds per day and 6.8 pounds per 98 (Bell, 1998) as shown in Table 3. Costs used
day for the 140- and 220-pound pigs, respec- in this example were $2.24 per bushel for corn
tively, the lysine requirements would be 0.75 and $240 per ton for soybean meal (44 percent
percent for the 140-pound pig and 0.6 percent for crude protein). Savings were based on the as-
the 220-pound pig. Phase feeding matches sumption that pig performance would be equal
specific diets to the growth stage of the pig and for all phase feeding programs. Similarly, sepa-
reduces the time pigs are fed an over- or under- rate-sex feeding will match nutrient concentra-
supply of nutrients. Van der Peet-Schwering et tions to the requirement of the pig more closely
al. (1996) reported that multi-phase feeding and is expected to result in a reduction in nutrient
reduced urinary nitrogen excretion by 14.7 excretion and savings in diet costs.
percent and that ammonia emission was reduced
by 16.8 percent. Multi-phase feeding was Feed manufacturing
achieved by mixing a diet high in nitrogen with Knowledge of the content and availability of
one low in nitrogen in decreasing proportions on nutrients in feedstuffs and accuracy in feed
a weekly basis and was compared with a two- manufacturing would give producers a chance to
phase feeding system. Koch (1990) estimated decrease the excretion of excess nutrients (or,
based on theoretical calculations that nitrogen alternatively, avoid deficiencies). Spears (1996)
and phosphorus excretion could be reduced by 13 summarized analysis results from 26 sow feed
percent by going from one feed for the grower- samples and 17 finishing feed samples (Table 4).
finisher period to two feeds, whereas Lenis One sample was taken from each of 43 farms and
(1989) estimated a 6 percent reduction in nitro- analyzed by the North Carolina Feed Testing
gen excretion. Phase feeding will reduce the diet Laboratory. The results indicate that there is
cost-per-pig and is a cost-effective method of substantial variation in the mineral concentrations
reducing nitrogen excretion. The cost benefits of of different feeds. The levels of minerals exceeded

Table 3. Savings in feed costs with phase feeding1

Savings Over Increase in Savings
Number of Phases Diet Cost/Pig 2-Phase Program Per Additional Diet
2 $42.44 — —
3 $41.41 $1.14 $1.14
4 $41.01 $1.54 $0.40
5 $40.67 $1.88 $0.34
6 $40.43 $2.12 $0.24
9 $40.10 $2.45 $0.11
12 $39.90 $2.65 $0.06
1
From Bell (1998).

Table 4. Concentrations of selected minerals in sow and grower-finisher feeds1

Sow Diets Finisher Diets
Mineral Requirement Range Median 2
Requirement Range Median2
Calcium, % 0.75 0.62 - 2.01 1.21 0.50 0.57 - 1.38 0.96
Phosphorus, % 0.60 0.45 - 1.17 0.84 0.40 0.45 - 0.78 0.62
Copper, ppm 05 012 - 222 022 03 109 - 281 020
Zinc, ppm 50 079 - 497 167 50 103 - 205 149
1
Adapted from Spears (1996).
2
The median value indicates that 50 percent of the samples were below this value and 50 percent of the samples were above.

