Ardi D'halLawae Mirror'sdevilsia

DAFTAR ISI

1. PREFER AND WOULD RATHER

2. RELATIVE PRONOUN
3. ARTICLES
4. CAUSATIVE VERB
5. CLAUSE
6. CONDITIONAL SENTENCES
7. CONJUNCTION
8.

1. PREFER AND WOULD RATHER

You can use "prefer to (do)" or "prefer -ing" to say what you prefer in general:

• I don't like cities. I prefer to live in the country OR I prefer livingin the country.

Study the differences in structure after prefer. We say:

 I prefer something to something else.
 I prefer to do something rather than (do) something else.
 I prefer doing something to doing something else.

• I prefer this coat to the coat you were wearing yesterday.

• I prefer driving to traveling by train.
but • I prefer to drive rather than travel by train.
• Ann prefers to live in the country rather than (live) in a city.
Would prefer (I'd prefer...)

We use "would prefer" to say what somebody wants in a particular situation (not in
general):

• "Would you prefer tea or coffee" "Coffee, please."

We say "would prefer to do" (not "doing"):

• "Shall we go by train?" "Well, I'd prefer to go by car. (not "I'd prefer going")
• I'd prefer to stay at home tonight rather than go to the cinema.
Would rather (I'd rather...)

Would rather (do) = would prefer (to do). After would rather we use the
infinitive without to.

Compare:
 "I'd prefer to go by car."
• "Shall we go by train?"
"I'd rather go by car. (not to go)
• "Would you rather have tea or coffee" "Coffee, please."

The negative is "I'd rather not (do something)":

• I'm tired. I'd rather not go out this evening, if you don't mind.
• "Do you want to go out this evening" "I'd rather not."

Study the structure after would rather:

I'd rather do something than (do) something else.

• I'd rather stay at home tonight than go to the cinema.
I'd rather you did something

When you want somebody to do something, you can say "I'd rather you did something":

• "Shall I stay here?" "I'd rather you came with us."

• "Shall I tell them the news?" "No. I'd rather they didn't know."
• "Shall I tell them or would you rather they didn't know?"

In this structure we use the past (came, did etc.), but the meaning is present or
future, not past.
Compare:

• I'd rather cook the dinner now.

but • I'd rather you cooked the dinner now. (not "I'd rather you cook")

The negative is "I'd rather you didn't...":

• I'd rather you didn't tell anyone what I said.
• "Do you mind if I smoke?" "I'd rather you didn't."

2. Relative Pronouns

A relative pronoun is a pronoun that introduces a relative clause. It is called a "relative"

pronoun because it "relates" to the word that it modifies. Here is an example:

 The person who phoned me last night is my teacher.

In the above example, "who":

 relates to "person", which it modifies

 introduces the relative clause "who phoned me last night"

There are five relative pronouns: who, whom, whose, which, that*
Who (subject) and whom (object) are generally only for people. Whose is for
possession. Which is for things. In non-defining relative clauses, that is used for things.
In defining relative clauses (clauses that are essential to the sentence and do not simply add
extra information) that can be used for things andpeople**.

Relative pronouns can refer to singular or plural, and there is no difference between male
and female.

Look at these examples showing defining and non-defining relative clauses:

example sentences notes

S=subject, O=object, P=possessive

defining S - The person who phoned me last That is preferable

relative night is my teacher.
clauses - The person that phoned me last
night is my teacher.

- The car which hit me was yellow. That is preferable

- The car that hit me was yellow.

O - The person whom I phoned last Whom is correct but formal.

night is my teacher. The relative pronoun is
- The people who I phoned last night optional.
are my teachers.
- The person that I phoned last night
is my teacher.
- The person I phoned last night is my
teacher.

- The car which I drive is old. That is preferable to which.

- The car that I drive is old. The relative pronoun is
- The car I drive is old. optional.

P - The student whose phone just rang

should stand up.
- Students whose parents are wealthy
pay extra.
 - The police are looking for the Whose can be used with
carwhose driver was masked. things. Of which is also
- The police are looking for the car of possible.
which the driver was masked.

non- S - Mrs Pratt, who is very kind, is my

defining teacher.
relative
clauses
- The car, which was a taxi, exploded.
- The cars, which were taxis,
exploded.

O - Mrs Pratt, whom I like very much, is Whom is correct but

my teacher. formal. Who is common in
- Mrs Pratt, who I like very much, is spoken English and informal
my teacher. written English.

- The car, which I was driving at the

time, suddenly caught fire.

P - My brother, whose phone you just

heard, is a doctor.

