MODULE2 -

Earth Materials and Processes, Earth and Life Science

LESSON 1- Rock-Forming Minerals

Objective
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to identify common rock-forming minerals using their physical and chemical
properties.

What are the different physical and chemical properties of minerals?

A mineral is a naturally occurring, inorganic, solid material that has a fixed structure and a definite chemical composition.

Identification of Minerals
There are several laboratory and field techniques used to distinguish minerals based on physical and chemical properties.
Some minerals can be identified with the use of high-powered instruments while some can be assessed through their physical
properties.

Physical Properties of Minerals

Physical properties are useful when working in the field, where there is usually no access to complex analytical techniques.
Although a particular mineral has different forms, the fundamental physical properties are still the same. Useful physical
properties to identify a mineral include color, streak, luster, specific gravity, hardness, cleavage, tenacity, and crystal habit.

 The color of a mineral depends on the elements which constitute the crystal lattice – the arrangement of atoms, or
groups of atoms, in a specific pattern and with high symmetry. The reflection of certain wavelengths of light by the
crystal lattice results in the color perceived by the observer.
 Streak is the color of the mineral in its powdered form.
 Luster is the relative differences in the opacity and transparency of a mineral as light is reflected on its surface. This
describes the 'sparkles' of the mineral surfaces.
 Specific gravity is the ratio of the weight of the mineral to the weight of the water with an equal volume.
 Hardness is the measure of the resistance of a surface to abrasions or scratches. It is generally measured
using Mohs Scale of Hardness.


Cleavage is the tendency of the mineral to be split or broken along flat surfaces.
 Fracture refers to the texture or shape of the mineral’s surface when the mineral breaks into forms other than flat
surfaces.
 Tenacity refers to the behavior of the mineral under deformation or stress such as cutting, crushing, bending, or
hitting.
 Crystal habit refers to the growth crystal pattern of a mineral as single or aggregated.

Chemical Properties of Minerals

All minerals have a certain arrangement of elements in their crystal structure. They can be represented by a chemical formula,
which presents the proportions of atoms that constitute them. For example, the mineral quartz has a chemical
formula \mathrm{SiO}_2SiO2. Its crystal structure is a continuous framework of silicon-oxygen tetrahedra.

The chemical properties of minerals depend on their chemical formula and crystal structure. Solubility and melting point are
chemical properties commonly used to describe a mineral.

 Solubility refers the ability of a substance to dissolve in a solvent at a specified temperature. For example, biotite, a
mineral commonly found in igneous rocks, is soluble in both acid and base solutions. The dissolution releases the
loosely-bound potassium ions in the mineral.
 Melting point refers to the temperature at which solid turns into liquid. Minerals composed of atoms that are tightly
bonded within the crystal structure have high melting points. For example, quartz melts above 1670°C.
In the laboratory, the composition and crystal structure of minerals can be analyzed through chemical and instrumental
analysis. Crystallographic techniques such as X-ray diffraction are performed to determine the crystal structure of the
mineral.

Common Rock-Forming Minerals

The most common rock-forming minerals are quartz, feldspar, mica, pyroxene, amphibole, and olivine. All of the following
silicate minerals, except for quartz, are mineral groups.

Quartz
Quartz has a chemical composition of \mathrm{SiO}_2SiO2. It is a glassy-looking hard substance with white streaks.
Despite its hardness, with a Mohs hardness of 7, it is quite brittle. Pure quartz is clear and transparent. Colored varieties of
quartz are due to elemental impurities built into its lattice. The grains of quartz, in general, are irregular in shape.

Feldspar
Feldspar has a chemical composition of XAl (1-2) Si (3-2) O8 where X is K,Ca, or Na. It is quite hard with a Mohs hardness of
6. It is a light-colored material, usually white, but they can have lighter shades of red or green. It has a glassy luster. In rocks,
feldspar forms rectangular crystals that break along flat faces.

Mica
Mica is any group of hydrous potassium aluminum silicate minerals. The most common examples are clear muscovite and
black biotite. Mica is soft, with Mohs hardness ranging from 2 to 2.5. It is easily identified by its perfect cleavage, reducing it
to thin smooth flakes. Its shine is responsible for the flashes of light in rocks such as granite and slate.
Pyroxene
Pyroxene minerals have a general composition of XY(Al,Si)2O6 where X is Ca or Mg and Y is either Mg,Fe,Al. Augite is
the most common of this group. It has a glassy luster with streaks of white, light green, or light brown. It is generally black in
color and has stubby prismatic crystals. Its key feature is its two cleavages at around 90°.

Amphibole
Amphibole has a dark color with a Mohs hardness ranging from 5 to 6. Hornblende is the most common amphibole. It has a
glassy luster and an opaque characteristic. Its crystals are very long and very thin.