5
 Understanding and Applying Nutrition Concepts to Reduce Nutrient Excretion in Swine

the requirements suggested by the NRC. The These values take into account the losses from
difference is likely due, in part, to variation in endogenous secretions because the digestibility
requirement estimates among nutritionists, but is calculations are based on the amount of amino
also probably related to the lack of analyzed acids at the end of the ileum (small intestine)
nutrient profiles of the ingredients used to formu- compared to the intake of amino acids.
late the feed and to errors in mixing. Adding Therefore, selecting ingredients with a highly
excess nutrients to diets to account for variability digestible amino acid content will reduce the
in composition and accuracy in mixing can be fecal loss of nitrogen (Figure 1). The Federation
used to avoid nutrient deficiencies, but it also Europeenne des Fabricants d’Adjuvants pour la
will increase nutrient excretion and diet cost. Nutrition Animale (1992) estimated that nutrient
excretion in waste could be reduced by approxi-
Methods to reduce nitrogen excretion and mately 5 percent by selecting highly digestible
ingredients. However, cost effectiveness, ingredi-
ammonia emission ent storage capacity, and quality control become
As stated previously, pigs retain a relatively low issues in adapting this method.
percentage of the nitrogen they consume. Losses Figure 2. Metabolism crates are used to study nutrient
associated with nitrogen metabolism can be seen digestion, metabolism, and excretion.
in Figure 1 and can be studied in detail using
metabolism crates (Figure 2). Most of the nitro-
gen entering the pig’s body is in the form of
protein and amino acids. Digestion of protein to
amino acids is initiated in the stomach by the
combined action of hydrochloric acid and pepsin
and is completed in the small intestine by pro-
teases such as trypsin and chymotrypsin. These
enzymes are proteins themselves and will con-
tribute to the fecal excretion of nitrogen. In
addition, other secretions from the intestine and
sloughed-off cells are part of the nitrogen excre-
tion in the feces and together are referred to as Front and side view of a swine metabolism crate.
endogenous secretions. Part of the endogenous
The metabolism crates used at North Carolina State
secretions are reabsorbed, but approximately 25 University are designed to hold pigs weighing between
percent are passed into the large intestine 50 and 350 pounds. The sides of the crates can be adjusted
(Souffrant et al., 1993). Feeding tables typically to make sure the pig cannot turn around. This is necessary
list the amino acid digestibility values for ingre- to ensure that feces and urine are deposited in one area,
dients as apparent ileal digestible values. facilitating complete collection.

Figure 1. Nitrogen flow in swine

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 Understanding and Applying Nutrition Concepts to Reduce Nutrient Excretion in Swine

Low-protein diets
Following digestion of proteins, amino acids are
absorbed and used for muscle protein synthesis
and other physiological functions. The ideal
protein concept, introduced by the Agricultural
Research Council (ARC, 1981), proposes that
ideal protein consists of amino acids in exactly
the right proportions for maintenance and lean
tissue growth. According to this concept, each
amino acid is equally limiting and, per definition,
excretion of nitrogen is minimized. Require-
ments of all essential amino acids are expressed
as a percentage of lysine (the first amino acid
that would limit pig growth in practical swine
diets). From a practical standpoint, the ideal
Inside view of a metabolism crate with feeder in front. protein concept allows for a quick calculation of
The pig stands on a slotted floor that has been coated with amino acid requirements as long as the lysine
plastic. Underneath the floor is a screen that will collect all requirement of the pig is defined. However, the
the fecal material voided by the pig. Under the screen is a exact ideal protein may be variable, depending
stainless steel tray that drains into the center and collects on the physiological state of the animal. This
all the urine produced during the day.
may explain the different ideal protein or amino
Knowing the amount and the nutrient composition of the
acid patterns that have been proposed. Baker
feed given each day, we can calculate total nutrient intake.
We also can measure the amount of feces and urine (1996) calculated ideal amino acid patterns for
produced per day and determine the chemical composition pigs in different weight categories (Table 5).
of each. From these data, we can calculate the digestibility Others (Fuller et al. 1989) studied optimum
of the feed and the efficiency with which it is metabolized. amino acid patterns for maintenance and growth.
Then we can estimate the total nutrient excretion in feces Because the maintenance component increases
and urine and study several nutritional strategies aimed at
relative to protein deposition, the combined ideal
minimizing this excretion.
pattern of amino acids will change with increas-
ing body weight. Similarly, the amino acid
requirements for swine as calculated in the new
NRC publication (1998) are based on different
patterns for maintenance and growth.
Table 5. Ileal true digestible amino acid patterns for pigs in three different weight classes 1
Ideal Pattern, % of Lysine
Amino Acid 10 to 45 lbs 45 to 110 lbs 110 to 240 lbs
Lysine 100 100 100
Threonine 65 67 70
Tryptophan 17 18 19
Methionine + Cystine 60 62 65
Isoleucine 60 60 60
Valine 68 68 68
Leucine 100 100 100
Phenylalanine + Tyrosine 95 95 95
Arginine 42 36 30
Histidine 32 32 32
Adapted from Baker (1996).
1

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 Understanding and Applying Nutrition Concepts to Reduce Nutrient Excretion in Swine

Chung and Baker (1991) used this concept to Figure 3. Cost or value of reducing crude protein (CP)
the extreme and fed 20-pound pigs either a corn- in a corn-soybean meal diet*
soybean meal-whey diet or a purified diet con- 7 138
taining corn starch, lactose, and sucrose as the 136
6
134
carbohydrate sources and individual amino acids 5 132

