“ ( um

E S S E NT I AL S

E NG L I S H G R A M M A R .

FOR THE U SE OF SCH OO L S .

W I LLI AM D W IGHT WH ITNEY ,

9 3 0 1755 50 11 o r s u sx nn '
AND c o m p m m IN STRUCT OR 9 p MO D ERN LANG UAG E S
vn p a m onoc v AND

m n u c m ma s ; A UT HOR p LANG U A G E AND T HE ST UD Y o LAN G U A G E

s o . o r ,
”

LIFE AND G RO WT H LANG UA G E

op O RIEN T AL AN Lm e m sr w
,
”
D

sm m ss A c o v m us G ERMA N G a m m a
,
” “
n ex o ”

AN G ERMA N R EAD E
D
“
R,
”

m e . m e .

B OS TON
P U B L IS H E D B Y G INN C O M P AN Y .

188 6
 C o py m m rr, 1 877.

B Y W . D . W H I T N EY

J . S . C U S H l NG ,
S U P E R I N I E N D E NT
’ ’

op P RI NT l NG ,

10 1 P E ARL S 11 ,
B OS TO N,
 P RE FACE .

IN p rep ari n g th e p resen t w ork m y i n ten ti on has b een

,

to m ak e i t fu l fil st ri c t l y th e p ro m i se o f i t s t i t l e . I ha v e
en d ea v o re d t o put b efo re th e l earn er t h o se m atters w hi c h

are o f m ost essen t i a l c o n sequ en ce t o him ,

t hose w hi c h

w i ll be st ser v e hi m as p r ep arati o n for fu rth er an d d eep er

k n o w l ed ge of hi s o w n l an guage for t he st udy o f o ther

,

l an guages an d for th at o f l a n guage i n gen era l That th e

,
.

l ead in g obj ec t o f th e s tudy o f E n g l i sh gram m ar i s to

teac h th e c orrec t use o f E n g l i sh i s i n m y V i ew an error
, , ,

a n d o n e w h i c h i s gr a d u a ll y b eco m i n
g rem o v ed g i v in g w ay
,

t o t he so un d er o p i n i on th at gram m ar i s th e reflec t iv e study

o f l an gu a e fo r a v ari et y o f p u rp o ses o f w h i c h c orrec t n ess
g , ,

i n w ri t i n g i s o n ly on e an d a sec o n d ar y o r sub or d i n at e
,

o n e — b y n o m ea n s u n i m p o r t an t ,
b ut b es t att ai n e d w h en
s o u h t i n d irec t l y
g . I t s h o u l d b e a p e rv a d i n
g e l em e n t in

the w h o l e s c h oo l a n d ho m e t rai n in g o f t he y o un g t o m ak e ,

them use the i r o w n t o n g ue w i t h ac c urac y an d for ce ; an d ,

a l o n g w i th a n y sp ec i a l d ri ll i n i r ec t e d t o th i s en d
‘

g d so m e
,

o f the r udi m e n t ary d i st i n c t i o n s an d ru l es o f gram m ar are

c o n v en i e n t l y t au h t ; b u t th a t i s n o t th e st udy o f g ram
g
m ar ,
an d i t w i l l n o t b ear t h e i n tr u s i o n o f m uc h form a l

ra m m a r w i th o u t b e i s p o i l ed f r i t s o w e d s I t i s
g n g o n n .

c o n s t an t use a n d p r a c t i c e un d er n e v er-fa i l i n w a t c h a nd
, g
co rrec t i o n ,
t ha t m ak es g o o d w r it ers a n d s p eak er s ; t h e
app l i c at i o n o f d i rec t au thori t y i s th e m o st effi c i en t c o rrec
iv P REFAC E .

ti v e
. G ram m ar has i ts p art t o c o n tri b ute b ut rather i n
,

t h e h igher than i n t he l ow er st ages o f th e w ork On e .

m u st b e a so m ew hat refl ec ti v e u ser o f l an g uage t o am en d

e v en h ere an d t her e a p o i n t b y gr am m ati c a l r easo n s ; an d

n o o n e e v er c h an e d fro m a b ad s p eak er t o a o o d o n e by
g g
a pp l yi n t h e ru l es o f ram m ar t o w h at h e sai d
g g .

To teac h E n g l i sh gr am m ar t o an E n g l i sh sp eak er i s as i t ,

s eem s t o m e t o t ak e a d v an t age o f th e fa c t th at th e p u
, p il
k n ow s t he fact s o f t h e l an guage i n o r d er t o t urn hi s atten
,

t i o n t o the un d erl y i n g p ri n c i p l es an d rel at i o n s t o t he ,

p hi l oso ph y o f l an g uage as ill ustrat ed i n hi s o w n use o f i t ,

i n a m ore effect i v e m an n er th an i s o th er w i se p o ssib l e .

Foreign l an guages are gen eral l y ac quire d i n an art ifi c i al

w ay t h e fact s c o m i n g ti ck ete d w i th c ertai n gram m at i c a l

,

l ab el s w hi ch the sc ho l ar l earn s as if they w ere p art o f t he

fac ts them sel v es an d the gram m ar p art i s apt t o rem ai n
l on g a w h o ll y artifi c i al sy stem t o him Al m ost ev ery o n e
.

c an r em em b er t h e t i m e w h en i t fi rst b egan t o d aw n up on hi s

m i n d t h at t he fam i l i ar t erm s an d di st i n c t i on s o f gram m ar

real l y m ean t so m ethi n g . B ut thi s i s p art l y b ec ause chi l

d ren are (an d w i th go o d r easo n ) set t o l earn i n g foreign
l an guages b efore t heir reflectiv e p ow ers are en o ugh d ev el
o p e d t o m ak e such th i n s i n t ell ig ib l e t o t hem I f t h e
g .

p up i l i s b right en ough hi s L ati n gram m ar c om es b y d e

,

grees t o b e t o h i m s o m ethi n g m o re t han a h eap o f d ry

b o n es ; an d t h en he get s t he b en efi t i n i t s a pp l i c at i o n b y
,

an a l o y t o o th er l a n ua es hi s o w n i n c l ud e d o f th e har d
g g g , ,

w o rk he h as d o n e up o n i t . A r ea l un d erst an d i n g o f gr am
m ar h o w ev er h e c an et soo d m o re s urel y i n c o n
, , g n er an

n ec t i o n w i t h hi s o w n t o n ue t h a n an y w h er e e l se if hi s
g ,

att en t i o n i s fi rst d i re c t ed t o th at w hi c h m o st n eed s t o b e

l earn ed un en c um b ere d w it h b ur d e n som e d etai l an d if a

, ,

c l ear m eth o d i s fo l l o w ed ,
w ith abun d a n ce o f i ll ustrat i on .
 P REFAC E .

E n g l ish gram m ar c an i n t hi s w ay b e m ad e t o pay b ac k ,

w i th i n teres t, t h e d eb t w hi ch i t o w es to L ati n I t m ust b e .

fo r p ra c ti c al use t o sh o w h ow far t he en d ea v or t o reach

these en d s i s s uc c essful i n t h e w o rk h ere put forth
,
.

I hav e w i sh e d t o g i v e the m ai n fac t s o f t h e E n gl i sh lan

u a e j us t as t h e y are i n t hem sel v es n o t i m p o rti n g i n to
g g ,

th em an y t hi n g th at be l o n gs t o o th er l an g uages W i t h t hi s .

in vi ew cert ai n s ubj ec t s hav e b een treat e d i n a so m ew h at

,

n ew w ay b u ,
t o n e w hi ch w i ll I h o p e c o m m en d i tsel f
, ,

to gen era l app ro v a l b y i ts reaso n ab l en ess The or d i n ar y

.

m eth o d Wi t h e n d er i n n o u ns fo r e x am p l e w h i c h w as
g , ,

real l y an im p o si t i on u p o n En g li sh of a s y st em o f di sti n c
t i o n s be l o n g i n g el sew h ere has b een ab an d on e d i n fav o r
,

o f o n e that i s b ot h t r u er an d far sim p l er The sharp .

d i sti n ct io n aga i n o f t he v erb -p hrases or c o m p o un d form s

, ,

fro m the real v erb form s seem s t o m e a m atter o f n o sm al l

-

i m p o rt an c e if th e study o f the c o n st ruct i on of sen ten c es

,

i s to b e m ad e a rea l i t y .

I t has b een m y c o n stan t en d eav o r t o bear i n m i n d t h e

true p osit i o n o f the gram m ari an as st ate d in the i n tro d uc
,

to ry ch ap ter t hat h e i s sim p l y a rec or d er an d arran g er of

the usages o f l an guage an d i n n o m an n er or d egree a law
,

g i v er hardl y e v en an arb it er or c ri ti c Certai n l y an el e

.
,

m en t ary w o rk i s n o p l ace fo r d ra
gg i n g forw ar d t o atten t io n
m att ers o f d i sp u te d usage n or are el em en tar y p up i l s th e
,

p erso n s b efore w ho m t o d i sc uss n i ce an d d i ffi cul t p o in ts .

W here referen c e has been m ad e t o an y such subj ec t s i t ,

has b een i n o r d er s i m p l y t o set forth t he fac t s o f usage as ,

fairl y a n d bri efly as p o ssi b l e o r t o state t he p rin ci p l es that

,

sh o u l d go v er n t he c ase .

M an y gram m ars o f c ourse ha v e b een c o n sul ted i n the

, ,

p rep arat io n o f th i s an d v al uab l e h i n ts ha v e b ee n d e

,

ri v e d fro m o n e a n d a n o t h er B ut I d o n o t feel that I

.
v i P RE FAC E .

n ee d l dg e p art i c ul ar o b l igat i on t o an y e x cep t i n g

ack n o w e

t h e gr eat th esaurus o f M at z n er (B er l i n 1 8 73— 5 : th ere i s ,

an E n g l i sh v ersi o n b u t i t i s h ar d l y t o b e use d ) t o w hi c h I
, ,

h a v e c o n st an t l y r eferre d esp ec i a ll y d raw i n g up on i t s ri c h

s t or es o f c it at i o n s i ll u str at i n g a l m o s t e v er y c o n c ei v ab l e

p o i n t of E n gl i sh usag e fo r th e b en efi t o f th e p arsi n g ex er
,

c i s es w hi c h are app en d e d t o t he v ar i o u s c h ap t ers I n the

.

b o dy o f th e w o rk I h a v e p r eferre d t o use a l m o st ex c l u
,

s iv el y il l ust rat i o n s m ad e o ff— h an d b ecause such seem e d t o

,

m e m ore d esi rab l e : t h e m o re fam i l i ar an d ev ery -d a

y t he
ex em plifi cat i o n s o f p ri n c i p l es t h e b et t er ; , an d t h e p u pil
sh oul d b e l ed t o form t h em for h i m self as m uc h as pos
si b l e .

I ha v e al s o for th e m ost p art a v o i d e d th e use o f set

ru l es l est t h ey sh o u
,
l d c o m e t o b e a pp l i e d m e c h an i call y I n .

st u dy in g the gram m ar o f on e s o w n l an guage th e t rue en d

’
,

i s n ot att ai n ed un l ess such a rea l un d erst an d i n g i s gai n ed

by the s ch ol ar t h at h e c an st at e i n hi s o w n l an g uag e th e
pri n c i p l e i n v o l v ed an d he sh oul d b e m a d e or h e l p e d t o , ,

do so .

M y than k s are d ue to sev eral em i n en t sch o l ars am on g ,

m y c o ll eagues an d e l sew h ere W h o h av e b een k i n d en o ugh

,

t o gi v e m e t he b en efi t o f t h ei r c o un sel d uri n g th e p rogr ess

of m y w o rk .

W . D . W .

Y A LE COLLE GE, N EW HAVEN , Co m m ,

J an uary, 1 877 .
 T AB L E OF C ONT E N T S .

The f
r e eren ces a r e to pa rag r aphs .

C H APT ER I . LA N G U A G E AND G R A M M AR , 1 1 5 (pp 1 .

En g li sh l an g uag e its ,
n am e an d or ig i n, 1 —3 ; m i x t ure of m at e r a il in it , 4 ; i ts
s prea d , 5; v i ty
ar e 6 ; in t i m e, c h a n g es , 7 ; An g Io -S a x on , 8; l l
oc a pec ul ar t i ii e s,

d il a ec t s , 9 g o o d an d b ad E n g l i sh , 10 li
E n g s h g ram m a r, 11 o ffi c e o f g ra m m ar,

st ud y of g ram m ar, 12 - 5 .

C HAP T E R I I — T H E S E N T E N C E ; . TH E PA R T S OF S P E E CH, 1 6 —55

(pp . 6
Va r i o us k i n d s an d uses o f w o rd s ,
16 -8 part s o f s peec h , 19 sen ten ce , 20 1 k i nds

of sen te n ce, 22 ; k i n ds of w o rd s fo rm i g n a s en t en c e, 23 ; part s of the sen te n c e,

subj ec t an d pred i c a t e, 24 7 v erb ,

28 —9 b are a n d com l
p et e pred c at e, 30 n o un , i
31 2 pro n o un , 33 4 s ub s ta n t iv e w o rd s , 35 i n d epen d en t part s o f s peec h , 36

adJ ec t i ve, pred c a te ad ec t e o r n o un , 4 0

37 9 i j iv ad v erb , 41 2 q ua f n g li yi
i
a n d c o n n e c t n g part s o f s peec h , 4 3 prepo s t o n 44 6 ii , co n j u ti nc on , 47 8 c as s l i
fi c at io n o f parts o f s peec h , 4 9 ; n t er ec t o n s, 50 1 ; i j i — il
a rt c e s an d n um era s , l 52 ;
i n te rro g a t iv e an d i m pe rat iv e sen te n c es , 53 5 .

E XE R C I S E S F O R ET ER M I N I NG
, D A ND D E FI N I NG T H E PA R T S O F S P EE C H pp 21 —3 , .

1 . Ba re s ubj t d p di t
ec an re ca e . II . W i th adj c t iv es ad d d I II Wi t h ad v erb s
e e . .

ad d ed . I V Wit h p p i t i
. re os o n s ad d ed . V W i t h c o j un c t i o n s
. VI M i sc ell an eo us
n . .

e x am p l es o n th e c h apte r .

C H A P T E R I II . I N FL E CT I O N , 56 8 7 (pp 2 4 .

C ha n g es of fo rm of d pro n o un , 58 ; in
w o rd s , 56 - 7 ; erb , 59 n um b er in no un an v
v
g o e rn m en t an d a g ree m en t 60 ; pers o n i n pro n o un a n d erb 61 3 ; ten s e an d , v ,
—
m od e i n e rb v
64 - 5 ; i n fl ec t io n c o n ug a t o n o f e rb 06 - 7 ; po ss ess e c as e i n
, , j i v ,
iv
no un an d pro n o un , 68 —70 j
o b ec t , a n d o b ec t j iv e c as e i n pro n o un an d n o un 71 - 4,

d ec l en s i o n of no un m id pro n o un , 75 ; i n flec t io n a n d c o m par is o n o f j

ad ec t iv e s,

76 —8 ; un i n fle c tecl parts o f s pee c h , 79 - 80 ; m e th o d s o f i n fl ec t io n , 81 —6 ; b as e of

i n flec t io n , ro o t, 87 .

E XE R C I S ES , FO B P R A CTI C E m I N F L E C I I O N , pp 36 - 7 ‘
. : VII . M i ll
sc e a n eo us e x am

p l es
v iii T AB L E or C O N T E NT S .

C H A P T E R IV —D E R I V A T I O N C O M P OS I TI ON 88 —1 07
. AND , (pp .

38
D er iv t i
a on ; s ufii x , v i ar o us e x am pl es of d er iv tia on by s uffi x ,
88 —96 ; d er iv t i a on by
i n t ern al c h an g e, 96 - 7 ; con v i e rs o n of on e part of speec h to an o t h er , i
w t h o ut
c h an g e, 98 9 d er iv t i a on b yprefi x , 1 00 1 com i
po s t i o n , c om po un d w o rd s , 1 02 —7 .

E X E R C I S E S FO R AN A , LY ! I NG D E R I V ATI V E AN D CO M P O U ND W O R DS , pp . 44 —5
V I I I M i ll u x
. sc e an eo s e am p l es .

C H A PT ER V .
- N O U N S , 1 08 4 4 8 (pp . 46
NO U S d efi n i t io n an d uses 1 08
N
, , .