Olivine
Olivine is a silicate mineral with a general chemical composition of (Mg,Fe)2 SiO4, but calcium, manganese, and nickel can
be substituted for magnesium and iron. It is known for its distinct olive-green color and commonly used in the gemstone
industry as peridot. It is a glassy looking and transparent substance that is almost as hard as quartz. Its crystals have a
granular shape.

Explore!
Silicates like quartz are among the Earth’s most important natural resources. There would be no computers, phones, glass, or
bricks. All of these rely on silicate minerals as raw materials. What other minerals are known to have important uses like
silicates?
Try it!
Research on the different kinds of minerals found in common products (e.g. lipstick, glass) that you use every day.

What do you think?

Is there a possibility for the physical characteristics of rock minerals to change over time? Explain your answer.

Key Points

 A mineral is a naturally occurring, inorganic, solid material that has a fixed structure and a definite chemical
composition.
 Minerals can be distinguished based on physical and chemical properties.
 Useful physical properties to identify a mineral include color, streak, luster, specific gravity, hardness, cleavage,
tenacity, and crystal habit.
 The chemical properties of minerals depend on their chemical formula and crystal structure. Solubility and melting
point are chemical properties commonly used to describe a mineral.
 The most common rock-forming minerals are quartz, feldspar, mica, pyroxene, amphibole, and olivine.

LESSON 2

Rocks: Its Three Main Categories and Mineral Composition

Objective
At the end of the lesson, you will be able to classify rocks into igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic.

How are rocks classified?

Rocks are classified according to how they are formed. From the diagram above, we can see that:

1. Igneous rocks are formed by the cooling or solidification of magma or lava.

2. Metamorphic rocks are formed by preexisting rocks that are exposed to extreme heat and pressure in the Earth’s
interior, a process called metamorphism.
3. Sedimentary rocks are formed by the compaction and cementation of sediments, a process called lithification.

Also, we can see that one type of rock can be transformed into another type depending on the process that it goes through.

Igneous Rocks
Igneous rocks are further classified as intrusive or extrusive igneous based on grain size.

 Intrusive rocks, or plutonic rocks, are igneous rocks formed underneath the earth. They are coarse-grained due to
the slow cooling of magma allowing crystal growth.
 Extrusive rocks, or volcanic rocks, are igneous rocks formed on the surface of the earth. They are cooled lava,
which are molten rocks ejected on the surface through volcanic eruptions. They are fine-grained due to abrupt
cooling on the surface.
Igneous rocks can also be classified based on grain size, general composition, and percentage mineral composition. The
diagram below shows the four general compositions of igneous rocks–light-colored or felsic, intermediate, dark-colored
mafic, and ultramafic.

Sedimentary Rocks
Sedimentary rocks are classified into clastic or non-clastic.

 Clastic sedimentary rocks are made up of sediments from preexisting rocks. When preexisting rocks are physically
weathered and eroded, they form sediments. When these sediments are transported, deposited, and lithified, they
form the clastic sedimentary rocks. These rocks can be identified based on their grain sizes that can range from
0.002 mm (e.g. clay size) to > 2 mm (coarse gravel).

Non-clastic sedimentary rocks can be biological, chemical, or a combination of both. Biological sedimentary rocks are
lithified accumulation of dead organisms. Examples include coal (formed from carbon-rich plants) and limestone (formed
from the remains of calcareous organisms). On the other hand, chemical sedimentary rocks are from chemical precipitation.
An example is rock salt formed when dissolved salts precipitate from a solution. Below is a table of chemical sedimentary
rocks based on composition and texture size.

Metamorphic Rocks
Metamorphic rocks can be classified as foliated or non-foliated based on texture.

 Foliated metamorphic rocks have layered or banded appearance produced by exposure to high temperatures and
pressures.
o Examples include slate, phyllite, schist, and gneiss.
 In contrast, non-foliated metamorphic rocks do not have layered appearance.
o Examples include marble, quartzite, and anthracite.

Foliated and non-foliated metamorphic rocks can be further classified based on their parent rocks. However, such
classification can be difficult because of the rock alteration during metamorphism. The table below shows the parent rocks of
different foliated and non-foliated rocks.
Try it!
Collect some rock samples from random places in your area and classify each rock whether it is igneous, sedimentary, or
metamorphic rock. Further classify them into the specific type of each classification of rock.

What do you think?

How do rocks undergo weathering?

Key Points

 Igneous rocks are formed by the cooling or solidification of magma or lava.

 Metamorphic rocks are formed by preexisting rocks that are exposed to extreme heat and pressure in the Earth’s
interior, a process called metamorphism.
 Sedimentary rocks are formed by the compaction and cementation of sediments, a process called lithification.

LESSON 3-
Geologic Processes on Earth’s Surface

Objectives
At the end of the class discussion, you will be able to describe how rocks undergo different processes of weathering and
explain how the products of weathering are carried away by erosion and deposition.