Added Lysine
at the ideal ratios as the only nitrogen source. 4 130

Cost
The results demonstrated that equal performance 128
3 126
could be obtained with the low-nitrogen, purified
2 124
diets (1.1 pounds per day on average for the 14- 122
day feeding period). However, nitrogen excretion 1 120
was substantially different. Pigs fed the corn- 0 118

soybean meal-whey diet excreted 44 percent of 16 15.5 15 14.5 14 13.5 13

nitrogen in feces and urine, compared to 32 CP%
percent for pigs fed the purified diet. Therefore, Added Lysine, lb/ton Cost, $/ton
by applying the ideal protein concept, nitrogen * Relevant ingredient prices used were as follows: corn, $90/ton;
excretion could be reduced by up to 30 percent. dehulled soybean meal, $180/ton; Lysine-HCl, $2,400/ton; DL-
Methionine, $2,700/ton, Threonine, $2.63/lb; and Tryptophan, $15.80/lb.
However, under practical conditions, least-cost
formulation of diets would allow only for a small Nitrogen content of swine feeds can be
reduction in the protein content of the diet. The reduced cost effectively by formulating diets
cost associated with reducing the crude protein based on amino acids, rather than protein. Based
content of a corn-soybean meal diet is shown in on the prices used in this example, the nitrogen
Figure 3. These calculations were made using a content of the diet can be reduced by 0.16 per-
16 percent crude protein diet without added cent (1 percent crude protein) without increasing
synthetic amino acids (containing 0.82 percent diet cost. Kerr (1995) concluded from a summary
total lysine), and minimum amino acid levels of 28 experiments that for each 1 percent reduc-
were set using the ratios presented in Table 5. tion in crude protein, nitrogen excretion was
Although only added lysine per ton of feed is reduced by 8.4 percent. In addition to a reduction
shown in this graph, other amino acids (threo- in nitrogen excretion, the feeding of low-protein
nine, methionine, and tryptophan) needed to be diets also can affect ammonia levels in the air
included to maintain the proper amino acid and odor. Latimier (1993) reported a reduction of
pattern. This occurred with the 14.5 percent nitrogen in the air of approximately 15 percent
crude protein diet, which resulted in an increase by feeding low-protein diets (Table 6). Note that
of $0.70 feed cost per ton compared to the 16 nitrogen excretion was reduced by 16 percent by
percent crude protein diet. The reduction in lowering the protein content of grower diets and
nitrogen excretion was not given a value in this finisher diets by 1.6 percent (from 17.8 percent to
example, but will become a factor of increasing 16.2 percent) and 1.9 percent (from 15.4 percent
importance in the future. to 13.5 percent), respectively.
Table 6. Effect of low-protein diets on nitrogen excretion and ammonia emission1
Grower and Finisher Protein Level, %2
Item 17.8% and 15.4%, resp. 16.2% and 13.5%, resp.
N Intake, lbs 2.43 2.17
N Retention, lbs 0.79 0.79
N excretion
Total excretion, lbs 1.64 1.38
N in manure, lbs 1.20 1.00
N in air, lbs 0.44 0.38
1
Adapted from Latimier, 1993.
2
The grower and finisher periods covered the weight ranges of 68 to 139 lbs. and 139 to 223 lbs., respectively.

8
 Understanding and Applying Nutrition Concepts to Reduce Nutrient Excretion in Swine

Figure 4. The Swine Malodor Emission Laboratory at North Carolina State University

Odor chamber Chamber, inside FTIR equipment

Dr. Theo van Kempen has initiated a research program on odor control in swine through nutritional means at North
Carolina State University. He has developed the Swine Malodor Emission Laboratory (SMEL), which contains two chambers
for housing pigs. In each of these chambers, the amount and composition of the air going into and coming out of the
chamber is measured. Thus, odor compounds can be identified and quantified through a technique called Fourier Transform
Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR), which measures these compounds based on their light-absorption characteristics. Studies are
currently in progress to investigate nutritional effects on odor emission.