C L ASS E S O F N O U N S 1 09 — 1 9 v ar i ous c l as ses , , 1 09 —1 2 c o m m on an d pro per n o un s ,

113 co ll ec t iv es , 114 g en d er
—
n ouns ,
1 15; d m i i n ut iv es , 116 i
s m p l e, d er a t iv iv e, an d

po un d , 1 1 7 1 9
c om - .

I N FL E CTI O N OF NOU N S , l
1 20 - 42 : d ec en s o n , 1 2 0 ; n um b er, reg uar form i l at o n , i 1 21 —3
irreg ul ar 1 24 - 6 ; ,
w an t i n g, 1 27 w o rd s us ed on ly i i n s ng ul ar or in p u l
r a , 1 28 9 l
c o m po un d n ouns ,
1 30 c ase, 1 31 - 2 ; fo r m i
at on o f po s sess iv e c ase, 1 33 8 ; d at e iv
c ase, 1 39 —40 ; v o c at iv e, 1 41 ; e x am p l es o f d ec l en s i on , 142 .

Oth er par ts o f speec h us ed as n o un s , 1 43 8 .

E XE R CI S E S ,FO R P RA TI C CE IN PAR S I N G N O U N S , pp 6 2 - 5
. : r ul es fo r pars in g i n
g en eral ; e am x pl es o f pars in g no un s ; IX Mi scell an eo us . e am x pl es .

C H APT E R VI P R ONO U N S , 1 4 9 89 (pp 66 .

P R O N O UN , d efi n i t i o n an d uses ,
1 49 50 i n fl ec t i o n , 1 51 cl ass ifi c at i o n , 1 52 .

P ERS O N A L P R ON O UN S 1 53 65pers o n , 1 53 i n fl ec t i o n , fi rst an d s ec o n d pers o n s, 1 55

—
,

us es of p lu l ra fo rm s, i
1 56 8 ; th rd person , g en d er, 1 59 i n fl ec ti on , 1 60 uses o f

g en d er for m s, 1 61 2 o f i t, 1 63 c o m po u n d s, w t h self et c , 1 64 po ssessw es , 1 6 5 i . .

D MONS
E T R AT I V E P R O N OU N S 1 66 - 8
I N T ERRO G A TI V E PR O N OUN S 1 69 —
.
,

73
—6
.
,

R E L ATI V E OR CON J U N CT I V E P R O N O U N S ,
1 74 - 87 : l iv
re at e an d an te c ed en t , 1 74

pers on o f re at l iv e, 1 77 ; us es of th e d ffere n t i re a i l tv es , 1 78 - 80 ; c o m po un d l
re a

t i v es, 1 81 - 2 ; i n d efi n i t e r e a t l iv 1 83 es , om i i ss o n of tha t a s relat iv e, 1 84 ; re a l t iv e

v
ad er b s , 1 85 as an d but i n re l t iv u a e se, 1 86 —7 .

I ND E FI N IT E P R O N O U N S 1 88 9 .

—
,

E X E R CI S E S F O R P R A CT I C E I N P A R S I N G P R O N OU N S
, , pp 79 82 . : e am x p l es o f pars
i n g pro n o un s X M i scell an eo us
. e amx p l e s,

C H A P T E R VI I . AD J E CT I VE S , 1 90 221 (pp . 83
AD J E CT I VE , d efi n i t ion an d use , 1 90 ; d es c r pt i iv e an d li i t i
m ng us e ,
1 91 s m i p l e, de

ri v at i ve, an d c o m po un d a d ec tj iv es , 1 92 —4 l c asses o f ad ec t j iv es, 1 95 .

AD J EC T I V E S OF Q U L IT A Y, 1 96 - 203 i n fl ec t i o n , 1 96 com pa ri so n , 1 97 —201 i rreg ul ar

c om par i so n , 2 02 use as no un an d ad v erb et c .
,
2 03 .

P R ONOM I N AL AD J EC T I V ES ,
204 - 1 1 po ss ess
: iv e, 2 05 - 7 ; d em o n st rat iv e, 208 ; i n t er

g t iv
ro a e, 209 l v
re at i e, 21 0 i n d efi n i t e, 2 1 1 .

N U M E R A LS 2 1 2 - 1 8 , : c ard n al s , i 212 - 5 ; o rd n a s , i l 21 6 fra c tio n al s, 2 1 7 m ul ti pli ca

t i ves , 2 1 8 .

A RT I C L ES 21 9 21 ,
.

E X ER C I S E S F O R P R AC T I C E m P A RS I NG AD J EC T I V ES
, ,
-
pp 96 8 : x
e am p l es o f pars
i g adj c t iv es ; XI M i s c ll n eo us exa m pl es
n e e a .
 T AB L E or C O NT E NT S . ix

C H APT E R V I I I . VE RB S , 22 2 307 (pp 99 .

Ven n ,
d efi n it i on an d use ,
222 ; t ran s t i iv e an d i n t ran s it iv v e erb s , 223 ; i
s m p l e, de
rivat i v e, an d com po un d v erb s , 224 - 6 ; i n flec t i o n , 2 27 ; fo r pers o n a n d n um b er
—
,

2 28 30 fo r te n se an d m o d e, 231 4 i n h n i t w es an d part c p es 2 35 8 ii l ,
— c o nj uga
t i o n s, Ne w an d Old , 239 40 x pl
e am es o f b ot h con j ugat i on s, 2 41 i l
pri n c pa par ts ,
2 42 ten se-i n flec t i o n , 24 3 .

N E W CO N J U G A T I O N 244 ,
56 reg ula r v b er s , 2 44 ; i rreg ul ar ,
24 5- 56 .

OL D C ONJ U G AT I ON 257 , 75 c h arac te r s i ti cs, 257 l

c a ss es an d i rreg ul ari t i es ,
2 58 ~ 60
Ol d v erb s , an d the i mr od e of con j ugat i on , 2 61 - 74 con j ugat io n of be, 2 73
do ub l e fo rm s of par t i i plc es , 2 75 .

O T H ER I RREG L A R ERB S ( uxiliarie ) 276 -8

U V a s , .

C O M P O U N VER A Fo r m s V R B P H R ASES 2 79
D B L ,
E -
,
- 305 : em
ph at c erb - h
p ras es , 2 79 —
i v80 ;
c on i u u p g iv
t n o s or ro res s e, 281 fut u
r e, 2 82 i i
d i st n c t o n o f skull an d w i ll 283 6 ; ,

con d iti l 287 ; p f t

on a , er ec pu
an d - l
perfec t , 288 9 ; o t h er t en se an d m o d e ph rases ,

p t ti l
o en d b lig t iv
a an o a e, i
an d t h e r perfec t s, an d progress e fo rm s , 290 3 in fi n i iv
t iv d p t i i pl —
e an ph ar c e ras es, 294 sch em e o f c o n j ugat i on, s m i pl e fo r m s an d ph rases .

295 its in d efi n i te l i m i ts 296 , pas s iv v e erb -ph ras es , 297 - 305 prog ress iv e ph rases ;
299 ; sc h em e o f con j ug t i a on , 300 ac t iv e an d pass iv e, 301 pas s e iv an d n on

pas s iv e us e o f ph ras es , 302 3 v erb s fo rm i ng pass iv e phras es, 304 5 — .

R B r LE Xi v r-
z AN D I MP ERS O N A L VE B BS , 306 —7 .

E X ERC I S ES FO R AC X m A N VE R BS pp
,
PR T CE P B SI G ,
. 1 31 -4 : exa m p l es of pars i ng

v b s X I I M i ll u x pl
er . sc e an eo s e am es .

A L HA
P I C A L L O I RRE G L A R V E B S p 1 35
BET IS T . F U R , . .

C H APT E R I X —AD V E RBS 308 1 8 (pp 1 36 .

, .

O tfi f dv b
ces o 308 1 0a l f dv b
er s , 31 1 i pl - c as ses o a er s, s m e, d er iv t iv a e , an d c om

p ud dv b
o n a erph
31 2 - 4 ; d v b- 31 5 ;
s, m p i a er ras es, co ar s o n of a dv b er s , 31 6 ; tlwre
W i th v b 31 7 er s , .

R ES P ONS I VES , 31 8 .

Pa sm o or AD V E R BS , p 1 42 . .

C H A PT E R X . P R E P O S I T I ONS , 31 9 2 6 (pp 1 43 .

O ffi c e of a ii
pre po s t o n , 31 9 ; i ts c o n s tr uc t i o n s 320 - 3 ; , l
c a s ses of prepos t ii on s

824 5 re
p p o s tii
o n - hr
p ases , 326 .

m x0 0 1? P R E O S I T I ON S
P , p 1 46
. .

CH A PTER X I . CONJ U NC T IONS , 32 7 31 (pp 1 4 7 .

i
O ff c e of a co n j u ti nc on , 32 7 ; c o o rd in at n g i an d s ub o rd i n at i n g c on j un c t i o n s an d

t he ir l
c as s es , 328 30 ; w o rd s us ed as c o n j un t i c o n s, 331 .

Pn i ew o o p C ON J U N CT I ON S , p 1 51 . .

C H APT ER XI I . I N T E R J E CT I O NS , 332 6 (pp 1 52 .

C h arac te r o f a n i j
n te r ec t o n , i 332 —
3; l c as s es , 334 ; w o rd s used as i n te i j ec t io n s ,
'

335 ; u
co n s t r c t o n s , i 336 .

P ARS I NO o p I NT ERJ EC TI O N S , p 1 53
. .
 TA B LE OF CO NTEN T S .

C H AP T E R XII I .
— S Y N T AX THE S I M PL E S E N T E N CE , 337 —4 1 0
(pp 1 54 .

S yn t a x ,
337 k i n d s o f sen t en c e, 338 —9; essen t a il l e e m en t s o f th e sen t en ce, 340 - 44 ;
r ues l as to th e i r fo r m ,
34 5 7 s pec a il c a s es , 34 8 .

PR E D I C AT E NOUN p ete erb s , 350 ; ad d i t o n

AN D AD J EC T I V E ,
350 —57 : i n c om l v i of

pr ed i c at e n o un o r a d J e c t i v e , 351 2 erb s t ak i n g s uc h , 353 pred i ca te ad ec t v j iv e,

v
a n d ad erb , 354 ; ad erb a pred c at e, 355 ; ag reem en t a n d r u l es , 356 7 v il i — .

O BJ EC T OF TH E R B , 358 —6 8 : t ra n s t VE
e erb an d i t s o b ec t , 358 - 9 ; n t ran s t i iv v j i i iv es

an d verb s use d i n t ran s i t iv l y

e ,
360 - 6 1 ; j
o b ec t s o f i n tran sut iv es, 362 ; d i r ec t an d

i d t bj n i rec o ec t , 363 S .

O B J EC T I V E OR F A CTITI E P E I C E 369 71 V R D AT ,
.

A I T R IB U T IVE
' ‘
AN D A PP OS ITI E AD J EC T I V E AN N OU N V D ,
372 - 9 : ut i v e adj ec t iv e
t rib
at- ,

372 -
4; a ppo s i t v i u 375 ; pp i t v
e no dj t v n, a os i e a ec i e, 376 ; att r i b ut iv e n o un 377 ,

r ue sl ,
378 ; ag reem en t , 379 .

A D V E R B 380 83 , .

G E N I T I V E O R P OSSESS I V E CA SE OF N OU NS ,
384 —9 po ss ess
: iv g i t iv
e en e, 384 ; s ub
j ec t i v e , j
o b ec t i v e, an d appo s it iv e g en t i i v e, 385 ; ad ec t j iv v l u f
e a e o th e c ase,

386 —9 .

A D E I L O BJ ECT I V E
V RB A CA SE OF N o un s 390 —94 ,
.

N OUN U SED AB S O L U T E L Y 395 - 7 ,

.

P R E P O S I T I ON A L P H R A SES 398 404 ,

uses o f prepo s t ii on s , 398 4 00 prepo s t ii o n al

dj ec t iv e a d ad v e b ph rases 4 01
a n r ,
4 .

S um m ar y of t he c om b i n a t i o n s fo r m i ng a s m i pl e sen t en c e, 405 - 6 ; b are an d com

j i l xp
°

plet e s ub ec t an d pred i cat e, 4 07 ; s m p e, e an d ed , an d c o ni po un d ed sen t en c es ,

408 1 0 .

E XE RC I S E S , I M P L E S E N T E N CE C ON S T R U C T I ON S pp 1 81 7
FO R P R ACTI C E m S ,
.
- .

X I I I Im p l c ll t iv
. d p ud ubj t
ers o n a XI V P d i t ,
u o ec e, an com o n s ec s . . re ca e n o n

an d dj t iv ; d v b i l p d
a t ecXV O bj t f the b ; bj t iv p d i
a er a re i ca e . ec s o e v er o ec e re

c t a e XVI At t i b ut v
. d app i t iv d j t iv . d u rX V I I Ad v b i e an os e a ec e an no n . . er s .

XV I I I P s i c d p. iv X I X Ad v b i l b j c t iv d m m
o ses s v c ase an o ssess es . . er a o e e an o

i n at i v e ab so l ut e XX . P repo s t i o n a ph rases i l .

C H A P T E R XI V — CO M P 0 U N D . AN D C O M P LE X S E N T E N CE S , 4 1 1 - 37

(pp . 1 88
Filli ng up an d c om b i n at o n i o f sen t en c es , 41 1 - 4; c om b i i
n ng w o rd s , l
c a us es , 41 5 ;
d eg rees o f c om b i n at o n i ,
4 16 ; i n d epen d en t c l a us es ,
com po un d sen t en c e, 41 7 —9 ;
d epen d en t c a l uses , co m pl x e s en t en c e, 4 20 - 4 ; com plx e s en t e n c es W i t h m o re

th an on e d epe n d e n t c a l us e , 4 25 ; com po un d -c o m ple x s en te n c es , 4 26 ; c o m p i cat ed l

s en t en c es , 4 27 ; s um m ar y f ul o r es , 4 28 ; dj t iv
a l ec e-c a us es ,
4 29 - 30 ; ad v erb

c la uses ,
431 —3 ; s ub s tan t iv l u e-c a s es , 434 - 5; i om s si on of tha t, 436 ; d epen d en t
c la uses i ti 437 o f ad d on , .

E X E R C I S E S F O R R A C T I CE m C M CO M P L E X S
,
N S pp 2 01
P 10 O P O U ND AN D EN I E
' ‘
CE ,
.
- .

X X I C b i ti . d p ti f
om t XX I I C p u d
na on t an se ara on o sen e n c es . . om o n sen e n c es

i d p d t
n e l t l u
en X X I I I C pl x t
en (w i t h
c c -o rr m a c d p d c a s es . . om e s en e n c es on e e en

t l u )
en X X I V C pl x t
c a se (w i t h. th d p d t l u ) . om e s en e n c es m o re an on e e en en c a se

comp ud pl w t o XXV A lj t i
n - o
c l u X X V I Ad v b l u
m o s en en c e s . . ( cc v o -c a s es . . er -c a ses .

X X V I I S uh t ti l u X X VI I I O i i
. f th t ; d p d
s an t l u f
vc -c a s es . . m ss o n o a e en en c a ses o

d d ti
a i on .
 T AB L E or C O NT E NT S . xi

.
CH A PTER XV . I N FI N ITI VE AN D PA RT I C I PL E C ON S T RU C T I ON S ,

4 38 —62 (pp . 211

I NF I N ITI VE S AN D P A R T I C I ES PL ,
c h arac t er an d use o i ,
438 .

IN r-
rm
‘
r rv ras , 4 39 —452 : i n fi n i t i ves an d i n fi n i t ive -ph rases , 439 ; use an d o m i ss i on of
th e
“
s ig n to, 44 0 —1 ; c o n s tr uc t i on s of t h e i n fi n i t i v e, 44 2 ; s ubj ec t pred i cat e ,

no un ,
44 3 ; j
o b ec t , 4 44 ; a ft er ii
prepo s t o n , 4 4 5 ; pec u i ar t es o f i n fi n i t i ve i n i n g , l ii
446 - 7 ; ad v erb a il ob ec j tiv e, j
448 ; s ub ec t t o t h e i n fi n i t i ve, 449 ; o t h er c as es, 4 50 ;
ag ree m en t , 451 .

PARTI C I P L ES , 452 - 62ii l : i

part i i pl
c es and part c p e-ph ras es 452 ; c o n st ruc t on s , 453 ; ,

w i th ux ili i 454 ;
a tt i iv j iv
ar es , i as ai iv r b ut e ad ec t es, 455 ; pr ed c at e, 456 ; appo s t e
457 - 8 ; i fi i t i d p t i i pl
n q uiv l
n t f l u
ve 458 - 60 ; b
an l ut ar c e e a en s o c a ses , a so e co n

t u ti
s r 46 1
c p t i i pl
on , u d ub ta t iv l y 462 ar c es se s s n e , .