- The car, whose driver jumped out Whose can be used with
just before the accident, was things. Of which is also
completely destroyed. possible.
- The car, the driver of which jumped
out just before the accident, was
completely destroyed.

*Not all grammar sources count "that" as a relative pronoun.

**Some people claim that even in defining relative clauses we cannot use "that" for people
but must use "who/whom". There is no good reason for such a claim; there is a long history
of "that" for people in defining relative clauses from Chaucer, Shakespeare and the
Authorized Version of The Bible toFowler's and Churchill.
 3. ARTICLES

English language has two articles, “the and a/an”. An article is used for a noun. An article
like an adjective modifies a noun.

For example, a book, the book, a cup, the cup, an umbrella, the umbrella
The article “the” is called definite article and the article “a/an” is called indefinite article.
Types of Articles
There are two articles in English language.

1. Indefinite article: a/an

2. Definite article: the
An article is used before a noun or an adjective modifying a noun.

Definite Article: (the)

The definite article "the" is used for a definite, specific or particular noun.

Example. He bought the shirt.

The article “the” before the noun “shirt” in above sentence means that the shirt, he bought,
is a specific or particular shirt and not any shirt.

Indefinite Article: (a/an)

The definite article “a/an” is used for indefinite, non-specific or non-particular (common)
noun.

Example. He bought a shirt.

The article “a” before shirt in above sentence means that the shirt he bought is any shirt
and not a specific shirt.

Rules for using Indefinite Article (a/an)

The article form “a” is used before a word (singular) beginning with a consonant, or a vowel
with a consonant sound.
e.g. a book, a cat, a camera, a university, a European
The article form “an” is used before a word (singular) beginning with a vowel (a, e, i, o, u) or
consonant with vowel sound (or beginning with mute h ).
e.g. an apple, an elephant, an umbrella, an hour,
1. Before a singular noun which is countable
e.g. He bought a book
She is eating an apple.
2. Before a singular noun which refers to a class of things.
e.g. An orange is rich in vitamins.
3. Before a name of a profession
e.g. She wants to be a doctor
He is an engineer.
4. For certain expressions of quantity
e.g. a lot of, a few, a couple, a dozen
5. For certain numbers.
e.g. a hundred, a thousand, a million
6. Before a singular, countable noun in exclamation.
e.g. What a beautiful flower!
What a nice shirt!
7. Article a/an is not used before uncountable nouns
e.g. water, milk, sand etc

Rules for using definite Article (the)

The article “the” can be used both before a singular and plural noun according to the
following grammatical rules. e.g. the book, the books
1. Before the place, object or group of object which is unique or considered to be unique
and geographical region and points on globe.
e.g. the earth, the moon, the sky, the stars, the north pole, the equator
2. For a noun which becomes definite or particular because it is already mentioned and is
being mentioned a second time.
e.g. The teacher helped a student and the student became happy.
3. For a noun made specific or definite in a clause or a phrase.
e.g. The old lady, The girl with blue eyes, The boy that I saw, The nice red shirt
4. Before superlatives, and first, second,.. etc, and only
e.g. The best day, The only method, the second month,
5. Before a phrase composed of a proper and common noun
e.g. The New York city, The river Nile, The library of Congress
6. Before the names of organizations
e.g. The Association of Chartered Accountants, The World Health Organization
7. Before names of scientific principles, theories, laws etc. e.g. the Pythagorean theorem,
the laws of Newton, The Fahrenheit Scale. But no article will be used for these names if
written in forms like, Newton’s Law, Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressures, Hook’s Law of
Elasticity
8. Article “the” is not used for names of universities if written in forms like Oxford
University, Yale University, Columbia University. But article “the” is used if names of
university are written in forms like The University of Oxford, The University of
Yale, The University of Toronto.
 9. Article “the” is not used for names of countries of places. e.g. New York, America,
Mexico, Japan, London. Butarticle “the” is used for a name, if it expresses a group of
place, states, or land. e.g. The United States, The Philippines, The Netherlands

4. CAUSATIVE VERB

Causative verb menunjukkan bahwa seseorang/sesuatu secara tidak langsung bertanggung

jawab terhadap sebuah tindakan. Subjek tidak melakukan tindakan itu sendiri, tetapi justru
menyebabkan seseorang/sesuatu yang lain melakukannya. Contoh:

- Yesterday I had my hair cut.

Pembicara pada kalimat diatas tidak memotong sendiri rambutnya, tetapi justru membuat orang
lain melakukannya - Saya “menyebabkan” mereka memotong rambut saya.