On average from this study, nitrogen excre- Methods to reduce phosphorus excretion
tion was reduced by 9 percent and ammonia
emission by 8.6 percent per 1 percent reduction Most of the phosphorus in an animal is found in
in crude protein. Hobbs et al. (1996) observed a its bone. However, phosphorus also plays an
reduction in odor compounds when pigs were fed important role in a number of metabolic func-
diets low in protein. A comparison between diets tions. Feedstuffs derived from grains and plant
high in protein (20.8 percent crude protein for the protein contain significant amounts of phospho-
grower and 18.9 percent crude protein for the rus. However, the phosphorus in plants is largely
finisher; note that these levels of crude protein bound as phytate, which is unavailable to the pig.
are relatively high compared to practical swine The bioavailability of phosphorus in feedstuffs of
diets in the United States) and diets low in vegetable origin ranges from 14 percent to 50
protein (16.1 percent crude protein for the grower percent (NRC, 1998). Because most of the
and 13.8 percent crude protein for the finisher) phosphorus in these feedstuffs will be excreted,
revealed that the concentration of 5 out of 10 formulation of diets based on the available
odor compounds measured were lower in the phosphorus content and selection of ingredients
low-crude protein diets during the grower period. with a high phosphorus availability can lead to a
During the finisher period, 9 out of 10 odorous reduction in phosphorus excretion. Cromwell
compounds were lower for the low-crude protein (1990) calculated total and available phosphorus
diets. Because of the importance of odor in the levels in diets formulated to contain 0.5 percent
perception of swine production by the public, total phosphorus using different ingredients
this area of research warrants further investiga- (Table 7). The corn-soybean meal diet contained
tion and is being studied at North Carolina State 0.23 percent available phosphorus, which was set
University (Figure 4). as the requirement (NRC, 1998).

9
 Understanding and Applying Nutrition Concepts to Reduce Nutrient Excretion in Swine

When wheat was used as the grain source, excretion in the feces could be reduced by 25 to
available phosphorus was greater than the re- 50 percent with the use of 200 to 1,000 units of
quirement. In that case, phosphorus excretion phytase. In a summary of the available literature
would have been increased because available on phytase supplementation (Hoppe and
phosphorus exceeded what was needed. From Schwartz, 1993, as cited by Kornegay, 1996), it
extrapolations from the research of O’Quinn et was suggested that 432 units of phytase per
al. (1997), it was calculated that for each 0.05 kilogram were equivalent to 0.1 percent of
percent absolute reduction in available phospho- phosphorus. The economic value of using
rus in the diet, excretion of phosphorus was phytase when following the common recommen-
reduced by approximately 8 percent. For both a dation that 500 units per kilogram of phytase is
canola meal diet and a diet with wheat middlings, equal to 0.1 percent of phosphorus can be calcu-
the level of available phosphorus was calculated lated (Table 8). The cost of phytase was $1.36
to be below the requirement. This example per pound for a phytase premix containing 600
illustrates that excesses and deficiencies of units phytase per gram; the cost for dicalcium
phosphorus can be overcome by formulating phosphate (18.5 percent phosphorus) was $245
based on available phosphorus. However, an per ton, and the cost of other ingredients was the
accurate knowledge of the available phosphorus same as listed in Figure 3. The calculation is
requirement for all classes of pigs is needed. based purely on least-cost diet formulation and
Digestibility of phosphorus in feedstuffs of does not take into account the value of reduced
vegetable origin can be improved substantially phosphorus excretion due to improved phospho-
by the use of phytase. Phytase is an enzyme that rus digestibility with the addition of phytase. In
can break down the phytic acid molecule, releas- addition, any potential value of phytase on amino
ing phosphorus and making it available to the acid or energy digestibility was not taken into
pig. Kornegay (1996) estimated that phosphorus account.

Table 7. Available phosphorus levels in diets formulated to contain 0.5 percent total phosphorus1
Diet Added Dical. P, % Total P, % Available P, %
Corn-Soybean Meal 0.96 0.50 0.23
Wheat-Soybean Meal 0.57 0.50 0.28
Corn-Canola Meal 0.09 0.50 0.10
Corn-Soybean Meal-Wheat Midds 0.68 0.50 0.20
Growing Pig Requirement (NRC) 0.50 0.23
1
Adapted from Cromwell (1990).

Table 8. Estimated cost of phytase supplementation using least-cost diet formulation

Dicalcium phosphate Diet cost above a standard
Level of Phytase Added removed (lb/ton) corn-soybean meal diet
500 U per kg 10.9 $1.23
250 U per kg* 10.9 $0.14
*
The level of 250 U of phytase per kg is below the recommended inclusion level and may not liberate sufficient P to maintain pig performance.