E XE R C I S E S F O R A C I C E N I N I N ITI E A
, P A R T I C I E C ON ST R U C T I ON S pp
PR T I F V ND PL , .

2 25 7 XX I X I fi it i
- : t u ti XXX P ti ipl
. n t u ti
n ve c o n s r c on s . . ar c e c on s r c on s .

C H A PT E R XVI .
—I N T E R R O G A T I V E AN D I M P E R AT I VE S E N T E N C E S ,
4 63 —8 1 (pp . 228
Th e th ree k i n d s o f s en t en c e, i d f qu t i 463 ; i n t er ro g at iv e sen t en ce, 4 64 ; k n s o es on s,

d th i
an w 465 9 i t
e r an s g t iv gers , t 470 i v t d di t i l n erro a e a rran e m en ,
n er e con on a

t 4 71 ;
sen en c e, h g f i t g t iv d 472 ; k i d
c an f i t g t ive o lu n er ro a e or er, n s o n erro a e c a s e,

4 73 ; i p t iv dm d era t 4 74 5 ; k i d
e m o f i p t iv l u 476 ;
e an sen en c e , - n s o m era e c a s e,

i p t iv ph
m era 477 ; th
e- f f i p t iv
ra s es , d pt t iv xp i o er o rm s o m era e an o a e e ress o n ,

478 80 ; x l
- t y i t e g t iv t
c am a o r 4 81 n erro a e s en en c e, .

E X E RCI S ES F O R P CTI C E I NT ERR G A TI VE A I M ER A TI V E C ON ST R U C T I O N S

,
RA IN O ND P

pp 2 34 - 6 X XX I M i
. ll u x pl: . sc e an eo s e am es .

C HAP TE R XVIL — AB B RE V I AT E D AND I N CO M P L E T E E X P R E S S I O N ,

4 82 508 (pp 237 .

Com p ete l an d i n com p ete l sen te n c es , 4 82 ; abb re vi t i

a on , 48 3 - 4 ; ab b re vi t i
a on in co

o rd i n ate l
c a us es , 4 85 ; us e of c on j u ti
nc o n s, co m po un d m em b ers of s en t e n c e

486 - 8; v i
ab b r e i a t o n of d e pen d e n t c a l us e , 4 89 - 91 ; i n q ues t o n i an d an s w er,

490 ; s ub s t i t ut i f on or repea ted pa r t s of s pee c h , 4 92 - 3; com pa rat iv l e c a us es ,

W t ih as an d tha n ,
4 94 ; o m i ss i o n of pa rt s of th e s en t e n c e , 4 95 ; v i u
ar o s c as es

496 - 7; a b b re vi t i a on fo r i m press iv e n es s , 4 98 ; e xl c am a t o n , i 4 99 - 502 ; i n t erj e c

t ro m al ph ras es 503 ; , c h an g e o f c h a rac t er o f w o rd s , 504 6; id i o m s an d t h ei r e p x i a

i
n a t o n , 507 8 .

E X E RC I S ES F O R R A CTI C E , P lN AB B R E V I AT E D E XP R E S S IO N, pp . 250 - 2 : XXX I I .

Mi ll
sc e u x pl a n eo s e am es .

I N D E X (pp 2 53 .
 E NGL IS H GRAMMAR .

C H AP TE R I .

IN T R O D U C T O R Y : L AN GU A G E A N D G R A M M A R .

1 The E n g li sh l an guage i s the

. l an guage use d by t he
p eo p l e o f En g l an d , an d by all w ho sp eak li k e th em an y

w here l
e se i n the w orld ; for x
e am p l e i n the U ni te d S tates
, .

2 . Th ere are hun d reds an d hun d red s of di fferen t l an guages in

th e w o rl d , an d the on ly w ay w e c an d efin e an y o n e o f th em i s t o
sa l an g u
I t i s th e age u s e d in s uc h an d s uc h a regi o n or b y
y ,

su c h an d su The p eo p l e from w h o m o ur l an g uag e

”
c h p eo p l e .

gets i ts n am e are t ho se l i vi n g i n E n gl an d Thei r forefath ers .

c am e to t hat c o u n try fro m t he n orthern sh ore o f G erm an y ab o u t ,

1 500 y ears ag o an d d ro v e o ut o r d estro y e d t he p eo p l e w h o h ad

,

li v e d in the c o un try b efo re an d w ho h ad sp o ken at v ery d i fferen t

,

lan guage (m uc h l ik e w hat the W el sh the l an g uage o f Wal es is , ,

n o w ad ay s
) .

3 B ecause th e En gl ish l an guage w as b ro ught fro m G erm an y

.

i n to En g l an d , b ei n g t h en o n l y a d ial ect o f G erm an , i t i s st ill v ery

m uch l ike the l an guages o f G erm an y an d is fo r this reas o n o ften
,

ca ll ed a G ER MAN I C l an u
g age (or a TE U TON I C w hic h m ean s the ,

sa m e t hi n
g) An d all the G erm an i c l an g uages al o n g w i th m o st
.
,

o f t he o th ers i n E u ro p e an d a p a rt o f th os e o f Asia fo rm a
, g reat ,

b o dy o f l an guages resem b l in g o n e an o t her an d h en ce call e d a ,

fam il y — the I N D o E U R O P E AN (or the AR Y AN ) fam il y

-
.

4 T he En gl ish-sp eak i n g p eo p l e o f En g l a n d w ere c o n uered i n

q
.

the el ev en th c e n t ury b t h e N o rm a n s a Fren c h-s p eak i n p eo p l e

y , g
2 L AN GU AG E AND G RAMM AR .
[4

an d , b y th e m i x ture o f th e tw o, t h ei r sp eec h a sol c am e to b e

s o m ew h at m i x ed , so t h at a p ar t o f o ur E n l i sh from G er
g c o m es

m an y an d an oth er l arge p art fro m Fran c e t o , sa

y n o thi n g of t he
w o rd s w e h av e g ott en fro m ye t o t her s o urc es .

5 . Th e E n g l is h a l so con quere d an d s et t l ed o t her c o un tri es

th e so uth ern p art o f S c o t l an d , an d , a g o o d d eal l at er, m ost o f
Irel an d an d t h ey h a v e s en t o ut l
c o o n i es to all p arts o f the w orl d ,

w hi c h o f co urse c arri e d t heir E n g l i sh l an g uage w i th t h em ,

far o ut
of En gl an d . S om e of th ese l
c o o n i es h av e b ec o m e g reat n ati o n s
s o , es p eci al l y ,
th at i n N o rth Am eri ca h as gro w n an d i n c reas e d

un t i l i t i s as n um er o us a p eop l e as t he En gl ish of E n g l an d .

Th us th e E n g lis h l an g uag e i s n o w us e d b y m an y m ore p eop l e

out o f E n gl an d th an i n i t b ut i t still k eep s ev ery w h ere i ts ol d
n am e .

6Our E n gli sh ho w ev er, i s b y n o

. , m ean s t he sam e l an
ua
g g e t h at h as a l w a y s g o n e b y t hat n am e, n or is it n ow

used alik e by all t h e p eo p l e w ho s p eak i t .

7 Th e l an guage fi rst b ro ught

. y t o En g from N orth ern G erm an

l an d w as so d ifferen t fr o m o urs t hat w e sh o ul d n ot un d erstan d i t

at all i f w e h ear d i t sp o k en an d w e c an n o t l earn t o r ea d i t w i th

ou t as m uch st udy as i t c o st s us fo r ex am p l e t o r ead Fren c h o r , ,

G erm an Th e reas on i s t h at ev er y l i v i n g l an guage i s all t he

.
,

ti m e c han gi n g S o m e old w o rd s g o o ut o f use o t h er n ew w ord s

.

co m e i n t o use som e c h an
g e t h eir m ean i n g ; all, o r al m ost all ,

c h an g e th ei r pron un ci ati o n an d o ur ph rases ,

l
a so , t he w a y s i n
w hi c h w e put w ord s t o g et her t o xp ress o ur th o ughts b ec o m e b y e ,

d egrees d i fferen t S uch c han ges are so m eti m es v ery sl o w b ut

.

th ey are all th e t im e g o i n g o n ev ery w h er e A th o usan d y ears

,
.

hen c e i f i t l i v es so l o n g th e E n gl is h w i ll b e so far un l i k e w h at
, ,

i t n o w i s t h at w e if w e w ere t o c o m e t o l i fe agai n sh o ul d per

, ,

h aps n o t un d ers tan d i t W i th o ut a g o o d d eal o f troub l e .

8 . The o l d est En gl ish th at we kn o w an yt hi n g o f, t h e E n g l i sh

of t he t im e of K i n g Al fre d an d th erea b o uts ( a th o usan d y ears
a
go ) ,
w e gen erall y ca ll AN GL O SAX O N
-
,
to d istin g uish it from that
1 0] T HE E NGLI S H L ANGU AG E . 3

of l ater tim es ; an d th ere a re o t h er n a m es - s uch Old E n g

as
’
li sh Earl y En gl ish
,
fo r th e l an guage of ti m es b etw een Al fred s
an d o ur own .

W h en we say si m ply “
E n g l i sh ,
we m ean th e l an guage
of our t im e, suc h as we o ursel v es un d erst an d an d use .

9 .
d erab l e d i fferen c es i n th e l an guag e
B ut t h ere ar e c on s i

e v en o f E n gl i sh sp eak er s at th e p r esen t d ay .

T hus al m o st ev er y reg i o n h as som e p ec uli ari ti es i n t he

,

w ay i n whi c h i ts sp eak ers use th ei r E n g l i sh .

There are, fo r e x am p l e ,
th e p ec ul iariti es of t h e E n g l i sh of I re
lan d , n o t i ce d b y us i n th e Iri s h em igran t th ose of th e E n g l i s h

of S cot l an d , se en i n th e p o et ry of B urn s, th e st ori es of S c ott ,

an d
oth er s uch p l ac es an d th ose of th e n egr o E n g l i sh of th e S o ut h

ern U n i t ed S tat es . An d , i n g en eral ,

an E n gl ish m an can t ell an

Am eri can ,
an d an Am eri c an c an t ell an E n g l i sh m an , b y the w ay
he ta lk s .

W h en p ecul iariti es am o un t t o so m uch t hat th ey b eg in

th ese
to i n t erfere a l i ttl e w i th o ur un d erst an d i n g t h e p erso n s w h o h av e
th em w e say t h at s uc h p erson s sp eak a D I AL E CT o f En g l i sh
, ,

rath er th an E n gli sh i ts elf .

10 . Then th ere i s a so l t he d i fferen c e b etw een w h at w e

”
ca ll g oo d E n g l i sh an d b ad E n g l i sh .

B y g o o d E n g l i sh w e m ean th ose w o rd s, a n d th ose m ean i n gs o f

the m , an d t ho se way s o f p utti n g t h em t o get h er, w hi c h are used
b y t h e b es t p eak ers the p eopl e o f b est ed uc ati o n ev ery th i n g
s ,

w h i c h s uc h p eo p l e d o n o t use o r use i n an o t her w a y i s b ad , ,

En gl i sh T hus b ad E n g l i sh i s s im p l y t h at w h ic h i s n o t app ro v ed
.

an d accep t e d b y g o o d an d c aref u l s peakers .

E v e ry o n e w h o sp eak s an y l an g uag e n at u rall y a s w e c all i t , ,

h as reall y l ea rn ed i t fro m tho se w h o m h e h ea rd s peak a ro un d

hi m a s h e w as g ro w in g up B ut h e i s l iab l e t o l ea rn i t i ll fo rm
.
,

i n g b ad a n d i n c o rrec t hab i ts o f sp e ec h o r h e m ay l earn i t fro m

thos e W h o hav e th em se l v es l ea rn ed i t i ll an d m ay c o py th ei r b ad ,
 4 L AN GU AG E AND G RAM M AR .
[1 0

habi ts . Th ere are i n d eed , v ery few W h o d o n ot , w hi l e they are

p eak ac quire so m e w ro n g w ay s w hi c h t hey h av e to

l earn i n g,r t o s , ,

c o rrect a fterw ard s .

It is p artl y i n o r d er t o h el p i n thi s p ro c ess o f c orrec ti n g b ad

h ab its th at t h e g o o d an d app ro v e d us ag es o f a l an g uage are c o l
,

lec ted an d set fo rth i n a b o o k w h i c h i s call ed a gram m ar

”
.

11 H en c e t he E n g l ish l an g uag e as m a d e t he subj ec t of

.
, ,

a
g ram m ar m ean s t h e E n l i sh o f t he p resen t d a
g , y as u se d ,

b y goo d sp eakers an d w ri t ers ; an d E n gl i sh gram m ar i s a

d escri p ti on o f the usages of t he E n g l ish l an guage i n this
s en s e .

A d es criptio n o f on e o f th e earl ier fo rm s o f En g l ish (as the

An gl o— S a x on o r the Mi dd l e En gli sh ) or o f o n e o f the d ial ec ts
, ,

o f En g l i s h
( as t he S c o t ti sh or th e Y o r kshi re o r t he n e ro E n
g ,g
’
,

l ish ) o r o f o n e o f th e form s o f b a d En gl i sh (as th e thi ev es

,

s l an g
) w ou l d,
a l s o b e an E n g l i sh gram m ar b ut i n a d iffer en t ,

s en se ; an d w e s h ou l d n o t call i t sim p l y an E n gl ish gram m ar ,

b ut sh o ul d gi v e i t s o m e d ifferen t n am e w hi c h w oul d t ell pre ,

c i sely w h at i t w as .

12 . d oes n ot at all m ak e rul es an d l aw s for

Gram m ar

l an guage ; i t o nl y rep o rts t he fac ts o f goo d l an guage an d i n ,

an or d erl y w ay so th at t he y m ay b e eas i l y referr e d t o o r

, ,

l earn e d b y an y o n e w ho has o c casi on t o d o so

,
.

13 . N or i s th e st udy of th e gr am m ar o f o n e s o w n n ati
’
v e lan
gu
age b y an y m ean s n ecess a r y, in or d er to co rr ec t n ess o f s p eech .

M o st p erson s l earn g o o d E n gl ish i n t he sam e w ay t h at t h ey l earn

E n g l ish at all, n am e ly ,
b y h eari n g an d r ea d in g b y h eari n g an d
i m i tat i n g go o d sp eak ers, b y st udyi n g b o ok s w ri tt en c orrec t l y an d

w ell , b y c o rrect i n g th em sel v e s an d b ei n g correc ted b y o th ers , an d

so o u . B ut at ten t ion t o th e rul es ofg o o d usage as l ai d d o w n i n

g ram m ars , w i th ill ust rati o n s a n d p rac ti c al e x erc is es , o ft en h el p s

an d h as t en s t h i s p r ocess an d i t i s es peci all y useful t o th o s e w h o

hav e b een un fo rt un at e en o ugh t o l earn at fi rst a b ad k in d of

En gli sh .
6 SE NTEN C E ; P ARTS o r S PEE CH .
[1 6

CH AP TE R II

T H E S E NT E N CE TH E P A R T S O F S P E E CH .

16 . O ur
l an guage l i ke e v ery o ther i s m a d e up of w ord s
, , .

E ac h w o r d h as i t s o wn p art i c ul ar p art t o p l a y i n th e
w o rk o f exp ressi n g o ur t ho ught s i t s o w n m ean i n s an d i ts
g ,

o w n w a y s o f b ei n
g use d a l o n
g w i th o ther w o rd s .

17 . Thus for , e x am p l e ,
s un ,
m o o n , s tar are t he n am es o f

o b ec t s
j .

B ut s hi n e , m o ve , tw i n kl e are o f ui
q te an o th er c h ar ac t er

t h ey are n ot n am es t he y ar e w o r d s w h i c h w e ut w i th
p
n am es l ike th ose gi v en ab o v e , t o st at e o r d e c l are so m ethi n
fl

g
ab o ut t h e obj ec t s t o w hi c h the n am es b el o n g : as w h en
we s ay

t he s un s hi n e s ; t he m o o n m o v es ; t he s ta rs twi n kl e .

Th e w o r d the , a
g ai n, i n th ese s en t en ces, i s un l ik e th e
o th ers it n ei th er n am es an ythi n n or d ec l ares an y thi n g ;
g
it is ne v er use d e x c ep t b efore a n am e, li ke s un , et c .

W e m ay say further , ,

t he g o l d e n s un s hi n es b rig h tly .