Have
Have merupakan causative verb yang umum. Ketimbang melakukan sesuatu dengan diri kita
sendiri, kita “menyuruh” orang yang lain untuk melakukannya. Bentuknya sebagai berikut:
Kata kerja “to have” + objek + past participle (verb 3). Contoh:
- I had my jacket cleaned yesterday.
- Did you have your computer fixed?
Terkadang kita menggunakan have sebagai causative verb ketika kita ingin melakukan tindakan
oleh diri kita sendiri. Contoh:
- When will the report be ready? I’ll do it by tomorrow morning. >>
- When will the report be ready? I’ll have it done by tomorrow morning.

Dengan menggunakan causative, kalimat ke-dua diatas mengalihkan perhatian dari pelaku
tindakan, dan lebih memberikan perhatian kepada tindakan yang sedang dilakukan. Ini
kedengaran sopan dan profesional.

Get
Get sering digunakan ketimbang have. Contoh:
 I got my computer fixed - I had my computer fixed. Kedua kalimat ini maknanya sama.
 I got my jacket cleaned. - I had my jacket cleaned. Kedua kalimat ini maknanya sama.
Causative verbs sering digunakan bersama dengan pengalaman-pengalaman negatif. Pada
situasi-situasi ini lebih umum menggunakanhave. Contoh:
 I had my wallet stolen. (Saya sebenarnya tidak menyebabkan dompet saya dicuri - seseorang
mencuri dompet saya dariku)
 She had her window smashed.
Let
Let digunakan untuk membolehkan seseorang melakukan sesuatu. Bentuknya adalah let + orang
+ verb. Contoh:
 John let me drive his new car.
 Will your parents let you go to the party?
 I don’t know if my boss will let me take the day off.
Make
Make digunakan untuk memaksa seseorang melakukan sesuatu. Bentuknya adalah make + orang
+ verb. Contoh:
 My teacher made me apologize for what I had said.
 Did somebody make you wear that ugly hat?
 She made her children do their homework.

5. CLAUSE

Clause
“A clause is a group of related words containing a subject and a predicate”
For example, he laughed.
A clause refers to a group of related words (within a sentence or itself as an independent
sentence) which has both subject and predicate.

Example
I will meet him in office.

The part of above sentence “I will meet him” is a clause because it has a subject(I) and a
predicate(will meet him). On the other hand, the rest part of above sentence “in office” lacks both
subject and predicate(verb) such group of word is called phrase.
A clause may stand as a simple sentence or may join another clause to make a sentence.
Therefore, a sentence consists of one, two or more clauses.

Examples.
• He is sleeping. (one clause)
• The kids were laughing at the joker. (one clause)
• The teacher asked a question, but no one answered. (two clauses)
• I am happy, because I won a prize. (two clauses)
• I like Mathematics, but my brother likes Biology,
because he wants to become a doctor. (three clauses)
Clauses are divided into main clause (also called independent clause) andsubordinate
clause (also called dependent clauses).

6. CONDITIONAL SENTENCES
Conditional Sentence (=Kalimat pengandaian) adalah kalimat yang digunakan untuk
menyatakan sesuatu yang mungkin terjadi atau mungkin tidak terjadi seperti yang
diharapkan.
Conditional Sentence (Kalimat Pengandaian) dalam bahada inggris selalu berbentuk
kalimat majemuk (compound sentence), yaitu kalimat yang terdiri atas Main Clause
(Induk Kaimat) dan Subordinate Clause (Anak Kalimat). Pada bentuk conditional
sentence ini antara induk kalimat dengan amak kalimat dihubungkan dengan “ if (jika)
”.
Main clause (induk kalimat) adalah bagian dari kalimat majemuk yang dapat berdiri
sendiri serta memiliki arti yang lengkap jika berpisah dari bagian yang lain dalam
kalimat majemuk.
Sedangkan Subordinate Clause (anak kalimat) adalah bagian dari kalimat majemuk yang
tidak dapat berdiri sendiri seandainya berpisah dari bagian yang lain dalam kalimat
majemuk.
Terdapat tiga tipe conditional sentence. Secara singkat ketiga tipe tersebut bisa dilihat
di tabel berikut:

Conditional Sentence Type I

Kalimat conditional disebut juga dengan kalimat pengandaian. Contoh di bawah ini:
If I have a lot of money, I will go to America.
I will sleep if I am sleepy.
If my father has much money, he will buy a new house.
Ketiga contoh di atas adalah contoh dari conditional sentence. Conditional sentence
terdiri dari 2 bagian yaitu: subordinate clause dan main clause. Subordinate clause (if +
clause) merupakan pernyataan syarat atau kondisi. Sedangkan main clause pada
conditional sentence adalah pernyataan akibat terpenuhinya (+) atau tidak
terpenuhinya (-) persyaratan yang ada pada subordinate clause atau kondisi yang ada
pada subordinate clause.
Perhatikan kembali contoh di atas:
If I have a lot of money…(subordinate clause) kalimat ini merupakan syarat untuk
terjadinya sesuatu yaitu : I will go to America. (main clause). Jadi saya akan pergi ke
Amerika jika saya mempunyai banyak uang.
Conditional sentence type 1
Conditional sentence type 1 bermakna future karena akibat (main clause) berbentuk
future dansubordinate clause berbentuk simple present tense. kejadian yang ada pada
main clause yang berbentuk future tersebut akan terjadi bila persyaratan yang ada
pada subordinate clause (if…) terpenuhi.
Rumus condtional sentence type 1
If +simple present tense, Simple future tense
Simple future tense + if + simple present tense
NOTE: jangan lupa memasukan , (comma) jika ingin meletakkan subordinate clause
terlebih dahulu. Tidak perlu meletakkan koma jika main clause anda masukan terlebih
dahulu.
If she has my address, she will send the invitation to me.
They will buy a car if they have money.
My mother will go to Bali if she has a lot of money.
You will be late if you sleep late.
He will not come if you are angry with him.
Conditional Sentence Type II
Conditional sentence type II Rumusnya sebagai berikut:
If + Simple past tense + , + Past future tense
Past future tense + if + simple past tense
Contoh:
If I found her address, I would send her an invitation.
I would send her an invitation if I found her address.
If I had a lot of money, I wouldn’t stay here.
If I were you, I would not do this.
Conditional type II ini digunakan sebagai aplikasi kejadian masa sekarang atau present.
Kejadiannya akan terjadi jika kondisi yang ada pada subodinate clausenya berbeda.
Contoh :
Example: If I found her address, I would send her an invitation.
Pada contoh di atas, telah jelas bahwa saya ingin mengirimkan undangan kepada
seorang teman. Saya sudah mencari alamatnya tetapi tidak ditemukan. Jadi tidak
mungkin saya akan mengirimkan undangannya karena saya tidak mengetahui
alamatnya. Jadi fakta dari kalimat conditionalnya pada contoh di atas adalah: tidak jadi
mengirimkan undangan karena tidak mengetahui alamatnya.
Contoh lain:
If John had the money, he would buy a Ferrari.
 Saya kenal John. Dia tidak punya banyak uang (ini fakta yang ada). Akan tetapi dia
sangat suka denga mobil ferari dan sangat ingin membelinya. Akan tetapi ini hanya
mimpi John belaka karena tidak mungkin dia membeli ferari karena dia tidak punya
uang.
Dari penjelasan ini sangat jelas perbedaan conditional sentence type I dan II. Pada type
I… kondisinya pada subordinate clause berbentuk present dan ini kemungkinan besar
terjadi. Sedangkan pada type II, kondisi pada subordinate clause berbentuk simple past
tense yang menyatakan masa lampau..yang jelas jika masa lampau adalah masa yang
sudah lewat dan kita telah mengetahuinya. Jadi type dua adalah kalimat pengandaian
yang tidak mungkin terjadi, sedangkan type I bisa saja terjadi.
Conditional Sentence type III
Pada conditional sentence type II merupakan aplikasi dari kondisi atau kejadian yang
ada pada masa present/simple present tense, sedangkan type III ini merukan aplikasi
kejadian masa lampau atau simple past tense. Terkadang, di masa lampau kita
mempunyai keinginan yang tidak dapat kita wujudkan. Lalu kita ingin bercerita kepada
teman atau orang lain. Misalkan:
“ tahun lalu, saya ingin membeli rumah baru, akan tetapi saya tidak punya uang.”
Perhatikan contoh di atas yang sengaja saya buat dalam bahasa Indonesia! Bahwasanya
tahun lalu (masa lampau) saya ingin membeli rumah baru dan saya tidak punya uang.
Jadi conditional type I adalah pengandaian yang kemungkinan besar terjadi, type
II aplikasi masa present yang merupakan pengandaian yang tidak mungkin
terjadi dan type III adalah aplikasi kondisi masa lampau atau bentuk past tense yang
memang sudah pasti tidak terjadi karena merupakan aplikasi masa lampau.
Rumus conditional type III
If + Past perfect + , + Past future perfect tense
Past future perfect tense + if + past perfect
Contoh:
If I had found her address, I would have sent her an invitation.
I would have sent her an invitation if I had found her address.
If I hadn’t studied, I wouldn’t have passed my exams.
If John had had the money, he would have bought a Ferrari.