The Earth is constantly changing through the years. According to the Continental Drift Theory proposed by Alfred Wegener,
the Earth was once a giant landmass called Pangaea. This giant landmass was broken down into several continents because
of the movement beneath the Earth’s surface.

If continents came from a giant landmass, can you imagine how the mountains, volcanoes, and soil are formed?

Shaping the Earth’s surface involves a geological process called weathering. Weathering is the process of breaking down
rocks into smaller pieces called sediments.

Different Types of Weathering

All rocks undergo weathering, and it takes a long period. There are three different types of rock weathering: mechanical
weathering, chemical weathering, and biological weathering.

 Mechanical weathering is a process wherein rocks are broken down into smaller pieces without changing its
chemical composition due to different temperatures and water. Rocks in the highway develop cracks and small
fractures because of too much exposure to heat. This activity is an example of mechanical weathering.
 Chemical weathering is a process wherein rock materials are changed into other substances that have different
physical and chemical compositions. Some agents of chemical weathering include water, strong acids, and oxygen.
Water hydrates and breaks the minerals in the rocks through the process of hydrolysis. Oxygen combines with
metals to produce oxides while acids from vents and volcanoes increase the speed of weathering process. One
example of chemical weathering in rocks is when rainwater hydrolyzed the feldspar minerals to form clay minerals.
 Biological weathering is a process when living things, such as insects and roots of the trees, contribute to the
disintegration of rock materials. For example, mosses and fungi that grow on rocks produce weak acids that can
destroy or dissolve the rocks.
Erosion
Erosion is the transportation of weathered rocks. Agents like running water or rivers, wind, gravity, groundwater, wave
currents, and glaciers contribute to erosion.

Types of Erosion
 Water erosion is a type of erosion where the water carries the sediments to different parts of the bodies of water
such as rivers.
 Wind erosion happens when light materials, such as small rocks and pebbles, are carried by wind to different
places.
 Glacial erosion happens when the ice moves downhill and plucks out chunks of rocks and causes scraping between
the ice and the rock. Plucking and scraping can lead to the development of other landforms if, for example, the
glaciers hit a mountain and erode it.
 Soil erosion happens when the top soil is removed and leaves the soil infertile. This is caused by wind or flood in an
area.

Deposition
Deposition is the laying down of sediments to its depositional environment or final destination. The depositional
environment can be continental, coastal, or marine.

 Continental includes streams, swamps, caves, and deserts.

 Coastal includes lagoons, estuaries, and deltas.
 Marine includes slopes and bottom of the ocean or abyssal zone.

Explore!
Our country is a pathway of typhoons because of our location in the globe. The government always warns us, especially those
who reside near the slopes or low-lying areas, to evacuate immediately when this happens. Given the different types of
erosion you have learned, particularly soil erosion, what would you suggest that the government should do to minimize the
devastating effects of this erosion?

Try it!
Take a tour in a nearby river. Observe the different types of rocks that you will see and take note of their physical
characteristics. What can you say about those rocks?

What do you think?

Why do you think is it necessary for the rocks to undergo the process of weathering?

Key Points

 Weathering is the process of breaking down rocks into smaller pieces called sediments.
 Erosion is the removal of weathered rocks downslope from the original place of weathering.
 Deposition is the laying down of sediments to its depositional environment or final destination.

LESSON4-

Geologic Processes Inside the Earth

Objectives
At the end of the discussion, you will be able to:

 describe where the Earth’s internal heat comes from,

 describe how magma is formed (magmatism), and
 describe what happens after the magma is formed (plutonism and volcanism).
The layers of the Earth include the crust, the mantle, and the core. The core is the hottest layer of the Earth. The heat coming
from this layer is responsible for all geological activities happening on our planet. Volcanoes, mountains, and continents were
formed because of this internal heat.

Why is the core layer hot?

Internal Heat of the Earth

The Earth has three main layers: the crust or the outermost layer, the mantle or the middle layer, and the core or the innermost
layer.

 The crust is composed of solid rocks and minerals. It holds all known life forms on Earth.
 The mantle is made up of mostly solid rocks and minerals but have areas of semi-solid magma.
 The core is made up of dense metal, specifically, nickel and iron. It is also considered as the center and the hottest
part of the Earth.

Mantle convection is the movement of the mantle as heat is transferred from the core to the crust. The temperature of the
mantle varies depending whether it is near the crust or near the boundary of the core. The principal contributors to the heat of
the core come from the decay of radioactive elements and from the heat of the molten outer core which solidifies near the
inner core.

Earth’s heat budget drives most of the geological processes on Earth. This measures the flow of thermal energy coming
from the core, passing through the mantle, and up to the atmosphere, which is mainly due to the mantle convection. This,
however, is counteracted by the solar radiation.

Magmatism
Magmatism is the activity or the motion of the magma. Rocks that are subjected to high temperature and pressure melt and
become the magma. Magma is a semi-liquid molten rock mixture that can be found in the lower portion of the crust and the
upper part of the mantle. Depending on the temperature, pressure, and formations in the crust and the mantle, the magma can
be formed in different ways.