H ere go l d e n an d b ri g htl y are w or d s of yet o ther ki n d s ;

ea ch m ay b e use d i n i t s ow n w a y s, b ut n ot i n th o s e of t he
o th ers . An d so i t i s w i th all o ur w or d s .

18 . B ut n ot e v er y w ord is d i fferen t fro m all t he rest in

i t s uses .

T h ere gr eat are a m an y n a m es o f th i n gs w hi c h w e us e i n th e

s am e w ay w i th s un .

T h ere are a g reat m an y w o rd s used in th e s am e w ay w i th

s h i n es ,
to d ecl are s o m ethi n g .
21 ] P ARTS or S P EE C H .
7

Th ere are a great m an y used as g o l d en i s us ed , or b ri g htly .

The w ord s w hi c h are t h us use d alik e w e put t o geth er

i n to l
c asses, an d gi v e eac h c ass a n am e
l .

19. The l
c ass es i n t o w hi ch o ur w o rd s are d i v i d ed ,
a c c or d
i n g to th ei r uses ,
are c a ll e d the

P AR T S OF SP E E CH ;

an d e v er y w or d , b e l o n g in g t o o r an o th er l
‘

as on e c ass, as

hav i n g a c ert ai n ki n d of us e i s ,
c al el d a P ART OF S P EECH .

20 . T hi s p art o f sp eech gi v en t o a w ord p l ai n l y

n am e, , ,

i m p l ies t hat th ere i s so m et hi n g i n co m p l et e ab o ut i t ; t h at i t

i s n ot a w ho l e b ut m ust b e j o i n ed w i th o th er p arts i n
,
“

o rd er t o m ak e a w ho l e or i n o r d er t o b e S p eec h
,
.

T hat i s i n fac t t h e c ase ; an d t h e w ho l e w hi ch t h ese p arts

m ak e u p i s t h e S E NT E N C E .

21 . Al l o ur s p eec h ,
as we act ual l y use i t i n tal ki n g or

w ri t i n g, i s i n s en t en c es ; we do n ot rea ll y say an y t hi n g
un l ess we m ak e a sen t en c e .

I f, for x am p l e w e sp eak t he w ord s s un t ree i n k g o o d n ess

e

u
, , , , ,

h e w e are o n l y m en ti o n i n g som ethi n g

, an y o n e w h o hears s

w il l n at urall y ask W ell w hat ab o ut i t

,

S o if w e s ay s h i n es o r sta n d s o r writes o r we nt : th e n atural

, , ,

q ues tio n is ,
“
1 Vhat s hi n es l
C a n d so o n .

S o , t o o, if w e s ay t he , wit h , g o l d en , b r ig h t ly , awa y , t al l .

B ut if w e sa y

t he sun s hi n e s ; the tree is tal l ;

he writes w it h i n k ; t h ey we n t away ;

w e h av e ll y sai d so m eth in g I t m a y b e v ery un in terestin g

r ea .

i t m ay b e fo o l ish ; i t m ay ev en b e fal se ; b ut i t i s at an y rate

so m et hi n g s a i d t h e p erso n t o w h o m w e sp eak d o es n o t n eed t o
w ai t fo r i t to b e fi n i s hed i n o rd er t o app ro v e o r rej ec t i t We .

hav e th o ugh t so m e th i n g a n d sa i d i t w e ha v e m a d e up o ur m i n d
to so m e p urpo s e o r o t he r a n d to l d w h at i t i s w e hav e (as i t i s
8 SEN T E NC E ; P ARTS or S P EE CH .
[2 1

ca ll ed) form ed an o p in i o n or j ud gm en t ,
an d e xp ressed it b y a
sen t en c e .

A sen t en c e i s, t h en , i n th e sen se thus e xp l ai n ed ,

the ex

p ressi on of a j ud gm en t .

22 . S tri ct l y sp eaki n g ,
thi s d efi n i ti on i s true l y o f o n e kin d
on

o f sen ten c e : th e AS S E RT I VE s en t en ce, as it is c all ed o r t hat b

, y
w hi c h w e assert so m et hi n g , d ec l are so m et hi n g to b e so an d so .

There are tw o o ther ki n d s o f sen t en c e o n e, th e I N TERROGATI VE ,

aski n g a questi on t h us,

d o es the s un s h in e ?
an d the o th er, t he I MP ER AT I V E gi v i n g
,
a c o m m an d: thus ,

s hi n e o ut b rig htl y, s un !

But th e ki n d whi c h w e hav e b een d escribi n g i s th e gul ar an d

re

by far th e m o st c o m m on o n e, an d t he o th er two w i ll b e b est

treat ed aft erw ar d ,
as v ari ati on s of i t .

I n go i n g on ,
t h erefo re, t o sp eak of th e sen t en ce, we ll c on
sha

si d er on ly t h e fi rst ki n d , l eav i n g th e sec on d an d th i rd un ti l l ater .

23 . In form a s en ten c e w e h av e to use w ord s

or d er to ,

o f m ore than o n e k i n d E v ery c om p l ete ac t o f sp eech i s

.

m ade u p o f at l east tw o p arts o f s p eech W e c an n ot pro .

d uc e a sen t en ce b y stri n gi n g t ogether w ord s o f o n e sort

o nl y fo r ex am p l e ,

s un t ree i n k ; s h in es wr ites we n t ;
t he t his yo n d e r ; g o o d g o l d en b rig h t .

N or ,
ag ai n , can w e t ak e w o rd s of d i fferen t so rts at hap
haz ar d o ut of a d i c ti o n ary or sp ell in g-b o ok an d ,
m ak e o f

t hem sen t en c es e v en fo o l i sh o r fa l se sen ten c es . Thus

t he wit h g o l d e n b ri g htl y away ;

s h i n es o v e r is to wa rd ta l l n ev e r .

This w o ul d b e l ik e t ry i n g t o m ake an i n strum en t, or a

p i ec e furn i ture o ut o f
of , m at eri a s l p i c ke d up at ran d om
an d ha v i n g n o a d ap tati on to o n e an o ther . For a sen t en c e
2 6] S U B J ECT AND P RE D I C AT E .
9

there m ust b e n ot onl y w or d s o f m ore t h an on e k in d b ut ,

w o rds o f certa i n ki n d s, fi tted t ogether i n cert ai n w ay s .

24 . As the sen t en ce is a c om b i n at i o n of w or d s b y w hi ch
we d ecl are so m ethi n g to be d so , o r assert th at
/
s o an so m e

thi n g i s true ab o ut so m eth i n g , th ere m ust b e i n e v er y

sen ten c e tw o p arts or m em b ers on e n am i n g t he thi n g
ab o ut w hi ch w e m ak e o ur d ec l arat i on o r assert i o n ,
an d on e

e x p ressi n g w h at w e d ec l are or ass ert o f th e thi n g n am e d .

Thus, i n th e sen t en c e

t he s un s hi n e s ,

the w o rd s t he s un t ell w hat w e m ak e o ur assert i o n ab o ut, an d we

assert ab o ut t he sun t hat i t s hi nes : h in es e xpresses
s w h at w e d e
l
c are t o b e true of th e t hi n g exp ressed b y the s u n .

25 . These t w o n ec essar y p arts of th e s en t en ce we ca ll

th e S U B J E CT an d the P RED I CATE l y a m o re (
pr ed ca te i is on

l earn e d an d hard er n am e for thi n g asserted or d ec l are d

W e c an n o t i n the n at ure of thi n g s m ake a c om p l ete
, ,

sen t en ce w i th o u t j o i n in g t ogether a s ubj ec t an d a p red i c ate .

B ut a sen t en ce d oes n o t n ee d t o c o n tai n m ore th an t w o

w ord s o n e fo r each o f the t w o p arts o r m em b ers
, Fo r .

e x am p l e ,

g o ld g l itters ; ho rs es run ; pape r b urn s ;

Geo r g e read s ; 1 sta n d ; t h e v w ro t e ;

are s o m an y com p l ete sen t en ces the form er ,

w o rd i n each
b e i n g i ts subj ec t an d t he l att er i t s p red i cate
,
.

26 . Ou t h e o ther han d w e, m ay use t w o ,

or t hree, or

m an y w ord s i n n am in g an d d escri b i n g t h e thi n g abo ut

w hi ch w e are
g o i n
g t o m ak e o ur assert io n , a n d as m any
m o re in m ak i n
g the as serti o n ; an d the sen t en c e m ay s t i ll

be d i v i d ed i n t o t he sa m e tw o p arts .

Th us , i n
fat h e r s b e autif ul b l ac k un
’
my h o rses r v y d ay d o wn the
e er

hil l to t he b ro o k fo r water ,
10 S E N TE N C E ; P ARTS or S P EE CH .
[ 26

t he fi rs t fi v e w or d s — my f at h e r s b e a u
’
t if ul b l ac k h o rs es — are

th e s ubj ec t, b ec ause all of them t ak en t o g e t her n am e t hat ab o ut

w hi c h t h e asser t i o n is m a de an d t he o th er e e l v en w ord s ar e the
pre di c ate b ec aus e th ey all c om bi n e to form th e
, ass er ti o n , t ell in g
w hat i s d o n e b y t he h o rses w e h av e d esc rib e d .

27 . We h a v e t h en thi s rul e
, ,

A s en ten ce is c om po se d of tw o pa r t s : 1 . th e s ubj e c t , si g

n i f yi n g t h a t ab o ut W h ich th e a s ser ti o n is m ad e ; an d 2 . th e

p r ed i ca t e , s i g n if yi n g th at W h ich is a s ser t ed of th e s ub j ec t .

N ow w e hav e t o l o ok to see w hat k i n d s of w o rd s, w hat p arts

of s peech ut t o eth er t hus to form t he si m p l est t en ce,
,
are p g s en

th e sen t en c e c o m p o se d o f o nl y t wo w or d s .

28 . A w or d t h at c an b e used as

g l itters , run, b urn s , re ad s , s ta n d , wro te

are use d i n the l itt l e sen t en c es g i v en ab o ve is ,

c all e d a

VER B (t h e w o rd ver b i s Lat i n for

‘
w or d "sim p l y ) .

A v erb i s a w or d t hat assert s or d ec l ares ; an d an y

wo r d that d oes that i s a v erb .

Hen ce ,
we can n ot m ak e a sen t en ce w i th o ut usi n g a v erb the
predi cate of
( the s en t en c e as w e h av e ca ll e d i t ab o v e) m ust b e
a v erb ; an d w e c an n ot d es cri b e a v erb t rul y e x cep t b y sayi n g
th at i t i s a ki n d o f w o r d w h i ch g o es w i t h t h e n am e o f so m e
thi n g t o d ec l are o r h el p d ec l are so m et hi n g a b o ut i t ; i t c an b e
, ,

us ed as t he p red i c at e o f a sen t en c e .

T h i s c n o t b e t oo m u h i n sist ed on a t h e d efi iti s g iv e o f a v e b a e
an c ,
s n on n r r

o fte w h o ll y e r e ous
n r on .

A v erb as w e hav e s een d o es n o t n ec essari l y stan d a l o n e as

, ,

p red ic ate ; i n st ead o f s hi n es w e c an say is s h i n i n g o r is b ril l ian t

, , ,

o r s e n d s d o wn rays an d so o n w hi c h m ean n earl y th e s am e

, ,

t hi n g h ut i n t hes e p h ras es t h e is an d se n d s are v erb s w o rd s

l ike s h i n in g b ril l ia n t rays c an n o t m ak e an assert io n w i tho ut a

, , ,

v erb a dd ed A n d o f h o w ev er i n a n v w o rd s a pre d i c ate m ay b e

.
,

c o m p o sed — as i n ru n ev e ry d ay d o w n t he h i l l to t he b ro o k fo r
33 j VE RB ; N OU N . 11

wate r — i t m ust a l w ay s hav e i n it, as i ts essen ti al p art , a v erb

as r un : si m pl y b ec ause a v erb i s a w o rd th at asserts .

29 . Thus w e h av e th e d efi n i ti on

A r er b is a w ord th a t as s e rt s or d e c l a r e s, an d h en ce th at

ca n st a n d, alo n e or W i th o th e r w o r d s, as th e p r e di c a te of a

se n te n ce.

30 .W hen a p red i c at e i s c om p ose d o f tw o o r m ore

w o r d s w e c al l the si m p l e v erb i n i t t he B ARE p re d i cate an d
, ,

th i s a l o n g w i th the r est t h e COMP LETE pred i c at ef

W e shall see hereafter (350 ) t hat so m e v erb s are v ery rarel y

us ed al on e as p red i cate b ut are m ad e c o m p l ete p red i cat es b y
,

o th er w ord s a dd ed t o t hem w hi c h are c all ed t h eir CO MP L EME NT

,

(t h at i s c o m p l eti n g p art A n d t h ere are n o v erb s w hi c h m ay

n o t ta k e a co m p l em en t o f s om e ki nd .

31 . The o th er w o rd s i n m ost of our l i ttl e sen t en c es o f

t w o w o rd s eac h — n am el y , g o ld , ho rs es , pape r, Geo rge

are ea c h o f t h em w hat i s ca ll e d a N OU N .

’
N oun m ean s si m pl y n am e .

All t hese no un s are n am es o f o b ec ts j t hat w e c an see . Others,

as so un d, n o ise , t hun d er , o d or, are n am es of t h i n gs w h i c h w e
p erc ei v e b y o t her sen s es . Y et o th ers, a s m i n d , l ife , are n am es o f

w h at w e can o n ly t hi n k ab o ut , j
o b ect s o f t h o ugh t . Oth ers st i ll ,

as h eig ht ro un d n ess b ea uty c o urag e are n am es o f the qual ities

, , , ,

o f o bj ec ts There are m an y d ifferen t c l ass es o f n o un s b ut t hey

‘

.
,

are all al ik e n am es an d t h ey can all b e u, se d a s su bj ec t o f a sen

t en c e th ey can b e put al o n g w ith a v erb t o m ak e an ass ertio n
t hey express an y thi n g t h at w e c an d ecl are so m ethi n g ab o ut .

32 . T hus w e h a v e the d efin i tio n

A n o un i s t h e n am e o f a n yt h i n g , a w ord that can sta n d,
a lo n e or W ith ot h er w o r d s, as th e s ub j ect of a se n ten c e.

33 . B ut w h il e a v erb w as t h e on l y ki n d o f w o rd o r p art ,

of s pe ech ,
t hat co ul d b e us ed as a p re d ic ate i n a s en ten c e ,

a no un i s n ot the on ly on e that c an be used as a subj ec t .

12 SEN T E NC E ; P ART S o r S P EE CH .
[ 33

We h ad a sol t he l i t tl e s en t en c es

I stan d , t h ey wro te ,

w h er e I an d t hey are s ubj ec ts ; an d t h ese are w or d s of so

p ec uli ar k i n d t ha t th ey are n o t c al l e d n o un s b ut are m a d e ,

a c l a s s o r p art o f sp eec h b y th em se l v es a n d are c all e d P RO

, , ,

NOU NS : o th er w o r d s o f th e c l ass a re

we , yo u, he , s he , it , t h is , who .

’
T h e w o r d p r on o un m ean s st an din g for a no un . An d th es e
ar e ; i n fa c t , a k i n d o f a dd i ti o n al set o f n am es fo r j
o b ec t s, w hi c h

m a
y b e use d i n st ead of th e no un s , th ei r or d in ary n am es . Th ey
do n o t p r e c i sel y n am e o b ec t s
j b ut t h ey poin t t h em o ut , w h ere

th e c i rc um s tan c es sh o w
pl ai n ly en o ugh lvh at i s
o
r eferre d to . Th us,
i n st ea d o f sa yi n g
the s un s h i n es ,
we m ay say

it s h i n es ,

i f w e h av e sp o k en b efo re of th e s un , i n a w ay t hat m a kes p l ai n

w h at it m ean s . In l ik e m an n er , hav i n g sai d
Geo rg e is st ud io us ,
we m a
y add
he rea d s ,

’
m ean i n
g
‘
G eo rge read s . Or, s p eaki n g t o G eorg e hi m se lf an d
n ot to an y o n e e s e, l we m ay say

yo u r ea d

an d G eo rge m a
y s ay, referri n g t o hi m self ,

I rea d .

We can ,
i n t hi s w ay, say he o r s he o r it of e v ery si n g e o b ec t
l j
th at h as j
a n am e, an t h at w e c an sp ea k o f b y a n o u
o b ec t n t o
y
an o n e t h at w e c an S p eak t o w e m ay s ay y o u; an d an y o n e
y ,

o f t h em t h at can sp eak o f i ts elf m a y c a ll i ts elf I .