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 Understanding and Applying Nutrition Concepts to Reduce Nutrient Excretion in Swine

Table 9. Bioavailability of regular and low-phytate corn in pigs

Start weight Length of Number of Criteria of Availability Availability Standard
of pigs trial pigs used measurement of P in corn of P in LPC1 used2 Reference
34 lb 40 days 35 Bone 22 77 MSP Cromwell
strength, Ash et al., 1998
20 lb 35 days 50 Bone 10 64 MSP Spencer
strength et al., 1998a
40 lb 34 days 40 Bone 22 79 MSP Pierce and
strength, Ash Cromwell,
1999a
LPC is low-phytate corn.
1

MSP is monosodium phosphate. The availability of P in MSP is set at 100%.

2

Table 10. Effects of regular and low-phytate corn on performance of growing pigs1
Regular Corn Low-Phytate Corn
Total P, % 0.59 0.50 0.42 0.33 0.59 0.50 0.42 0.33
Available P, % 0.35 0.26 0.18 0.09 0.45 0.37 0.28 0.20
Daily Gain, lb. 1.78 1.76 1.62 1.36 1.75 1.71 1.73 1.70
Feed/Gain 2.37 2.37 2.44 2.79 2.39 2.54 2.38 2.35
Bone Strength 90 86 66 41 87 89 85 64
Bone Ash, % 50.6 50.6 48.7 45.2 51.0 50.9 50.4 46.9
1
Each mean represents five pens of two pigs per pen. Initial and final pig weights were 50 and 112 lb., respectively, for the 37-day trial. Bone
strength and bone ash are average values for the metacarpals and metatarsals.

Grain companies are developing corn variet- corn was 18 percent available, whereas phospho-
ies that contain less phytate-bound phosphorus rus in low-phytate corn was 73 percent available.
and have identified the lpa1 gene, which causes a Pierce et al. (1998a) evaluated the effect of
large reduction in phytic acid production in corn replacing regular corn with low-phytate corn
seeds. Lines of hybrid corn containing this gene based on total phosphorus. The total phosphorus
(low-phytate corn) have been tested in swine levels in the final diets ranged from 0.33 percent
experiments to determine the availability of to 0.59 percent, and two of those levels were
phosphorus. In addition, the effects of low- below the total phosphorus requirement of 0.5
phytate corn on pig performance have been percent suggested by the NRC (1998). However,
evaluated. Low-phytate corn contains approxi- as mentioned before, the amount of phosphorus
mately the same level of total phosphorus as available to the pig is higher for low-phytate
regular corn (0.28 percent phosphorus in regular corn, and therefore, there was more available
corn, NRC, 1998). The pig can use the phosphorus in the low-phytate corn diets (Table
bioavailable portion, which is only 14 percent of 10). The NRC (1998) lists an available phospho-
the phosphorus in regular corn—86 percent is rus requirement for growing pigs of 0.23 percent,
excreted in the manure. The bioavailability of which means that the lowest phosphorus diet
low-phytate corn, on the other hand, is much using low-phytate corn was only marginally
higher as determined in recent experiments deficient in phosphorus (it contained 0.2 percent
(Table 9). On average, phosphorus in regular available phosphorus).

11
 Understanding and Applying Nutrition Concepts to Reduce Nutrient Excretion in Swine

In fact, the greater availability of phosphorus be reduced by 0.1 percent when low-phytate
in low-phytate corn resulted in an improvement corn is used and that phosphorus excretion can be
in daily gain of 25 percent compared to regular reduced by approximately 40 percent.
corn-fed pigs whose diets had the lowest level of An interesting question is what effect phytase
phosphorus. Other studies have reported im- would have in diets that contain low-phytate
proved performance ranging from 8 to 23 percent corn. There is still potential for phytase to im-
(Pierce et al., 1998b; Spencer et al., 1998b). The prove phosphorus digestibility because other
magnitude of performance improvement likely components of pig diets, such as soybean meal,
would depend on the design of the trial, particu- contain significant amounts of phytate-bound
larly the level of dietary phosphorus used and phosphorus. Cromwell (1999) reported that
how it compared to the pigs’ requirement. Be- phytase addition to diets with low-phytate corn
cause more phosphorus from the low-phytate decreased phosphorus excretion by 25 percent
corn is used by the pig, phosphorus excretion can (Table 11). Using phytase and low-phytate corn
be reduced by feeding low-phytate corn. Re- diets reduced phosphorus excretion by 51 percent
search has demonstrated that phosphorus excre- compared to control diets with regular corn and
tion can be reduced from 13 to 50 percent (Pierce without phytase.
et al., 1998a; Pierce and Cromwell, 1999b; Veum There is great potential for using low-phytate
et al., 1998). When diets were formulated based corn and phytase to reduce phosphorus excretion
on available phosphorus (rather than total phos- in swine. The feasibility of applying these tech-
phorus) using low-phytate corn, phosphorus nologies in practice depends on the cost of
excretion was reduced by 35 to 40 percent inclusion versus the economic benefits and the
(Pierce and Cromwell, 1999b). Collectively, ability to preserve the identity of different types
these data show that total dietary phosphorus can of corn.