Plutonism
On 1788, James Hutton developed the idea about plutonism. He stated that the formation of intrusive igneous rocks or
plutonic rocks came from the solidification of magma beneath the Earth’s surface. These rocks will reach the Earth’s surface
through the process of uplifting - a force that pulls the crust apart and lets the rocks from the underground to be brought up.

When the hot molten magma does not solidify, it will be brought up to the Earth’s surface through uplifting. When the
magma reaches the surface, it becomes lava - streams of molten rocks that cool and solidify to form extrusive igneous rocks.

Volcanism
Magma is being brought up to the surface through a volcano. Volcano is any opening in the Earth’s crust that allows magma
and gases to be released in the upper crust. This process of bringing up the magma is called volcanism.

Explore!
Our country, the Philippines, has 37 volcanoes. Among 37 volcanoes, 18 of them are active and show activity in the past 100
years. Why do you think the Philippines has plenty of volcanoes?

Try it!

Get an ice cube and put it in a glass. Put a teaspoon of salt to the ice cube and leave for two hours. What do you notice? What
is the connection of this experiment with the contained heat from the mantle and the core?

What do you think?

If the mantle and the core are extremely hot, why is the heat coming from these layers not felt on the Earth's surface?

Key Points

 The three layers of the Earth are the crust, the mantle, and the core.
 The principal contributors to the heat of the Earth's core are the decay of radioactive elements and the heat of the
molten outer core near the inner core.
 Mantle convection is the movement of the mantle as heat is transferred from the core to the crust.
 Earth’s heat budget drives most of the geologic processes on Earth.
 Magma are rocks that melted when subjected to high temperature and pressure.
 Magmatism is the activity or the motion of magma.
 Plutonism is the formation of intrusive igneous rocks through the solidification of magma beneath the Earth’s
surface.
  Volcanism is the phenomenon of an eruption of magma onto the surface of the Earth.
 Volcano is the opening on the Earth’s crust where magma, gases, and hot vapor are being ejected or released.
 Lava is the cooled and solidified magma upon reaching the Earth’s surface.

LESSON 5-

Metamorphism and Its Effects in Rock Formation

Objectives

At the end of the discussion, you will be able to:

 compare and contrast the formation of the different types of igneous rocks,
 describe the changes in mineral components and texture of rocks due to changes in pressure and temperature, and
 describe how rocks behave under different types of stress such as compression, pulling apart, and shearing.

Igneous come from the Latin word ignis which means heat or fire. Igneous rocks are formed when the magma or lava cools
and solidifies. It may happen below (plutonic) or above (volcanic) the Earth’s surface.

The types of igneous rocks depend on where they solidified and hardened. Some igneous rocks solidified before they were
ejected and some igneous rocks are formed after they reach the ground.

Two Types of Igneous Rocks

 Intrusive igneous rocks are formed when the magma hardens before an eruption occurs. Different rock materials
allow the formation of intrusive igneous rocks. The most common example is granite. Granite is used in floor tiles
and monuments.
 Extrusive igneous rocks are formed when the lava cools and solidifies on the Earth’s surface. The texture of these
rocks is finer as compared to the intrusive igneous rocks. Due to slow cooling of the lava, large crystals are formed
on the rocks. The most common example is basalt. Basalt is used for construction purposes such as pavements,
railroads, and road base.

Metamorphism of Rocks
When you expose igneous rocks to intense heat and pressure, they could undergo metamorphism. Metamorphism is the
process of change in the form and structure of rocks due to intense heat and pressure. It comes from the Greek
word metamorphoun meaning transform or change shape. The rocks that undergo metamorphism are converted
to metamorphic rocks.

Types of Metamorphism
 Contact metamorphism is the process where the country rock adjacent to the igneous intrusions is altered by the
high heat coming from the intrusions. Country rocks are rocks surrounding the igneous intrusions. Igneous
intrusions form when molten magma moves and seeps through fractures and in between crystals of rocks. The zone
of metamorphosis that surrounds the intrusions is called halo or aureole. Some examples of rocks that undergo
contact metamorphism include marble and emery rock.
 Dynamic metamorphism is the process where rocks along the fault zones are altered due to high pressure. The
rocks that are formed with this type of metamorphism are called mylonites. Mylonites are compact, fine-grained
rocks with thin laminations or layers.
 Regional metamorphism is the most common form of metamorphism that occurs in broad areas. It is caused by
high temperature and pressure that resulted from the thickening of the crust and plate tectonics.

Types of Stresses in the Earth’s Crust

 Compression causes the rocks to push or to collide with each other. This can make the rocks come together or make
the plates rise. Mountains and hills could be formed when two plates collide.
Tension is the opposite of compression. The tension force pulls the rocks away from each other. This force created
continental drifts and mid-ocean ridges. It moved the oceanic crust away from each other that resulted in the rising
of less dense rocks

coming from the mantle.