Th us t h e p ro n o un s are a s o rt o f un i v ersa l n am es o r un i v ersa l ,

su b st it utes un d er sp ec i al c i rc um stan c es fo r o rd i n ary n am es

, ,
.

Acco rd in gl y w hi l e t here a re h un d red s an d tho usan d s o f ord in ary

,

n am es or n o u
,
ns there are o n l y a few a d o zen o r so o f th ese
, , ,
14 SE NT E NC E ; P ART S or S P EE CH .
[ 37

A w or d th us used i s ca ll e d an AD J ECT I VE : i ts n am e

a d ecti ve si g n ifi es ly s o m ethi n g t hat is

j m ere a dd e d ,

a dd e d to a no un b y w ay of d esc ri p ti o n .

38 . B ec ause th e
dj ecti v e thus d efi n es a qua li ty as be
a

l on gi n g t o th e thi n g exp ressed by th e n oun i t i s sai d t o ,

Q U ALI FY the n o un Or agai n as th e a dd i ti o n o f t h e a djec

.
, ,

ti v e c han ges m o re or l ess t he v a l ue o f t he n o un i t i s al so ,

sai d t o MOD IFY (t hat i s c h an g e so m ew h at the n o un

,
.

Th us, b y paper w e m ean p ap er i n g en eral , w i tho ut an y restri c

tio n ; b ut t o s ay a paper , o r t his pa per , o r whit e pape r , li m i ts
t he pp l i cati o n o f pa per to
a on e p arti c ular k in d , or it m ay be on e

parti cul ar p i ece o f p ap er , .

If, again , we say

m en lo v e pl eas ures ,

we seem to m ean all m en an d a ll p l easures b ut if w e say

g o o d m en lo v e h o n es t pl e as ures ,

we m ak e o ur s tatem en t m ore d efi n i te, an d th erefore n arro w er

we restri c t i t t o th e sm a ll er c l ass o f m en w h o are goo d l eavi n g ,

o ut th e b ad , an d t o th e s m all er c l as s o f p l easures that are h on est

,

l eav in g o ut th e d ish on est .

If, o n ce m ore w e sp eak

, of

tall stiff bIac k hats ,

w e first l im it th e gen eral n am e hats t o th at c l ass o f h ats th at are

b l ac k , th en th e n a m e b lac k h ats t o t hat c l ass t hat are s ti ff, t hen
the n am e s t ifl
’
b l ac k h ats t o that c l ass that are tall ; an d w e
m i ght, b y p ut ti n g his b efore t h e w ho l e red uc e th e still n um ero us
,

c l a ss o f st iff b l ac k h ats t o th e t w o o r three w hi c h so m e p arti c ul ar

p erso n o w n s .

Hen ce an adj ecti v e is al so sai d to L I MI T a n o un or i s call ed ,

a

L I MI T I N G w ord i t l im its si m p l y b ec aus e i t d esc rib es o r d ehues .

39 . T hus w e hav e t he d efi n it i o n

An a dj e c t i ve is a w o rd use d t o q uali f y a n o un — th at is,

to d e sc r i b e or l i m i t th e m e a n i n g o f a n o un .
41 ] AD J E C T I V E . 15

40 . There i s no asserti o n or d ec l arati o n i m p li e d i n an

a dj ect i v e an y m ore than i n a n o un ;

, a no un an d an a d ec
j
t i v e j o i n e d t o get her w i ll n ev er m ak e a sen t en ce t hus,

sun g o l d en , sta rs s h i n in g , e n e m ies b eaten .

B ut w e c an m ak e e it her an a dj ec ti v e or a no un a p art o f
th e a sserti on ab o ut a no un or p ro n o un if , we j oi n th e t w o
to gether by a v erb The v erb w hi ch w e es p ec i al l y use

for t hi s p urp ose i s b e . Th us, for e x am p l e ,

t he s un i s g o l d en ; hi s st iff b l ac k hat w a s tal l ;

t his pa pe r i s w hite ; the m an was a so l d ier ;
t he ir hats are blac k ; we w e r e Ro m an c it iz e n s .

A w or d w hi ch i n th i s w ay b y hel p ,
of a v erb i s ,
m a e a d
p art o f the p red i cati o n or asserti o n ab o ut
'

a s ubjec t i s , call e d
a P RED I CAT E a dj ect i v e or n o un

An adj ec ti v e used as p red icate quali fi es a pron oun as freel y as

a no un : t hus,

he is white ; it was tai l ;

we a re b eaten ; t h e y we re r un n i n g .

[ S ee E x i II
erc se .
, at the en d o f the c h a pt er

41 . There i s a s o an o th er c ass o f
l l w or d s, used t o quali fy
or d escrib e the o th er m em b er of th e sim ple s en t en ce, t he
v erb . If w e s ay

t he s un s h i n es b rig ht l y ,
or s h i n es no w, o r s hi n es a b o ve,
the Wo rd s b ri ghtl y , n o w, ab o v e t el l s o m ethi n g ab o ut th e
m an n er, o r p l a ce ,
or t im e, o f t he acti o n e x p resse d b y s hi n e s
t hey d esc rib e l im it i n o n e w ay or an other the shi n i n g
or , ,

w h i c h w e h av e asserted o f the s un Se i n .

ho rs es r un s w i f t l y Ge o rg e re ad s s o m e t i m e s
, ,

he stan d s t h e r e ,

the w o rd s s w iftly so m et i m e s , a n d there are use d i n the

,

s a m e w ay t o d efi n e the ac ti on o r c o n d i ti on asserte d b t
y eh
v erb .
 I6 SEN T E NC E ; P ART S or SP EE C H .
[ 41

A w or d t hus used i s ca ll ed DV ERB b ecause i t i s a d d ed

an A ,

to a ver b, in m uch the s am e w ay a n d for the sam e p urp ose

as th e dj ec t i v e i s a dd e d t o t h e n o un
a .

B ut m ost a d v erb s are al so c a p ab l e o f b ei n g used t o quali fy

a dj ec t i v es t h us ,

t he b h t l y s h i n i n g s un
r ig , a t r ul
y fa it h f ul f rie n d ,

a v e r y c o l d d ay , a p e r h a p s fa l se re po rt ;

an d s o m e e v en qual i fy a n o t her a d v erb : t h us ,

v e ry b r ig ht ly s h in i n g , q ui t e o f t en s e en .

42 . \Ve hav e, t hen , t h e d efi n i ti o n

Ah a d ve r b is a W o rd us e d to q ua l if y a v er b , or a l so an

ad j ec tiv e , an d so m et i m es an o t h er a d v er b .

43 . T he a dj ec ti v e an d the a d v erb are t hus t h e t w o p arts

of p eec h w hi c h are use d t o
s ac c o m p an y , to d escri be or

q uali f y o r l i m i t an o t h er w o r d ,
.

[S Ex i I I I t th ee erc s e .
, a e en d o f th e

Then th ere ar e a sol tw o p arts of s p eech w hi c h are use d

to c o n n ec t o t h er w o r d s t o g eth er, an d e v en t o co n n ec t s en

t en oes t ogeth er .

44 . We d ab o v e on l y o n e of the uses of the n oun

n oti c e

o r p ro n o un n am el y t hat o f serv i n as s u b j ec t o f a sen t en c e

, g ,
.

N o w w e h a v e al so t o o b serv e th at a n o un o r p ro n o un c an
b e use d l ik e an a dj ec t i v e t o q ual i fy an o th er n o un or l i k e an ,

a d v erb t o
q ual i fy a v erb o r a dj ec t i v e i f i t b e c o n n ec t e d w i th ,

the w o r d w hi ch i t i s t o qua l i fy b y a w or d l i ke o i , to , fro m ,

i n w ith, by, an d s o o n .

Chri s,
a bo x o f wo o d
is th e sa m e th i n g as
a wo o d e n b o x ;

a m an i n d ist ress
is th e sam e a s
a d ist ress e d m an ;
4 5] P RE P O S I T I O N . 17

an em ig ran t f r o m I rel a n d
is the sa m e as
an I ris h em ig ra n t ;

he wa l ks w i t h g rac e
is th e sam e t hi n g as
he wa l ks g rac ef ul l y;

he s pe a ks w i t h d ist i n c t n ess
is t he sam e as
he s pea ks d ist i n c t ly
an d in

go o d f o r fo o d , f a it h f ul t i l l d eat h , t ired o f wal ki n g ,

t h e qualifi c at ion of the a dj ecti v e i s qui te of th e sa m e kin d as

w ou
l d be m a de b y an a dv erb .

These c o n n ec t i n g ll ed P REPO S I T I O NS ;
w o r d s, n ow , are c a
’
t he w or d m ean s si m p l y p l ac ed b efore ; an d the y are i n
‘

fac t us ua ll y p l ac e d b efore t he n o un o r p ro n o un w hi ch they

are t o c o n n ec t t o an ot h er w o r d (j ust as t h e y ar e o ft en pr e

fi x ed t o a v erb or p l ac e d b efore i t t o m ak e a c o m p o un d
, ,

v erb — as in w i t h s tan d , o ut v i e , un d e r li e) .

45 . Eac h prep o si tio n m a kes the no un or p ro n o un w hi c h i t

j o in s on to an o t her w o rd qual ify th at o th er in so m e p art ic ul ar

w ay that i s, i t d efi n es a cert ai n k in d l
o f re at i on as ex i st i n g b e

tw een th e t w o w o rd s . Th us, o f m o st o t en sh o w s f p ossessi o n o r ,

c o n n ec t s th e n am e o f a p ossesso r w i th t hat of a th i n g p o ssessed ,

as in
t he pal ac e o f t he ki n g ;

b y s h o w s t he l
re a ti o n o f n ear n ess , as in

he s its b y t he wa l l ,
o r o f m ean s , a s in
he l ives b y b eg g i n g ;

f ro m sh o w s t he l
re a t i o n o f re m o v al ,
as in
fa r f r o m ho m e ;
un d e r an d o ve r s h o w l
re a t i o n s o f pl a c e a s ,
in

t he pic t ure h a n g s un d e r t he c ei l ing o ve r

an d so o n .
18 SE NTEN C E ; P ART S OF S P EE CH .
[4 5

An d t h e p rep osi ti on s are us ed wi th pron oun s j ust as w i th

no un s th us,

I we n t with hi m ; g o o d fo r he r ;
f a r f ro m yo u; so m e o f u s .

46 . Thus w e hav e t he d efi n it i on
A p r ep o s i t i o n is a w o rd W h ich jo i n s a n o un or pr o n o un to

so m e o th er w ord a v erb ,
an a d j e c t i v e, a n o t h er n o un or pr o
n o un — s h o w i n g th e r el a t i o n b et w e e n t h em .

ii
A prepo s t o n i s n o t qut e s o d s t n c t i i i ly
d efi n abl e a s th e prec ed n g part s o f i
speech i t i s b est un d ersto o d b y e p o f m uc h h l ill
us trat o n , us n g th e c o m m o n i i
est w ord s o f t h e c ass, l li
k e o f, fro m , t o , i h , b y, w t h, fo r i .

[ S ee Ex i erc se IV .
, at th e en d of th e c h apt er

47 . The o th er ki n d o f c o n n ec t i n g w ord i s ca ll e d a C ON
’ ’
J U N CTI ON t hat i s, a w or d t h at
‘
c on oin s
j or j o i n s t ogeth er .

ust om p r o p er us e i s
’

I ts m ost c ar y an d t o j oi n d ifi eren t

sen t en c es t o get her : th us,

he wen t a n d I c am e ;
we s po ke b ut t h ey sa id n ot h in g ;
s he bl ush ed b ec a us e s he was as h a m ed ;
s he pl aye d w h i l e t h ey d an c e d .

S om etim l ik e a n d an d b ut i n th ese sen t en c es th e c on jun c

es, ,

t ion d o es h ard l y m o re th an add o n e sen ten c e o n t o an o th er ;

so m eti m es l ik e b ec a u s e an d w h i l e i t sh o w s t h e sec o n d sen t en c e ,
,

t o stan d i n a c ertai n rel ati on t o th e fi rst : a rel at i on o f w hi ch

th e n at ure i s d efi n ed or m ad e c l ear b y t h e co n j un ct i on T hus .

b ec a us e sh o w s s he was as h am ed t o b e t h e ca use o f t h e bl ush

i n g w h i l e sh o w s th e d an c i n g t o h av e a cco m pa n i ed th e p l ay i n g ;
an d s o c m .

B ut so m e of th e m o st c o m m o n c on j un ct i on s
p ec i all y ,
es

a n d , a re a so l used t o c o n n ec t in t he sam e sen t en ce w o r d s

t hat a re th e sam e p art of s p eec h a n d are used i n th e sam e

w ay i n th e s en t en c e : th us,

he d I c am e a g reat an d good m an ;
an ;
ud tho ug h c h il d l ike fo r m po o r b ut h o n es t paren ts ;
a pro
by an d w it h t h e i r c o n se nt .
51 ] I NT E RJ E C T I O N . 19

48 . T hus w e h av e t he d efi ni ti o n
A con j un cti o n is a w o rd us e d t o c o n n e c t se n t en c es t o g e t h er
o r, a l so , w ord s us e d i n th e sam e w ay in a s en ten c e.

[ S ee x i V t th
E erc s e .
,
a e en d o f t h e ch apter ] .

49 . Th e se v en kin d s o f w or d s
d escrib ed an d d efin ed are th us
t he p arts o f sp eec h th ere are n o o th er c l asses h av i n g a use in
for m i n g sen t en ces di fferen t en ough fro m th ese t o m ak e us c lassi fy
t h em as separate p arts o f sp eec h As w e hav e seen a l rea dy they .
,

fall am o n g them s el ves i n t o t hree w el l m arked d iv isi on s : th ese are -

1 . Th e three i n d ep en d en t p arts o f sp eech t he n o un th e , ,

p r o n o un , an d t he v er b, cap ab l e o f fo rm i n g sen t en c es w i t ho ut
t he o t h ers

2 The t w o qualifi ers, a dj ec t i v e an d a d ve r b ,

. l w ays attach ed
a

to so m e o t her w o rd , w hi c h t hey d escri b e o r l i m i t an d

3 . The t w o c o n n ect i v es, p r ep o s i ti o n an d con j un c ti o n ,

w h ic h j oin on e w ord o r s en t en c e to an o th er .

50 . B ut w e m ust n o ti c e h ere t hat t here i s yet an other

l
c as s of w o rd s, us ed i n e x c l am ati o n , w hi c h are usuall y

rec k o n e d as a p art of s p eech ,

an d ca ll ed I NT ERJ E CT I ONS .

E x am p l es of t h em are

oh! ah ! fi e ! ps haw ! ho la !

The n am e i n t e rj ec t i o n s ig n i fi es s o m et hi n g that i s i n terj ected ,

or t hro w n i n to t h e m idst of so m ethi n g e se l an d thi s so m ethi n g

e sel is t he d e up o f t he oth er p arts o f sp eech

sen ten c e, as m a .

Ca ll i n g them t hus t hen i m p l ies t hat th ey a re n o t parts of the

, ,

sen t en c e i tself t h ey are n o t put t o g et her w it h o ther p arts t o

m ak e u sen ten c es An d thi s i s i n fa c t t he case Hen ce tho ugh
p . .
,

i t i s p ro p er en o ugh b ecause c o n v en i en t t o c all th e i n terj ect io n s

, ,

a p art o f sp eec h t hey a re n o t so i n t h e sam e s en se as t he o thers

, .

Eac h i n terj ec t i o n i s i n a c ertain w ay a n un d i v i d ed sen ten c e put ,

i n the l an g uage o f feel i n g rat her t han i n that o f reas o n .

51 . We ad d , t hen , th e d efi n it io n
An i n t e rj e ct io n is an ex c l am a t io n , ex pr es s i ve of f e e li n g ; it
d oe s n o t co m b in e w i th o th er w o rd s to fo rm a se n te n c e, an d
so is n ot in th e sa m e s e n se w it h the r est a pa r t of s pe e c h .
20 SEN T E NC E ; P ART S OF S P EE CH .
[ 52 - 55

52 . S o m eti m es th e l i tt l e w o rd s a or a n an d t he , w hi c h are

l d
c al e t h e A R T I CL E S , are r ec k o n e d as parate p art o f sp eech
a se

b ut , as t h ey a l w ays qua li fy no un s , t hey are r eall y o n l y a p ec ul i ar

k in d of a dj ec ti v e .