Table 11. Effects of low-phytate corn and supplemental phytase on phosphorus excretion of pigs
Regular Corn Low-Phytate Corn
Control With Phytase Control With Phytase
Total P, % 0.55 0.45 0.45 0.35
Available P, % 0.29 0.19 0.29 0.19
Bone Strength, kg 272 267 282 283
P Excretion, g/day 6.80 5.24 4.43 3.34
Reduction in P Excretion, % — 23 35 51

Table 12. Excretion of zinc and copper by different classes of swine1

Zinc Copper
Phase Diet, ppm Excretion (grams/day) Diet, ppm Excretion (grams/day)
Nursery
Prestarter 2,000 0.65 240 0.084
Starter 125 0.08 240 0.186
Grower-Finisher 125 0.23 15 0.027
Sows
Gestation 125 0.20 15 0.024
Lactation 125 0.54 15 0.065
1
Calculated on a daily basis.

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 Understanding and Applying Nutrition Concepts to Reduce Nutrient Excretion in Swine

Table 13. Impact of nutritional strategies on nutrient excretion

Strategy Employed Reduction in Nutrient Excretion
Pelleting 5% for N and P
Reducing Feed Waste 1.5% for all nutrients for every 1% reduction
Matching Nutrient Requirements 6 to 15% for all nutrients
(Phase feeding or separate sex feeding)
Formulation on availability 10% for N and P
Low-protein diets 9% for N for every 1% reduction in dietary CP
Phytase 25 to 50% for P
Low-phytate corn 35 to 40% for P
Reducing micro-minerals Up to 50%

Methods to reduce the excretion respectively, in the nursery (note that zinc and
copper already were reduced from the growth-
of micro-minerals promoting level of 2,000 and 240 ppm, respec-
The excretion of the micro-minerals zinc and tively, in these diets) and 15, 100, 100, and 40
copper from each of the classes of swine is ppm, respectively, in the grower-finisher to 5, 25,
shown in Table 12. Zinc and copper retention 25, and 10 ppm, respectively, in the low-mineral
was assumed to be 20 percent (Table 2), except diet. No effects on growth performance were
when growth-promoting levels of zinc and observed during the nursery and grower-finisher
copper were fed, in which case retention was set periods. However, concentrations of zinc and
at 5 percent (NRC, 1998). The opportunity to copper in the feces were reduced by 50 percent.
reduce zinc and copper excretion by eliminating Effects of long-term feeding of reduced-mineral
high zinc and copper feeding in the nursery phase diets on reproductive performance of pigs are
is substantial. The practice of feeding approxi- being evaluated currently.
mately 20 times the zinc and copper requirement
to nursery pigs is common to increase the pigs’ Summary
growth performance. Therefore, lowering these
growth-promoting levels to reduce excretion may Several nutritional strategies are available to
reduce pig performance. A better understanding reduce nutrient excretion. A summary of the
is needed regarding the growth-promoting effects methods discussed in this paper and their impact
of these minerals and the economics of eliminat- on nutrient excretion is provided in Table 13.
ing high levels from nursery diets. The most cost-effective methods that appear
Even if growth-promoting levels of zinc and to be relatively easy to implement are reducing
copper are eliminated, a further reduction of feed wastage, separate-sex and phase feeding,
micro-minerals below levels that are commonly and formulating diets based on nutrient availabil-
fed in the industry can reduce mineral excretion ity. The use of phytase, low-phytate corn, and
significantly. Creech et al. (1998) reduced the low-protein diets could reduce nitrogen and
levels of copper, zinc, iron, and manganese from phosphorus excretion substantially, but are likely
25, 150, 180, and 60 parts per million (ppm), to add additional cost to the diet.

13
 Understanding and Applying Nutrition Concepts to Reduce Nutrient Excretion in Swine

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15
 Prepared by
Eric van Heugten and Theo van Kempen
Swine Nutrition Extension Specialists

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