Shear force pushes the crust in different directions. Shearing results in the breaking of the large parts of the crust into smaller
sizes. This force always happens along the plate boundaries. Plate boundaries are the location where the two plates
meet. When the two plates rub each other and move in opposite directions, it creates friction. This friction leads to
the shaking of the Earth’s ground or earthquake.

What Explore!
Observe what happens when you ride an airplane. As it takes off and gradually lifts off, you suddenly feel air-like bubbles are
filling your ears. How would you connect this situation with the different types of stress that the Earth’s crust encounters?

Try it!

Get a polymer modeling clay. Mold the clay into any shape that you want. Put the clay in a regular oven and bake it for 15
minutes at 275 °F (135 °C). Take it out of the oven and let it cool for at least an hour. What happened to the clay? Can you
mold it again into other shapes without breaking it?

What do you think?

Can igneous rocks form sedimentary rocks underneath the Earth’s surface?

Key Points

 Intrusive igneous rocks are formed when the magma hardens before an eruption occurs.
 Extrusive igneous rocks are formed when lava cools and solidifies on the Earth’s surface.
 Metamorphism is the process of change in the form and structure of rocks due to intense heat and pressure.
 Contact metamorphism is the process where the country rock adjacent to the igneous intrusions is altered by the
high heat coming from the intrusions.
 Dynamic metamorphism is the process where rocks along the fault zones are altered due to high pressure.
 Regional metamorphism is the most common form of metamorphism that occurs in broad areas.
 Compression is a type of stress that causes the rocks to push or to collide towards each other.
 Tension is a type of stress that pulls the rocks away from each other.
 Shear force is a type of stress that pushes the crust in different directions.

LESSON 6-

Plate Tectonics: Continental Drift Theory and Its Evidence

Objectives
At the end of this lesson, you will be able to cite evidence that support continent drift and explain how the continents drift.

The seven major world continents are North America, South America, Europe, Africa, Asia, Australia, and Antarctica..
In 1912 German meteorologist Alfred Wegener proposed that in the beginning, the Earth has only one giant landmass
called Pangaea, which means "all land." He hypothesized that this giant landmass slowly broke into smaller land pieces that
eventually drifted away from each other which made the seven continents that we now know. This is known as
the Continental drift theory.

Alfred Wegener presented the following pieces of evidence to support his theory:

 The continents fit together like a jigsaw puzzle. This is most evident in the matching coastlines of South America
and Africa.
 Similar animal and plant fossils were found in different continents. The fossils of the reptile mesosaurus were found
along the coastlines of South America and Africa which are separated by the Atlantic Ocean. Moreover, the fossil of
a fernlike plant glossopteris was found distributed in all the continents.

In the matching coastlines of northwestern Africa and eastern Brazil, South America, the rocks are of the same type
and age.
  Geologic features such as mountain ranges are found along matching coastlines like that of the Appalachian
Mountains and Scandinavia.

 Coal seams are found in Antarctica. Coal is produced from organic matter like dead plants and animals. In a very
cold place like Antarctica, it would be impossible for most organisms to survive. The presence of coal indicates that
the continent was once inhabited by many organisms. It also gives a clue that Antarctica was once located near the
equator where abundant animal and plant organisms could be found.
 Tillites, which are deposits of rock debris left by glaciers, were found in Africa, South America, India, and
Australia. They were of the same age and type. The presence of tillites indicates that those places had glaciers in the
past, were once located near the South Pole, and had drifted away from each other.
 The pieces of evidence supported the continental drift theory; however, the theory was rejected due to lack of
explanation for the force responsible in the continent's movement.
 In 1919, Sir Arthur Holmes, an English geologist, proposed the presence of convection cells in the Earth’s mantle.
When the rocks in the Earth’s interior are heated by radioactivity, they become less dense, and they rise toward the
surface of the Earth. When they cool down, they become denser and sink. The continuous process of rising and
sinking of rocks produces convection cells or convection currents. These currents cause the tectonic plates, which
include the crust, to move and drift.

Try it!
Observe how convection current is produced by heating five to ten pieces of monggo beans in a beaker. How do the beans
move?

What do you think?

What do you think happens when plates, which are parts that form the crust, collide, spread, and slide past each other?
Key Points

 Alfred Wegener’s Continental Drift Theory is supported by the following pieces of evidence: jigsaw puzzle
fitting of the continents, similar fossils and geologic features in different continents, coal seams in Antarctica, and
tillites in the equator.
 According to Sir Arthur Holmes, convection cells in the mantle drive the tectonic plates to move and the continents
to drift away from each other.

LESSON 7-

The Formation of Faults and Folds

OBJECTIVE

At the end of the lesson, you should be able to explain how the movement of plates leads to the formation of folds and faults.