A gai n , t h e w or d s o ne, two , t h re e , an d so oh ,

w hich w e c all

N UME R AL S , b ec ause t h ey e xpress n um ber , or are used i n n um er a t

i ng or co l t hei r p ec ul i ari t i es yet t hey are n o

un t i n g , h av e a so

p art o f sp eech b y th em s el v es b ec ause t hei r uses are al w ays th ose

,

ei th er o f n o un s o r o f a dj e c t i v es .

An d w e shal l h av e t o n o ti ce h er eafter on e or t w o o th er such

c a s GS .

53 . As n o t i ce d ab o v e we use b esi d e s th e
, assert i v e,

s en t en ces o f tw o o t h er k in d s, i n t err o g at i v e an d im p erat i v e ,

or q uest i o n s an d c o m m an ds .

54 . B y an I NTERROG AT I VE sen ten c e ,

or q uest i on w e ,
ex

p ress d esire t o k n o w so m et hi ng B ut i n st ea d o f p utti n g

a .
,

’
i t i n th e fo rm o f a stat em en t I d esire t o k n o w o r I w i sh , ,

u u
’
t t el l m h n d suc h a thi n w e m ak e k n ow n o u
y o o e s c a , g r ,

w i sh b y a p ec uli ar fo rm o f sen t en c e : usual l y by p utt in g t he

su bj ec t n o un o r p ro n o un aft er t he v erb th us ,

have yo u any fi s h ? was he t he re ? w il l s he go ?

There are a sol s p ec ia l c a ss e s o f

l i n t er r o g a ti v e w ord s (see
b el o w 1 6 9 , 2 0 9 , 31 3 e )
, ,
p ron oun s or a dj ec t i v es or a d verb s ,

w hi ch h av e i n t hem se l v es a quest i o n -
aski n g m ean i n
g: th us,

w h o w as t h ere ? w h y d i d he com e ?
by w h at ro ute d id h e ar ri e v ?

55 . By an I M PE RAT I VE sen ten c e we e xp ress o ur w i ll or

w i sh t h at a thi n g b e so an d so ; w e gi v e a c o m m an d to

so m eb o dy . Thi s i s d o n e b y usi n g a c ertai n fo rm of the

v erb ,
h en ce c a ll e d t he i m p e r a ti v e m o d e (b el o w ,

th us,
g iv e m e the fi s h ! g o awa y f ro m he re !
 22 SEN T E N C E ; P ART S or S P EE C H .
[ca m

d ar k sm o k e r i s es in the a ir fr o m t h e t all c hi m n ey. Th e l ea f

fell fr o m t h e t r ee t o t h e g r o un d Th e n i g h t i s d ar k W it h c l o ud s
. .

H e ri d es o n h i s hor se A h o t fi r e o f c o a l s i s b urn i n g
. T h e d og s .

b a r k e d l o ud l y i n t h e d i s t an t v i ll a g e . A 0 10 61: of w o o d t i c k ed on

t h e w al l . Th e clo ud s ar e h ea v y w ith ra i n . Ice m el t s s o on in

th e h ea t of th e fi r e . Th e h a ppy c h i l d r en o f o ur t ea c h er s i n g
s w e e tl
y en o ug h fr o m t h ei r b o o k o f h y m n s Th e W i n d s o f W i n t er .

ar e c o ld .

W it h j un c t i o n s —4 8
'

V . con : 47 .

I n w r i tin g o ut an d d i vid i n g i n t o subj ec t an d predi c at e such sen

t eh e es as a r e c o n n ec t e d bV c on j un cti on s ,
th e d i v id i n g l i n es o f t he t w o

(o r m or e ) sen ten ces m ay be s et o n e ab o ve the o ther , an d t he c on

jun c
t i o n b et w een t h em t hus,

we I l a ug hed lo ud ly , the b ri g ht s tars I t wi n k l e

but w h en
t h e y I were l
s i e nt . t he s ky I is l
c ear .

I w en t t o sc h o ol an d sh e s t a y ed at h o m e T h e d og b ar k ed at .

t h e b o y, a n d h e r a n a w a y . T h e y li st en e d w i t h a t t en ti o n W h i l e I
s po k e t o t h em Th e d a y i s . w a rm i f t h e s un s h i n es H e s an g t i ll .

h e w as h o ar s e an d w e w ere t i r e d . Th e s mok e r i s es in the air

b ec a us e i t i s l ig h t . Th e b o y en t t o t h e w
pl a y g r o un d w h en t h e
b el l r an g He a n d . I g o t o s c h o o l t o g et h er T h e w h i t e s n o w .

l i es h i g h h i ll s a n d i n t h e d eep v all e y s Y o u r id e o n t h e
on th e .

r oa d b ut w e w alk t hr o ug h th e fi el d s
, .

S h l a s sh ul d b e m ad e t o fo m b y t h em selv es o r u d e th e d i
c o r o ti of r , n r rec on

th e t ch e m ea y ill ust at iv s t n ces o f t he s am e k i d as t h o se g iv h e

r
,
an r e en e n en er .

E p i ll y t h y sh ul d b e prac t i d i n m aki
g a b a e sen t n f two w d
s ec a , e o s se n r e ce o or s a

a st a t i g po i n t a d filli
r
g i t o ut b y ad d i g o th er p t s f speec h t o i t s subj e t
-
n n n n ar o c
,

an d p ed i t d fi i g th e h a c t er a d ur o se o f
r c a e, e n n h d d i t i o s m ad e
c ra n
p p eac a n a .

VI . M i s c e l l a n e o us e xa m pl e s o n the c h a pt e r .

'

In o rd er t ha t th e ly ubj ec t
s en t en ces m a
y be p ro
per d i v i d ed i n t o s

d pred i cat e, t h ey s houl d , i f n ec essary, b e ged , th e w ord s

an r e arran

b ei n g put i n t o t he m ore usu al ord er T h us .

T he g l i m m eri n g l a n d s c a pe I fa d e s no w o n t he s ig ht ;
T um ul t and ye l l o w
‘

afi r i g ht I w as b y t he T ib e r .

Th e b orr o w er i s s er v a n t t o t h e l en d er .

P r o cr a st i n at i o n i s t h e t h i e f of t im e .

G r a c e w a s i n a ll h er s t e ps .
u). E XE RC I SES .
23

Out of the ab un d an c e of the h ear t th e m o ut h s

pea k et h .

N o w o rk i s d i s g r ac e ; t h e t rue d i s g ra c e i s i d l en ess
a .

S to l en w a t ers ar e s w eet , a n d b r ead e a t en i n s ec r et i s pl easa n t .

Th e c hi l d i s fa t h er t o t h e m a n .

S ur e l y i n v ain th e n et is s pr ea d in the sig ht o f an y bi r d .

The l o w i n g h er d w in d s sl o w ly o er
’
t h e l ea .

N ow fa d es t h e g l i m m er i n g l an d s c a pe o n t h e s ig ht .

Th e pat h s o f g l o r y l ea d b ut t o t h e g r a v e .

B y th e y e l l o w T i b er w a s t um ul t an d a ffr ig h t .

I n d us t r y i s t h e r o a d t o w ea lt h .

A bo v e i t s t o o d t h e s er aph s .

Th e m o rn i n g -s t ar s san g to g et h er a n d a ll t h e s on s
, of G od s h o ut ed
for j o y .

We s il en tl y g a z ed o n t h e fa c e o f t h e d ea d ,
An d w e b i t t er l y t h o ug h t o f t h e m o rr o w .

S o ft d pal e i s t h e m o o n y b ea m ,
an

M o v el es s s t ill i s t h e g l a s s y s t r ea m ;
Th e w a v e i s c l ear ; t h e b ea c h i s b ri g h t
W it h s n o w y s h ell s an d s pa r k li n g st o n es ;
T h e s h o r e-s urg e c om es i n r i ppl es l i g h t .

An h o ur pas s ed on ; th e T ur k a w o k e ;
T h a t b r i g h t d r ea m w a s hi s l a s t .

Th e w a y w a s l o n g ; t h e w i n d w as c ol d ;
T h e m i n s trel w as i n fi rm an d o ld .
24 I N FLE CT I O N .
[ 56

CHAP TE R III .

INF L E C T I O N .

56 . We ha v e l earn ed n ow d i sti n gui sh t he p arts o f

to
sp eech ac cor d i n g t o the
, d ifferen t w a y s i n w hi c h th eyare
us ed w hen w e put w o rd s t og eth er t o m ak e a sen t en ce .

N e x t w e h av e t o n o ti ce c ert ai n c h an ges o f form w hi c h

so m e o f t h em un d erg o a c c or d i n g t o d i fferen c es i n their
“

m e an i n g or d ifferen c es i n t h e c on n ec ti o n i n w h i c h t hey are

,

use d .

57 . L et us t ak e as e x am p l es the li tt l e s en t en c es

t he m an l e a r ns ; I go ;
t he h o rs e run s ; he was .

H ere m an an d ho rse ar e n o un s an d I an d he are

pro
no un s an d eac h no un h as b efore i t an a rt i c el an d

eac h no un or pron oun is th e subj ect (2 7 ) of t he sen t en c e i n

w h ich i t i s used .An d learn s r uns g o was are v erb s, an d
, ,

eac h i s th e pr ed i cate (2 7 ) i n i ts o w n sen ten c e .

N ow e v er y on e o f th ese w o rd s m a
y c h an ge i ts
form a
l i tt l e i n
,
or d er to m ean s o m ethi n g a l i tt l e d i fferen t from
w hat i t n o w m ean s .

58 . Thus i f w e w an t t o
,
s p eak n o t o f on e m an o n l y b ut ,

o f m or e t han o n e, we a l t er th e so un d of it (an d h en ce a l so
t he s p ell i n g) ,
an d say m e n .

If w e w an t t o p eak o f m o re than o n e ho rs e , w e ad d
s

a n o th er s y l l ab l e en d i n w i t h s , an d s a
y ho rs e s
g ,
.

I f i n st ea d o f m y s elf a l o n e I sp eak o f a n um b er o f per

, ,

so n s o f w ho m I am o n e, I c h an g e I t o we, an d sa
y w e go .

A n d i n t he sa m e w ay w e c h an g e he t o the y .
59] N U M BE R . 5

H ere ,
t hen , i s a set o f c h an
g es i n th e form of n o un s an d
p ro n o un s m ad e i n o rd er t o sh ow a d i fferen c e i n
, t h e n um ber
o f o bj ec t s m ea n t w h et h er a s i n g l e o n e o r m ore t han o n e
,
.

H en c e w e c al l i t a c han g e for NU M B ER ; an d w e say that

m an , ho rs e I, an d he ar e o f t h e S I N GU L AR n um b er (si n g u
,
lar
m ea n s an d t h at m en , ho rs e s , w e , an d t hey are
of t he P LU RAL n um b er (plur a l c o m es fro m t he Lat i n w or d
u
’
pl s ,
m o re, an d so m ean s m o re t h an on e

W hat i s tr ue o f t hese n o un s an d p ro n o un s i s tr ue al so o f
n ea rl y all t h e r est ; w e d o n o t us e p r ec i s el y t h e s am e w or d

w h en w e m ean on e an d w hen w e m ean m ore t h an on e .

Oth er e x am p l es a re

b o o k , b o o ks ; m in d , m in d s ; e ye , y
e es ; b ea uty , b ea ut i es ;
o x, o xen ; fo o t , fe et ; m ouse , m ic e ; s he o r it , t h ey ;
t h is , t h es e ; t h at , t h o se .

That i s t o say, o ur no un s p ro n o un s i n g en era l hav e

an d

tw o n um b er-form s, o n e s i n gul ar an d th e o th er p l ural .

59 . B ut i f i n these li ttl e sen ten c es we use th e p l ural

form s as s ub ec t s j i n st ead of the si n g ul ar w e , c an n o t a l w ays
use t he sa m e form s of th e v erb as p red i c at es : t hus, c om

p are
t he m an l earns; t he m en l ea r n ;
t he h o rs e r un s ; t he h o rses r un ;
he w a s ; t h ey w e r e ;

a l tho ugh ,
i n t he o t h er case, we say b oth
I g o an d we g o .

T his c han g e i n t he v e rb , w h en i t i s m a d e d o es
, n o t, i t is true,
sh o w a d i ffe re n c e o f m ean i n g i n t he s a m e s e n se as t he c ha n g e in
the no un ; fo r we c an n o t rea ll y y th at th e
sa act o f l ear n i n g or

r un n i n g ,
or t he con d it io n o f b ei n g , i s i n it sel f d iffere n t ac co rd i n g
as o n e p ers o n or thin g , o r m o re th an o n e, t a k e p art i n i t T he .

c ha n
ge is , ra t he r, a m e re c o n s e
q ue n c e of t he c han g e o f m ea n i n gr
of t he no un s . ha v e s o m et im es
( n ot b y an y m ea n s a l w ay s )
26 I NF L E C T I O N .
[59

di fferen t form s of our v erb s o n e o f w hi ch w e are accust om ed t o ,

us e a l o n g w i th a si n gul ar subj ec t an d an o t h er al o n g w i th a
”

,
/
p l ural s ubj ect It w o ul d b e j ust as m uc h a Vi olati o n of goo d
.

E n gl i sh usag e t o s ay

t he m an learn , the m en learns ,

he h av e , t h ey h a s ,
I a re , we am ,

an d th e l i ke as ,
t o use m an an d he an d I w h en we m ean m o re

t h an o n e p erso n ,
or m e n an d t h ey an d we w hen w e m ean on ly
on e .

60 . We say, t h erefo re, th at th e v er b a so l h as so m eti m es

for use w i t h ubj ec t t h at i s si n g ul ar

‘

tw o fo rm s, o n e a s , an d

the o t h er for use w i t h a s ubj ec t p l ura l ; an d t hese

t h at i s
form s we ca l l th e si n g u
l ar an d p l ur al n um b er-form s o f t h e

v erb i t self .

An d ,
as th e d i st in c t i on
d ep en d o n of t h eir use d o es n ot

an y t hin g i n t h e m ean i n g o f t h e v erb i t self b u t o nl y on t h e ,

c h ar ac t er of t h e s u bj ect w e sp eak o f t h e sub j ec t w h eth er, ,

n ou n o r p ro n o u n as d irec ti n
g o r G O V ER N I N G i n th e m at ter
,

th e subj ec t b ei n g gi v en th e v erb i s com pelled t o AG REE ,

w i th i t i n r esp e c t t o n um b er .

Th es e w ord s, G O VE R N ME N T an d A G REEM E N T , are m uch used i n

gr am m ar , an d thi s i s th ei r si m pl e m ean i n g .

Th er e i s yet an o th er m atter i n r el at i o n t o w hi ch th ey h av e
to b e us e d ab o ut th e v erb an d i ts s ubj ec t .

61 . I f w e use as s ubj ec t s t h e t hree p ron o un s I, tho u, he ,

(o r s he o r i i ) th e v erb use d
,
l
a on
g w i t h eac h i s g en erall y
d i fferen t t h us,

I l ear n t h o u Ie a r n est ; he l ea r n s .

H ere g ,
a ai n
g ,
th ere i s n o t hi n ch an
ge d i n th e ac t i o n of

lea rn i n g s ign ifi ed b y th e v erb ; t he r ea l ch an g e i s o n l y i n

t he c h arac t er o f i t s subj ec t l i s al w ay s used b y a p erso n .

s p eaki n g ,
to si
g i f
ny h i m se lf tho u, t o sig n i fy th e p erso n to
64] P ERS O N T E NS E .
27

w h om he i s s p eak i n g he ( o r s he or ii ) t o sign i fy an y per

,

so n ( or t hi n g) o t h er t han hi m se lf o r t h an t he p ers on t o

w ho m h e i s p eak i n g t h at i s a n y p er so n o r t h i n g s p ok en
s ,

oi . T hi s d ifferen ce i n t he p ro n oun s i s ca l l e d a d ifferen c e

o f P ERS O N ; an d i n o rd er t o d i st i n g u
,
i sh t hem fro m o n e
a n o t he r w e c all ( 1 5 3) I th e p ro n o u
,
n o f t h e FI RS T P ERS O N ,

t ho u(o r yo u ) h ro n o un o i t he SE C O N D P ERS O N a n d he
‘

t e p ,

(o r s he or ii ) t he p ro n o un o f t h e T HI RD P ERS O N .

62 H en c e w e say as b efo re t hat the v erb has som e

.
, ,

t i m es t hree p ers o n form s fo r us e w i t h s ubj ec t s o f t he fi rst

-
, ,

s e c o n d a n d t hir d p erso n s res p ec t i v e l y

,
a n d t h ese fo rm s w e

c all t he fi rst sec o n d an d th i r d p ers o n s o f t h e v erb i ts elf

, , .