7. CONJUNCTION

Conjunction is a word that connects words, phrases, clauses or sentences. e.g. and, but, or,
nor, for, yet, so, although, because, since, unless, when, while, where are some conjunctions.
Examples.
She tried but did not succeed.
He does not go to school because he is ill.
John and Marry went to the cinema.
He thought for a moment and kicked the ball.
 I waited for him but he didn’t come.
You will be ill unless you quit smoking.
We didn’t go to the market because it was raining outside.
Single word Conjunction: Conjunction having one word
e.g. and, but, yet, because etc.

Compound Conjunction: Conjunction having two or more words

e.g. as long as, as far as, as well as, in order that, even if, so that etc

Types of Conjunction.

There are three types of conjunctions

 Coordinating Conjunction
 Subordinate Conjunction
 Correlative Conjunction

Coordinating Conjunction.
Coordinating conjunction (called coordinators) joins words, phrases (which are similar in
importance and grammatical structure) or independent clauses.
Coordinating conjunctions are short words i.e. and, but, or, nor, for, so, yet.
Coordination conjunction joins two equal parts of a sentence,

 Word + word
 Phrase + phrase
 Clause + clause
 Independent clause + independent clause.

Types of Conjunction.

Conjunction is a word that connects words, phrases, clauses or sentences. e.g. and, but, or, nor,
for, yet, so, although, because, since, unless, when, while, where etc.

There are three types of conjunctions

 • Coordinating Conjunction
 • Subordinate Conjunction
 • Correlative Conjunction
 Coordinating Conjunction.
Coordinating conjunctions (called coordinators) join words, phrases (which are similar in
importance and grammatical structure) or independent clauses.
Coordinating conjunctions are short words i.e. and, but, or, nor, for, so, yet.
Coordination conjunction joins two equal parts of a sentence,

 Word + word
 Phrase + phrase
 Clause + clause
 Independent clause + independent clause.

Examples.
Word + word: She likes tea and coffee.
Phrase + phrase: He may be in the room or on the roof.
Clauses + clause: What you eat and what you drink affect your health.
Independent clause + independent clause: The cat jumped over the mouse and the
mouse ran away.
In the following examples, coordinating conjunctions join two words of same importance.
She likes pizza and cake. (pizza and cake)
I bought a table and a chair. (table and chair)
He may come by bus or car. (bus or car)
In the following examples, conjunction joins two independent clauses. Independent clause is a
clause which can stand alone as a sentence and have complete thought on its own.
I called him but he didn’t pick up the phone.
I advised him to quit smoking, but he didn’t act upon my advice.
He became ill, so he thought he should go to a doctor.
He shouted for help, but no body helped her.
He wants to become a doctor, so he is studying Biology.
Coordinating conjunctions always come between the words or clauses that they join. A comma is
used with conjunction if the clauses are long or not well balanced.
If both clauses have same subjects, the subject of 2nd clause may not be written again. See the
following examples
She worked hard and succeeded.
The player stopped and kicked the ball.
He became ill but didn’t go to doctor.
Marry opened the book and started to study.

Subordinating Conjunctions.
Subordinating conjunctions (called subordinators) join subordinate clause (dependent clause) to
main clause.
e.g. although, because, if, before, how, once, since, till, until, when, where, whether, while,
after, no matter how, provided that, as soon as, even if,
MAIN CLAUSE + SUBORDINATE CLAUSE
SUBORDINATE CLAUSE + MAIN CLAUSE
Subordinate clause is combination of words (subject and verb) which cannot stand alone as a
complete sentence. Subordinate clause is also called dependent clause because it is dependent on
main clause. Subordinate clause usually starts with relative pronoun (which, who, that, whom
etc). Subordinate clause gives more information in relation to main clause to complete the
thought.
Subordinating conjunction joins subordinate clause to main clause. Subordinating conjunction
always come before the subordinate clause, no matter the subordinate clause is before main
clause or after the main clause.

Examples.
He does not go to school because he is ill.
I will call you after I reach my home.
I bought some cookies while I was coming from my office.
They played football although it was raining.
Although it was raining, they played foot ball.
As far as I know, this exam is very difficult.
I have gone to every concert since I have lived in New York.
You can get high grades in exam provided that you work hard for it.

Correlative Conjunction.
These are paired conjunctions which join words, phrases or clauses which have reciprocal or
complementary relationship.
The most commonly used correlative conjunctions are as follows
Either … or
Neither … nor
Whether … or
Both … and
Not only … but also
Examples.
Neither John nor Marry passed the exam.
Give me either a cup or a glass.
Both red and yellow are attractive colours.
I like neither tea nor coffee.
He will be either in the room or in the hall.
John can speak not only English but also French.