The Earth’s crust is divided into plates, known as tectonic plates, and these plates move due to the convection currents in the
Earth’s interior.

Below is an illustration that depicts the locations and the movements of the plates. The arrows indicate the direction of their
movements.

Plate Movements
The movement of the plates depends on the boundaries between them. These boundaries can be convergent, divergent, or
transform.

In a convergent boundary, the plates move or collide to each other. When the plates move away from each other, they are in
a divergent boundary. Finally, when plates slide past each other, they are in a transform boundary.

Plate movements cause rocks to be deformed due to compressional stress at convergent boundaries, tensional stress at
divergent boundaries, or shear stress at transform boundaries. Due to these stresses, rocks experience changes in volume and
shape.

Rock Deformation
Compressional stress causes rocks to be squeezed to each other. Tensional stress pulls rocks apart and shear stress causes
rocks to slide opposite each other.
When subjected to stress, rocks can deform by either breaking (fracture) or bending (fold).

Fracture
Since the pressure and temperature are low at the Earth’s surface, rocks tend to break or fracture when subjected to
compressional and tensional stresses. This means that the pressure exerted in the blocks of rocks exceeds the rock's internal
strength.

Fractures can either be a fault or a joint. A fault is a break in the rock where there is considerable movement on the fracture
surface while a joint is a break where there is no considerable movement.

Types of Fault
There are two types of faults. They can either be dip-slip or strike-slip faults.

Dip-slip Faults
Dip-slip faults involve the vertical movement of the blocks of rock. These movements are described based on the direction
of the motion of the hanging wall with respect to the footwall. A hanging wall is the block of rock that rests on the fault
plane while a footwall is the one below the fault plane.

Dip-slip faults can either be a normal or a reverse fault. A normal fault is caused by tensional stress it is characterized by the
hanging wall moving downward with respect to the footwall. A reverse fault, wherein the hanging wall moves upward, is
formed by compressional stress.

Strike-slip Fault
Strike-slip fault involves a horizontal movement of blocks of rock and is caused by shear stress.

Fold
Deep within the crust, where pressure and temperature are high, rocks are plastic-like; thus, they do not break but they tend to
bend or fold. When rocks in this area are compressed, they become thicker. When rocks become thinner, they are pulled
apart.

Types of Fold
When blocks of rock are bent upwards, they form anticline structures. Synclines are formed when blocks of rock bend
downwards. A slightly bent rock from the parallel undeformed layers forms monoclines.

Explore

Using the resources from the Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology, find out if you live in an area where there
is a fault.

Try it!

Make slabs out of clay – preferably use different colors to make layers. Apply compressional, tensional, and shear stress on
the slabs of clay. How do the layers move or look like after applying each type of stress?

Key Points
  Compressional stress is associated with the convergent plate boundary that causes rocks to be squeezed to each
other.
 Tensional stress is associated with the divergent plate boundary that causes rocks to be pulled apart.
 Shear stress is associated with the transform plate boundary that causes rocks to slide opposite each other.
 Movement of plates leads to rock deformation such as fracture and fold due to stress.
 A fracture is a break in the rocks and can be classified as a fault or a joint depending on the amount of movement.
A fault can either be a dip-slip or a strike-slip fault.
 A fold is a bend in the rocks and can be classified as anticline, syncline, or monocline.

LESSON 8-The Seafloor Spreading

Objective
At the end of the lesson, you will be able to explain how the structure of the ocean basins evolves as the seafloor spreads.

Due to convection currents in the Earth’s interior, tectonic plates are in constant motion. In the previous lesson, you have
learned how plate movements form faults and folds in the rocks.

How do convection currents in the Earth’s interior make the seafloor spread?

Seafloor Spreading
In 1960, the American geophysicist, Harry Hess, explained how the convection currents in the Earth’s interior make the
seafloor spread. Convection currents carry heat from the molten materials in the mantle and core towards the lithosphere.
These currents ensure that the materials formed in the lithosphere are “recycled” back into the mantle. In this “recycling”
process, which was later named as seafloor spreading, the molten materials flow out to form mid-oceanic ridges, spread
sideways to form seafloor, and disappear into the ocean trenches.

When the molten materials rise, they slowly spread sideways. This motion makes the seafloor above it to be pulled apart,
creating a break or an opening called mid-oceanic ridge, where the molten materials go out. New oceanic crust is formed
from the outpouring of the molten materials, and as the process continues, oceanic ridges or underwater mountain ranges are
built. Oceanic ridges are composed of volcanic rocks.

As the molten materials continuously flow out from the ridges, the seafloor also keeps on spreading forming a central valley,
or a rift valley, at the summit of the oceanic ridges. The molten materials push the seafloor away from the ridges and towards
the trenches. Trenches are depressions on the ocean floor. When the molten materials are brought near the trenches, they
start to cool, become denser and sink back down into the Earth where it is heated and melted again. The spreading of the
seafloor continues as a “recycling” process. As new seafloor is created, it continues the process until it disappears back into
the deep ocean trenches. Records show that the oldest seafloor is relatively younger (about 170 million years old) than the
oldest rocks (about 3 billion years old) found on land. This shows that the seafloor is constantly recycled.