An d here ag ai n i t i s t he s ubj ec t t hat GOV ERN S o r d eter

, , ,

m in e s w h at t he fo rm o f t he v erb m u st b e i n r es p ec t t o ,

p erso n a s w el l as n um b er ; the subj e ct be i n g g i v en the ,

v erb i s m a d e to AG REE w i t h i t i n b ot h p erso n an d n um

b er .

63 . A v erb , w e m ay n o t i c e h er e, i s of the fi rst o r of t he

s eco n d p ers on l y w h en
on i ts s ubj ec t i s a p ro n oun of th e fi rs t
or o f t he sec o n d p erso n . E v ery no un h as t he v erb i n t h e t h i rd

p erso n th us ,

John Iearn s ; Mary l earn s ;

.
t he d o g l e ar n s .

64 . B ut t h e v erb h as l (as w ell a so as th e no un ) c h an g es

of fo rm to m ark real d i fferen c es o f m ean i n g . O ur v erb s
l earn s , u
r n s, 90 (i n th e sen t en c es g i v en as e x am p l es ab o ve)
ha v e t o b e a l tere d if we w i sh d i st i n c t l y t o s ay t hat t he
a c t io n s of lea r n i n g ,
r un n i n g go in g t oo k p l ac e
,
so m e t im e

ag o , a t s o m e m o m e n t i n t he p as t . I n th a t case, w e sho ul d
sa
y
the m an learn e d ; t he h o rs e ra n ; I we nt .

T hus w e m ak e by a c h an ge o f fo rm o f the v erb a d is

t in c t io n of t he ti m e of th e ac t i o n ,
as p as t o r p resen t . Th is
is ca l l ed a d i st i n c t io n o f T ENS E
( e
t h n am e ten se i s an al
28 I NF L E CT I O N .
[ 64
’
t ered fo rm of th e Lat i n w or d for t im tem pl es) ; an d
‘
e,

l earn s ,
u
r ns, 90 are sai d t o b e o f t h e P RE S E NT t en se w hi l e ,

learn e d , ran , w e n t are s ai d t o b e o f t h e P AS T or P RETER I I

’‘

ten se (p reter i t is a Lati n w or d for g o ne by , p ast

Th e use d i fferen t ten ses o f t h e v erb d o es n ot
of the
d ep en d li k e that o f th e d i fferen t n um b ers an d p erson s o n
, ,

th e ch arac t er o f an y o t her w o r d w i th w hi c h t h e v erb i s

j oi n ed b ut onl y o n the d i fferen c e o f th e m ean in g w hi c h
,

w e w an t t o e x p ress .

65 . On e d i fferen c e o f m ean i n g i s
o th er m a de ,
m uch l ess
o ft en by a
, ch an g e i n t h e fo rm o f t he v erb . We say

he w a s her e ,
b ut if he w e r e here , I sh o uld b e g l ad ;

he i s an gr y ,

b ut tho ug h he b e an g r y , he w i l l n o t s ho w it ;

he l e a r n s his l ess o n ,

b ut whet h e r he l e a r n it o r n ot I do n o t c are .

T hi s i s call e d a d i st i n c t i o n of M O D E (or M OO D it i s a

Latin w or d m ean i n g m an n er t h at i s, of th e m a n n er o f

vi ew i n g the ac ti o n
xp ress e d b y t he v erb w heth er as
e ,

ac t u al or as d o ub t ful q uest i o n ab l e d ep en d en t o n a c o n d i
, ,

t i o n - An d w ere , b e , l earn i n c ese sen t en c es are sai d t o

.

b e o f th e S U B J U N CT I VE m o d e (subj un c tive m ean i n g sub ‘

’
j o i n ed i n th e s en s e o f
,
w h i l e as di st i n ,

t in gui sh ed fro m th em th e fo rm s was , i s learn s ar e sai d

, ,

t o b e o f th e I N D I C A TI V E m o d e (si m p l y p oi n ti n g o ut or ‘

s tat i n g ) .

The s ubj un ct iv e w as used i n E n g li sh a great d eal m or e for

m er ly t han i t i s use d at pres en t
The fo rm o f th e v erb use d i n i m p erat i v e s en ten c es (55)
is al so c all e d th e I M P ERAT I VE m o d e

66 Th i s c h an e i n t he form o f an y w ord , ei th er to sh o w
.
g
30 I NFL E C T I O N .
[6 9

the s am e m ean i n g w hi c h th e n o un h as w i th th e prep o siti on of

b efo re i t t h us ,

m e n s s o us ,
’
l an d t he so ul s o f m en ;
h i l d re n s pl eas ures , d t he pl e asures h il d re n
’
c an of c .

That i s t o sa y, t he sam e l
r e ati o n of on e n o un to a n o t h er w hi c h

is e xp ressed b y c on n ec ti n g i t w i th t h at prep ositi o n o t h er b y t he

o f (i n o n e o f i t s sen ses ) m ay al so o ft en b e exp ressed b y p u
,
t tin g
t h e n o un i t self i n t h e g en i t iv e c as e A n d sun d ry oth er rel ati o n s.
,

w h i c h w e n o w e xp res s o n l y b y m ean s o f o t h er p rep o si t i on s w ere ,

fo r m erly ex pres sed i n o ur l an guag e an d are st ill e xp res s ed i n

e
,

o t h er l an g u ag es b
y o th er c as es o r c han e d fo r m s o f th e n o u
, g ,
n ,

n o l o n ger i n use w i th us (see

70 . Th e p ron o un s l
a so h a v e t he p o ssessi v e cas e, l ik e
no un s thus,
he , his ; ii , its ; w ho , w h o s e ;

an d the c ase s o m e t i m es h as a v er y d i fferen t form fro m th at

w hi ch i s usual w i th no un s as

I, m y or m in e ; s he , her ; t h ey , t h e ir .

B ut m ost p ro n o un s h av e an o t her ,
a thi rd , c ase- o rm f ; an d

th is w e ha v e n e x t t o ex am i n e .

71 . B o th no un s an d p ro n o un s ar e c a p ab l e o f st an d i n g i n
an o th er re at i o n l to a v erb t h an t hat o f i t s subj ec t If w e .

s ay
t he m an r e ad s b o o ks ; John d riv es a ho rse ;

b o o ks an d ho rs e ar e no un s ,
th o ugh n ei th er of t h em is
s ubj ec t i n i t s sen t en ce x am p l e b el o n gs t o
. B o o ks , for e ,

t he p re d i cat e o f t he fi rst sen t en c e b ecause i t i s a p art o f ,

w h a t i s asse rt e d ab o ut m an t h e sub j ec t ; th e a ssert i o n i s ,

n o t t h at h e r e a d s s i m p l y b ut t hat h e r ead s b o ok s
,
T he .

assert e d g en er a l ac t i o n o f r ea d i n g i s l i m i t ed i s m a d e m ore ,

d efi n i t e b y p o i n t i n g o ut o n w hat p art i c u
,
l ar c l ass o f thi n gs
i t i s e x erc ise d .

A w o rd a dd ed t o a v erb i n thi s w ay i s c al l ed th e OBJ E CT

7 3] C ASE . 31

of th e v erb , b ecause i t s ign i fi es t he p erson or thin g t hat

direc t l y en d ures ,
or i s t h e obj ect oi, the x p ressed b y
ac t i o n e

t he v erb . As w e sh a ll s ee l at er (2 2 3 35,8 et c ) a p art o f

, ,

our v erbs d o an d o thers d o ,

n o t, a d m i t su c h an a dd i ti o n .

Further ex am p l es are

t h ey l earn t h e i r l e s s o n s ; I se e an e l e ph a n t ;
he t o l d a s to ry .

72 . No w m o st of th e p ro n oun s hav e a d ifferen t

w he n use d as o b ec t o f a j v erb fro m th at w hi ch t hey hav e
as sub ec t j .

Thus, i n
I se e him an d he se e s m e ,

we l ove t he m and t hey lo ve us ,

t he p ai rs of w o rd s

I an d m e, he an d hi m ,

we an d us , t hey an d t he m ,

are th e c orres p on d in g subj ec t an d o b ec t

j form s of th e sam e pro
no un s an d o t h er ex am p l es are

t ho u an d t h ee , s he an d he r , who an d w ho m .

Thi s also we ca ll a v ari at i o n o f ca se ; an d we l l t he form

ca

t hat i s used as o b ec tj the OB J ECT I VE c ase (o r o ft en t h e

ACCU S ATI V E, that b ei n g t he ol d Lat i n n am e fo r the sa m e

th i n g) . An d th en the fo rm use d as s ubj ec t w e ca ll ,

t o d is
t i n g uish i t fro m the
p ossessi v e an d o bj ec t i v e the S U BJ EC ,

TI V E c ase or m o r e usu
,
al l y th e N O M I NATI V E (th e o ld
,

L at i n n am e ; i t m ean s s im p l y n am i n g
73W hen a p ro n oun i s c o n n ec ted w i th so m e other w o rd
.

b y a p rep o si t io n w e al w a y s use th e o bj ec t i v e c ase o f

i t j ust as w h en i t i s t he o bj ec t o f a v erb : for ex am p l e
, ,

I kn o w him and h ear f ro m him ;

we l o ve t h e m a n d write to t h e m ;
he t h at is n o t with a s is ag ai nst us .
32 I N FLE CT I O N .
[ 73

An d b ec ause th e p rep osit i on seem s to x

e ert a ki n d of

a ct i on up o n th e w o r d w hi ch i t t h us att ac h es to so m ethi n
g
l
e se, we ca ll that w o rd th e OB J E CT of t he p rep osi t i on .

74 . There i s no no un i n o ur l an guag e W hi ch rea ll y has

an o bj ect i v e form d ifferen t fro m
c ase, a th e n om i n at i v e, an d
used w h en th e n o un i s obj ec t ei th er of a v erb or o f a p rep
osi t i o n . Thus w e ,
say

t he f at h er l o v es the so n and the so n l o ves t he fat h e r ,

t he f at h er we n t w it h t he so n a n d t he so n we n t w it h t he father ,

w i th out an y c h an g e o f th e w or d s fathe r an d so n ; an d so in
all o th er l i k e c ases .

S ti ll p art l y b y an al ogy w i th t he p ro n oun s an d p art l y

, ,

be c ause m an y o th er l an guages r el at e d w i th E n g li sh an d ,

e v en the E n g l i sh i t self i n ear l i ert i m es d o d i sti n g u i sh the ,

o bj ec t fro m t he subj ec t i n n o un s as w ell a s i n p ro n o un s ,

w e us ual l y sp eak o f n o un s as h av i n g an o bj ect i v e case “

o n l y o n e t h at i s al w ay s th e sam e w i t h t h e n o m i n at i v e .

An d w e sp eak o f b o th v erb s an d p rep o sit i o n s as GOVERN

I NG i n t h e o bj e c t i v e t he w o r d t hat i s th eir o bj ec t b ec ause ,

i t i s com pelled t o b e put i n t hat c ase after t hem an d b e ,

c ause i t s r el at i o n t o t h em rath er t han an

y d i fferen c e o f
,

m ean i n g w hi c h w e feel i n the w or d i t self i s t h e r easo n o f ,

i ts b ei n g m a d e o bj ect i v e .

75 . Th ese ar e all the c h an

g es w hi ch m ak e up th e i n flec
t i on of th e no un an d p ro n o un . A s th e y are o f an o ther

k i n d th an th o se of th e v erb th ey go by a d ifferen t n am e ;
,

th e y are ca ll e d th e D E C LE N S I O N o f t he n oun o r p ro n o un ,

w hich i s sai d t o b e D E C LI NED .

W e sum up b y say i n g
The n o un an d pr o n o un are in fl ec t e d to sh o w d i ffe r e n ces of

ca se an d o f n um b e r , an d t h is i n fl ec t i o n is c a l l ed t h ei r d e

c l en s fo n .
78 ] C O M P ARI S O N . 33

76 . The a dj ec ti v e h as no such i n fl ec t i o n as the no un .

In gen eral w hat ev er t he n um b er an d w h at ev er t he c ase o f

,

the n oun i t quali fi es i t rem ai n s un ch an ge d

-
Thus w e say ,
.
,

good m an an d g oo d m en ,

an d bo th of t hem ei th er as sub ec t j or a s o b ec t j ; an d we
say a so l
’ ’
a good m a n s reward an d g ood m en s d e ed s ,

w here th e quali fi ed no un s are i n the p osses si v e .

B ut w e h av e t w o w ord s us ed dj ec ti v es (they are al so pro as a

no un s : see n am el y t h is an d t h at w hi c h c han g e t h eir fo rm ,

ac c o r d in g as th e n ou n t h ey
q u al ify i s s i n gul ar or p l ural th us ,

this m an , b ut t h e s e m en ; t hat h o rs e ,
b ut t h o s e h o rs es .

In m an y th erl
o an g uag es , an d v en e i n th e o ld er En g li h s , s o m e th n g i l i k e th i s
i s t h e g en era r l ul e ; an a dj t iv e h
ec l y a d i g t o th e
c an g e s i t s fo rm ,
n ot o n c co r n

o f th e n o u w h i h i t
nu m b er, b u t al s o acc o d i g t the c r n o
q u li fi s ; t h usase, n c a e

m ak n g i th e n o u GO VE R N t h e adj e t iv e
n r req u i i g t h adj e t iv e t o A GREE w i th
c ,
o r n e c

t he no un , i n nu m b er an d c ase j us t as t h v e b (6 2 ) ag s w i t h i ts subj ect i n

,
e r ree

n um b er an d perso n .

77 . B ut m an y a dj ect i v es ha v e a v ari at ion of form to

e xp ress g reat er d eg ree an d a g reat est d egree
a of th e qual
i ty w hi c h t he adj ec t i v e e xp resses Thus .
,

a ta ll m an , a taller m an , the t a l l e s t m an ;
a b r ig ht d ay, a b r ig hter d ay, t he b ri g htest d ay .

These t hree ll e d t he D EG R E ES OF C O MP AR I S O N
form s ar e ca

o f t he adj ec t i v e w h i c h i s sai d to b e CO M PARED S uch fo rm s

,
.

a s g reate r b ri g hter are sai d t o b e o f t he CO M PARAT I V E d e

,

gr ee an d suc h a s g reates t b ri g hte s t o f th e S U P ERLAT I VE

, , ,

d egree ; an d the n i n d is t in c t io n fro m th ese the s i m p l e un , ,

al t ere d a dje c t i v e l ik e g reat b ri g ht i s sa i d t o b e o f t he

, , ,

r o s rr rvr d eg ree . .

78 . i l y t h i ch
S tr c t ,
s an g e o f th e h er a m at t
ad ec t j iv e is ra t er o f d er iv at i o n (see
th e ne xt c h pt ) th
a er an o f i fl ti n B ut i t i usu ll y b
ec on . s a ,
ec a us e m o re c o n v em

i en t ly, ca ll e d i n fl e c t io n , an d t t d f l n g w i th t h d l
rea e o a o e c c e n s io n of th e no un
an d pro n o un an d t he co n j ugat i f th v b on o e er .
34 IN F L EC T I O N .
[78

Hen c e we s um up b y sayi n g
Th e ad j ec tiv e is s o m et i m e s i n fl ec t ed to sh o w d ifi
'

e r en ee s of

d eg r ee ; t h e i n fl ectio n of an a d je c t i v e i s c a ll e d i ts c o mp a r i

79 . Of t h e p art s o f sp eech t h e p rep osi t i o n an d

r em ai n i n
g ,

the c o n j un c t i o n h a v e n o v ari at i o n o f form a t all o f t he ki n d ,

here c all e d i n fl ec t i o n : th e y are c all e d U N I NFLE CTED o r IN ,

VARM B LE ; o r t h e y are k n o w n as I ND E C LI NAB L E S .

An d so i t i s for th e m o s t p art w i th t h e a d v erbs ; o n l y a

few a d v erb s ei th er a dj ect i v es us e d al so as a d v erb s o r w o rd s
,

res em b l i n g t h ose ha v e a c o m p ar i so n l ik e t hat o f th e a djec

,

tive t h us ,

m uc h , m o re , m o s t ; i ll , wo rs e , wo rst ;
so o n , so o n er, so o n est .

80 . We ad d , th en , fi n ally °

A d v e r b s, p r e po si t i o n s, an d con j un c t i o n s a re n ot i n fl ec t e d
ex c e pt th at a f ew a d v er b s h ave a com p a ri son li k e t h a t of

ad j e c t i v es .