As new oceanic crust is formed at the oceanic ridge, it pushes away the older materials. This means that the nearer the ocean
floor to the oceanic ridge, the younger it is compared to the ones farther from the ridge.

World Oceanic Ridges

Oceanic ridges are formed at divergent boundaries, where plates move away from each other; while trenches are formed at
subduction zones where plates collide with each other or at convergent boundaries.

The diagram below shows the location of oceanic ridges in the world. The marked areas depict where new oceanic crusts are
formed which would also show where the ocean floors spread, just like the Atlantic Ocean basin. These areas are located at
divergent boundaries. On the other hand, the areas farther from the marks, located at convergent boundaries, are subduction
zones, like the Pacific Ocean basin, where the trenches are formed.
Try it!
Using the resources from the Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology (PHIVOLCS), find out on which type of
plate boundary the Philippines lie. Are there trenches or mid-oceanic ridges present in the Philippine Area of Responsibility?

What do you think?

How will you compare the ocean floor of the Philippines located in the western side of the Pacific Ocean to the ocean floor of
the United States of America located in the eastern side of the Pacific Ocean?

Key Points

 Mid-oceanic ridges are openings in the seafloor where molten materials from the Earth’s interior come from.
 New oceanic crust is formed at mid-oceanic ridges.
 Oceanic ridges are underwater mountain ranges that form through the accumulation of molten materials that go out
of mid-oceanic ridges.
 Seafloor spreads as new molten materials come out from the Earth’s interior pushing the ocean floor as they flow
out.
 As the seafloor spreads, structure of the ocean basins evolves depending on the plate boundary that they lie on.

LESSON 9-
Stratification of Rocks and How It Is Used to Determine the Age of the Earth How Layers of Rocks Are Formed
Objectives
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:

 describe how layers of rocks (stratified rocks) are formed,

 describe the different methods (relative and absolute dating) to determine the age of stratified rocks, and
 explain how relative and absolute dating were used to determine the subdivisions of geologic time.

How Layers of Rocks Are Formed

Most rocks are sedimentary rocks. They are formed from older rocks that have been broken down by water or wind. The
older rocks become sedimentary particles such as gravel, sand, and mud. These particles can also bury dead plants and
animals. As time goes by, the particles accumulate, and those that are at the bottom of the pile become rocks. Gravel
becomes conglomerate; sand becomes sandstone; and mud becomes shale or mudstone. The animals or plants buried with
them become fossils. These series of events form the different layers of rocks.

Methods to Determine the Age of Stratified Rocks

There are two methods of determining the ages of rocks: relative dating and absolute dating.

 Relative dating is a method of arranging geological events based on the rock sequence.
 Absolute dating is a method that gives an actual date of the rock or period of an event.

Relative Dating
Relative dating cannot provide actual numerical dates of rocks. It only tells that one rock is older than the other but does not
tell how old each of the rock is.
In the early mid-1600’s, a Danish scientist, Nicholas Steno, studied the relative positions of sedimentary rocks. He
discovered that they settle based on their relative weight or size in a fluid. The largest or heaviest particles settle first, and the
smallest or the lightest particles settle last. Any slight changes in the particle size or composition may result in the formation
of layers called beds. Layering or bedding is a distinct quality of sedimentary rocks. The layered rocks are also
called strata.

Principles of Relative Dating

The law of superposition states that, in any sequence of layered sedimentary rocks, the top layer is younger than the bottom
layer. It is important in the interpretation of the Earth's history because it indicates the relative age of the rock layers and
fossils.

The law of original horizontality states that most sediments were originally laid down horizontally. However, many layered
rocks are no longer horizontal. Based on the law of original horizontality, the rocks that were tilted may be due to later events
such as tilting episodes of mountain building.

Principles of Relative Dating

The law of lateral continuity states that rock layers extend laterally or out to the sides. These layers may cover broad
surfaces. Erosion may have worn away some parts of the rock, but the layers on either side of the eroded areas still match.

The law of cross-cutting relationship states that fault lines and igneous rocks are younger features that cut through older
features of rocks.
Absolute Dating
Absolute dating or radiometric dating is a method used to determine the age of rocks by measuring its radioactive decay. A
radioactive isotope in the rock decays into a stable daughter isotope. The decay occurs at a predictable rate, so the age of the
sample could be determined.

Examples

 Radiocarbon dating for organic remains could date up to 60 000 years.

 K-Ar dating and U-Pb dating for volcanic rocks could date up to five billion years.

The Geologic Time Scale

The geologic time scale shows the geologic time intervals based on the geologic rock records, which describe the
relationships between the events that happened throughout the Earth’s history. The sequence of events is based on the
radiometric dating of igneous rocks associated with the fossil-bearing sedimentary rocks.

A geologic time scale is revised as more fossil-bearing sedimentary rocks are dated. It is calibrated by integrating results
from relative and absolute dating. Below is an example of how geologic time scale is calibrated.

How the Geologic Time Scale is Calibrated

 Raw data composed of strata or layers are reviewed.

 The unique succession of events in the layers is recognized based on the laws of relative dating leading to a
chronological order of events.
 Numerical or absolute age of the events is given using absolute dating or radiometric methods. Absolute dating
provides the age for the ash layers while relative dating provides at least six strata with relative ages – first and last
occurrences of the fossils and the volcanic eruption events.
Key Points

 Strata or the different layers of rocks are formed when the sediments at the bottom of the pile become rocks.
 Relative dating is a method of arranging geological events based on the rock sequence.
 Absolute dating is a method that gives an actual date of the rock or period of an event.
 Geologic time scale shows the geologic time intervals based on the geologic rock records.
 The integration of relative and absolute dating results to a calibrated geological time scale.

LESSON 10-

The Geologic Time Scale

Objectives
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to:

 describe how marker fossils are used to define and identify subdivisions of the geologic time scale; and
 describe how the Earth's history can be interpreted from the geologic time scale.

Look around you. Everything you see, from the variety of living organisms to the environment they live in, is the product of
changes that occur throughout geologic time.

Do you want to know how we can get a glimpse of the events that happened millions or even billions of years ago?

When plants and animals die, their remains and imprints are buried in rocks or sediments. These preserved remains or traces
are called fossils. Fossils are pieces of evidence that life has happened in the past. Information from these fossils are used to
construct the geologic time scale.

The geologic time scale is a record of the geologic history of the Earth. It is made up of time units that divide Earth’s history
based on the appearance or disappearance of life forms (supported by fossil remains) in specific times. This scale helps us to
study and interpret the history of life on Earth.

As shown in the diagram below, the geologic time scale is divided into hierarchical chunks of time. From largest to smallest,
this hierarchy includes eon, era, period, and epoch. The last column, indicates millions of years ago, it is represented by Ma
which means mega-annum.
 An eon, the largest division of the geologic time scale, spans hundreds to thousands of millions of years. There are
three major eons, the Archean, Proterozoic, and Phanerozoic eons. The Phanerozoic eon is the one we are in today.
 An era is hundreds of millions of years long. The three major eras in the Phanerozoic eon are the Paleozoic,
Mesozoic, and Cenozoic eras. Mass extinctions mark the boundaries between the eras. We are in the Cenozoic era,
which began 65 million years ago, after the extinction of the dinosaurs.
 A period is tens of millions of years long. It is based on the forms of life existing at that time. For instance, the
tertiary and quaternary periods comprise the Cenozoic Era. The tertiary period is the beginning of the age of
mammals while the quaternary period is considered the age of humans.
 An epoch is several million years long. It is the division of the most recent periods. For example, the quaternary
period, which began with an ice age about 1.8 million years ago, is divided into two epochs, the Pleistocene and
Holocene epochs. Each epoch has unique geography and climate, so plants and animals that existed during those
times are unique to each epoch, too.
 The subdivisions of the geologic time scale are identified through marker fossils, or guide fossils. A marker fossil is
a fossil of a plant or an animal that existed for a relatively short period of time. It helps geologists distinguish
between rock strata from different time periods.
 For a fossil to be considered as a guide, it should be common, can easily be identified at the species level, and
should be distributed at many locations on the Earth. Also, the shorter the life period of a fossil, the greater the
chances of correlating it with different sediments.
 Primitive life forms existed on Earth during Precambrian time and the Paleozoic era. They continue to evolve
through the Mesozoic Era and the current Cenozoic Era.
 The diagram below shows the significant events that happened and the organisms that existed and became extinct at
different periods of time. These events became clues to the evolving history of Earth through time. Several theories
were formed from these clues, such as Darwin's theory of Natural Selection and the theories on events that resulted
in the extinction of dinosaurs.
Explore
Take note of your surroundings. How has the area where you live changed over geologic time? How might it look thousands
or millions of years ago? What are the plants and animals that are presently living in your area? Do you think that the types of
animals and plants have changed much over time?

What do you think?

Why is it important to study the events that happened and the organisms that existed even before the dawn of man?

Key Points

 Fossils are plant or animal impressions preserved in rocks that provide evidence of life forms in the past.
 The geologic time scale is a record of the geologic history of the Earth.
 Geologic time scale is divided into eons, eras, periods, and epochs.
 Divisions within the geologic time scale are based on the appearance or disappearance of organisms at specific
times.
 A marker fossil is used to define and identify subdivisions of the geologic time scale. It is a fossil of a plant or
animal that existed for a relatively short period of time.