81 . We h av e t hus n o ti c e d in a g en era l w ay all t h e kin d s o f

i n fl ec ti o n of w hi c h E n g l i s h w o r d s ar e cap ab l e B y an d b y w e
.

s ha ll h av e t o t ak e up eac h p eec h b y i tself an d exp l a i n

p art of s ,

i ts i n fi ec ti o n al c h an ges m o r e fu ll y B ut b efo re l eavin g t h e

.

g en era l s ubj ect , w e w i ll o b serv e t h e m et ho d s o f t he c h an ge th us

m ad e i n t he w o rd s i n fl ec t ed .

82 . I n t h e fi rst p l ac e , t h e i n flecti on al c h an ge i s g en erall y

m a de b y add i n g s o m ethi n g 0 11 at the en d o f a w o rd .

Th us , fro m h o rs e c om e h o rse s ’
an d h o rses , b y an a dd ed s ; so

fro m book com e bo o k s

’
an d b o o ks ; an d so o h .

Fro m lo v e co m e I o vest an d l o ve s an d l o ved , b y si m i l ar a dd i

t io n s .

Fr o m t al l co m e tal l er an d tal l e st , fro m s o o n c o m e s oo n er a n d

s o o n est , i n th e sam e w ay .

Muc h t h e l a ge t p t o f th
r s ar e i n flec t i o n of En g li h s w o rd s is of h
t is k i n d . An d
t h o se who h v e s tud i d the h i
a e s to r y 0 1 th l
'

e an g uag e, an d seen ho w i t c am e to be
8 7] MET HOD S or I N F L E C T I O N . 35

w h at i t i s, fi n d t h at th e ot he r ki n d s are in or ig in on l y t he c on seq uen c es an d

i
al t era t o n s o f h
t is .

83 . In t h e seco n d p l ace ,
so m e w o rd s are i n fl ec t ed w i th o ut
an y a dd iti o n s m a de t o t hem b ut b y c h an g es m a d e i n t hem
, ,

a l teratio n s of the so un d s o f w h i c h t h ey are co m p os e d .

T h us, fro m m an c o m es t he p l ural m en ; fro m r un co m es t he

p ast or preteri t ra n , fro m l ead co m es le d , an d fro m s end c o m es

s en t ; fro m m uc h com e t he com p arati v e an d s up erl at iv e m o re an d

m o st ; a n d s o o n .

84 . I n t he t hi rd place , i n i n fl ec ti n g so m e w ord s w e b o th ad d

som eth i n g an d a l t er t he so un d of t he o ri gi n a l w ord .

Th us, fro m k n eel w e ei th er

dd itio n fo rm t he p reterit b y an a ,

kn ee l ed o r b y a d itferen t a dd it i o n an d a c h an ge o f so un d kn e l t ;
, ,

so ei t he r b ro t h e rs o r b ret h re n fro m b ro th er ; so c h il d ren fro m

c hi l d ; s o d o e s an d says fro m d o an d say; an d m an y m o re .

85 . fo urth p l ace w here m o st w o rd s hav e so m e ki n d

I n t he ,

o f c ha n ge i n t h e m se l v es fo r i n fl ec ti o n a few su b stit ut e w hat ,

s eem t o b e o r rea ll y are w h o ll y d ifferen t w o r d s

, , .

Th us w e h av e t he p oss essi v e her an d p l ural t hey fro m s he ;

,

a n d i n l i k e m an n er m y a n d we an d u s fro m I ; w e h av e th e

p reterits was fro m a m an d we n t (w hi ch i s reall y the pret erit o f

,

we n d l ike s e n t fro m s e n d ) fro m 90

, .

Oi co urs e, t his i s n o t r ea l i n flec t i o n at all, b ut an o t h er k i n d of c ha n ge, w ich h

t a k es t h e p la c e of it .

86 . Fi n all y , w here so m e w o rd s are i n fl ec ted , o t hers, o f the

s am e l
c ass, rem ai n un c han g ed .

Thus , un l i ke h o rse s hee p is the sam e in th e p l ural

m an an d ,

a s i n t he s i n u
g l ar ; h e an d s he fo rm sp ec ial o bj ec t i v e c ases b ut ,

it is t he s am e i n n o m i n a ti v e an d o bj ec t iv e ; un l ike lo v e an d run ,

se t a n d pu t have t he sa m e fo rm i n t he p reterit t en se as i n t he
p rese n t ; a n d so o n S uc h i n co n s isten c ies an d i rreg ul arities are
.

fo un d m o re o r l ess i n e v ery l an g ua ge .

87 . In
d esc rib i n g the i n flec t io n o f an y w o rd w e take fo r ,

a s ta rt i n p o i n t t hat fo rm w h ic h i s u
-
u l ] y t h i m p l t d
g s a e s es a n
36 IN F L E C T I O N .
[ c n uu

b ri e fest , an d w e t reat t he o t h er s a s m a e d from that b y v ari

o us a l t erat i o n s Thi s si m p l est fo rm
. i s c all e d t h e B AS E OF

I NFLECT I ON (o th er n am e s fo r i t are th em e s t e m c r ud e , ,

f orm ) I n n oun s an d p ro n o un s it i s th e s am e w i th th e
.

n o m i n at i v e si n ul ar
g ; i n a dj e c t i v es an d a d v erb s th e p o si ,

t i v e ; i n v erb s, th e i n fi n i t i v e B ut the b ase of in

fl ecti o n of v erbs i s a s o cal e
l l d the ROO T .

E X E R C I S E S T O C H APT E R III .

FO R P R A CT C E I IN I N FLE CT I O N .

T he e x erc i ses g i v e w i t h t h e se
n c on d c h apt er m ay be ag ai n t ak en up, an d t he
sen t en c es v a i ed b y c h a g i g t h
r n n e n um b er of th e no un s, th e n um b er an d per
so n o f v
t he pr o n o un s , t he t en se o f t he erb s, an d t h e d eg ree o f t h e a d ec t es j iv .

h v l i
C an g es i n t h e erb s res ut n g fro m c h an g es i n t h e n um b er a n d pers o n o f i ts
su bj e t sh ul d b e c r full y
c o t ed
a e Al o t h wno . s ,
o se o rd s wh i c h ad m it of n o i n fl ec
t i o n al h g e o f fo rm sh o ul d b o b s v d
c an d po i e er e an n t ed o ut .

Ad d i t i o n l e x m pl es fo prac t i c e
a a b i gi g i
r r n n n , e spec a i ll y , po ssess ive an d oh

jec ti c as es
ve a e as fo ll o w s
r

VII . M i s c e l l a n e o us E x a m pl e s .

A w ise son m a k et h g l a d fa th er
a .

A s o f t a n s w er t ur n et h a w a y w r a t h .

'

I n t h e b eg i n n i n g G o d c r ea t ed th e h ea v en an d th e ear th .

On h er w h it e b r ea s t a s pa r kl i n g c r o ss sh e w or e .

Or d er i s h eav en ’
s fi rs t l a w .

H o n es t pl a i n w ord s b es t pi er c e t h e e ar o f gri ef .

g l o r y s fall
’ ’
Fa m e s fl ig h t i s .

T im e w r i t es no w rin k l es on thy az ur e b r o w .

A ’
m an s m a n n er s o ft e n i n fl uen c e h i s fo r tun e .

We t ell t h y d o o m w i t h o ut a s ig h .

E v er y t ur f b en ea t h t h e i r feet
S hall b e a so l d i er s ’
s ep ul c h r e .

F o r h i s g a y er h o ur s s h e h a s a v o i c e o f g l a d n c s
r
.

I b r i n g fr es h s h o w er s fo r t h e t h i r s t i n g fl o w er s .

T h e c ur fe w t o l l s t h e k n e l l o f par t i n g d a y .
38 D ER I V AT I ON A ND c o m ro s n wN
‘
.
[88

C H APTE R IV .

D E R IV A T I O N AND C O M P O S IT I O N .

88 . We sa w in t he l ast ch apt er t hat En gl ish w ord s are

a l tere d i n v ari o us w ay s, i n o r d er t o exp ress d ifferen c es o f m ean
i n g, or on ac c o un t of c o n n ec t i o n w it h o th e r w o rd s an d we
ca ll ed th es e c han g es i nfl ecti on a l .

It m i gh t h av e b een sai d p ro p erl y en o ugh t h at th ese a l tered

form s are d er i ved fro m w hat w e ca ll ed t h e ba se o f infl ec ti on b y
c ert ai n a d d i ti on s or o t her c h an g es T hus h o rs es is .
,
d eri ved fro m
h o rs e by addi n g an s soun d ; m e n from m an b y g i v i n g a d iffer
-
,

en t s o u n d t o t h e v o w el i n t h e m i dd l e o f i t s e n t fro m sen d b y
‘

a l t eri n g i t s l a st s ou n d an d so on .

B ut th ere i s an o th er set o f c h an g es n ev er c a ll ed i n flec ti on al

“

, ,

t o w hi c h th e n am e d er i va ti o n i s m o re usuall y an d p rop erl y

i v en : n am e l y t h e ch an ges b y w hi ch on e b as e o f i n fl ect i o n
g ,

i s m ad e from an o th er ; an d th ese are w h at w e h a v e n ex t t o

l o o k at .

89 . T h e w o r d t rue i s an a dj ec ti ve , b ec ause ( )
39 i t i s us ed t o

q ual ify a no un we s ay

t r ue s to ri es , a t r ue f r ie n d ,

an d so o n an d we c om pare it sa yi n g
t r ue r sto r i es t h a n t h o se he to l d b e fo re ;
t he t r ue s t f r ie n d t h at ev e r l ived
th is i s, as we saw b efo re, t h e on ly i n fi ec t i on al c h an ge w h i ch an

j
a d ec t i ve c an un d erg o .

B ut w e m a
y l
a so ad d t he so un d t h t o t he
dj ec ti v e s am e a ,

m ak i n g t r uth I n t his n e w w o rd th e i d ea o f t r ue i s st ill p l ai n ;

.

b ut t he c h a n g e w h i c h w e hav e m ad e h a s p ro d uc e d a n ew p art
o f sp eec h a n o un ,
w e c an put an adj ec ti v e b efo re i t as ,

rea l t r uth ;
92 ] DER I V AT I V E W O RD S . 39

we can
put a v erb after i t ,
as

t ruth h o n o rs its s pea ke r ;

we ca n put a prep o sit io n b efo re i t , as

he s po ke wit h tr uth .

90 . In s uc h a c a se as t h i s, t h e no un i s sai d t o be D E R I V E D
fro m t he a p ro c ess o f m aki n g i t i s c all ed D E R I
dj ec t iv e the
VA T I O N an d i t i s
,
i tsel f call ed a D E R I VAT I VE or a d eri v ati v e ,

n ou n an d t he w o r d fr o m w hi c h i t i s m ad e i s c a ll e d i t s P R I M I T I V E

( w h i c h m ean s h ere p red ec esso r

‘
m o re A nd t h e
,

a dd i ti on i h t h a t m ak es t h e d eri v at i v e i s c a ll e d a n o u n— m a ki n g

S U FF I X (sufi x m ean s fi x ed o r fast en ed o n at th e e n d

‘

Th ere are m an y n o un s m a d e from adj ec ti v es i n o ur l an g uage

b y th e sam e suffi x o ft en al o n g w ith so m e c han g e o f so un d i n
,

the adj ec ti v e i tself : thus ,

warm t h fro m war m ,

wealt h fro m well ,

l e n g t h fro m lo n g , w id t h fro m wid e ,

b read th fro m b ro a d , h eal t h fro m ha le ,

fi lt h fro m fo ul .

91 . d eri v ed n o un truth w e c an then turn agai n i n t o an

T hi s
a dj ec ti v e b a dd i n g t o i t t h e a dj ec ti v e m ak i n g s u ffi x fu l : t hu -
s
y , ,

tru t h f ul ; the w o rd m ean s n earl y th o u g h n o t p re c i s el y t h e s a m e

, ,

as tru e I t i s p l ai n e n o ugh h ere that w hat w e call th e s uffi x f ul

.

is reall y n o th i n g b ut th e c o m m o n adj ec ti v e f ull an d th at tr ut h f ul ,

is n earl y t he s a m e as f ul l o f t rut h .

T he adj ec ti v es that are d er iv ed fro m n o un s b y add i n g f ul to

t he m are a v ery l arg e n um b er : th us ,

fa it h f ul , s o rro wf ul d is d a i n f ul tearf ul ,
, , c a r ef ul, wi l f ul .

92 . B ut t hi s
d eri v ed a dj ec ti ve tr ut hf ul w e can t ur n o n ce
m o re i n t o a n o un b a dd i n g a n o t h er n o un m a ki n g s u
'
ffi x n a m el y -
y ,

n ess : t hu s t ru t h f ul n ess
,
W e m igh t d e fi n e t r ut h f ul n ess to m ea n
.

t he q ual i ty o f b e i n g t r ul /
’
f ul j us t as t r uth s o m eti m es m ean s
‘
r
,

’
t he q ual ity o f b e i n g tr ue .

The E n gl ish n o un s w hi c h are d eri v e d fro m adj ec ti v es b y

40 I
D E R VAT ON AND I C OM P OS T ON I I .
[ 92

add i n g n ess are sti ll m ore n um ero us th an the adj ectiv es w hi c h

are d eri v e d fro m n o un s b y a dd i n g f ul E x am p l es are .

l
c a m n es s , f at n ess , g o d l i n es s , h eav i n ess , fo o l is h n es s ,
f a it h f ul n es s , fa it h l e ss n ess , s uitab l e n ess , d is i n tere st e d n ess .

93 . In th e sam e w ay, t aki n g f o ulp oin t w e as o ur starti n g - ,

t h e qual it y o f b ein g fo ul or w h at i s fo ul
’ ’
m ay form
‘ ‘
fi lth , ,

t hen ,
b y an o t h er suffi x t h an f uI for m aki n g a dj ec ti v es f ro m
’
n o un s m ar k e d w i t h fi lt h l i k e m i g h ty f u n ny wate ry
(
‘
fi lthy
, , , , ,

’
e qu a l it y o f b ei n g fi lt h
an d s o c m
) a n d ag ai n fi lt h i n ess
,
t h , y , .

Or w e m i ght h av e a dd ed n es s d i rec tl y t o t h e p ri m i ti v e ad
,

jec tiv e fo ul form i n g fo ul n ess t he q ual i t y o f b ei n g fo ul

‘
, ,

a l t ho ug h w e d o n o t s a y t r ue n e ss an
y m ore t h an w e s a
y t ruthy,

l ike fi lt hy o r fi lthf ul l ike t rut hf ul

, .

N0 r ea l r easo n c an iv h i
b e g en fo r s uc d ffer en c es i t i s s m p i l y t he case t h at
th e on e is c us to m ar y ,
o r wh at w e are used t o , an d n o t th e o t er h .

94 . Agai n , b o th o ur
dj ec ti v es true an d fo ul w e can turn
a

i n to a dv erb s b y add i n g t h e a d v erb m aki n g s uffi x Iy: thus -

,

t r uly, fo ul ly .

An d we c an t reat i n th e sam e w ay the d eri v e d adj ectiv es truthful

an d fi lt hy: t hus ,
truthf ul l y , fi lt hily .

In fac t ,
t here are n ot m an y adj ec ti ves i n the l an guage fro m
w hi c h w e d eri v e ad v erb s b y t his a d v erb -m aki n g suffi x
c an n o t ,

a n d a l arg e p ar t o f o ur a d v erb s a re m ad e b
y it .

B ut th e sam e suffi x Iy a l s o m akes qui te a n um b er o f adj ec ti v es

from n oun s ex am p l es are
l y b ro th e rl y ho m ely m an , , .

9 5 Verb s al s o are d eri v e d fro m n o un s a n d adj ec ti v es b y

.

v erb m ak in g suffi x es : t h us f r es h en fro m th e a dj ec ti v e f res h

-
, ,

l e n g th en fro m th e n o un l e n g t h ; o t her ex am p l es are

wh ite n , b l ac ke n , s we e t e n , s h a rpe n , he ig h te n , f rig h te n .

An d , on th e ot h er h a n d , d e ri v at iv es a re m a de b y s uffi x es fro m
v erb s . Thus, fro m s uc k co m e t he no un s s uc ker an d s uc kl i n g ,
9 9] D E RIV AT I V E W O RD S . 4]

uc ks ; from
’
b o th m ea n i n g
‘
on e w ho s hi n d e r c o m es h i n d ra n c e ,

‘
ythi n g th at hi n d ers
an an d so on . An d v erb s i n g en eral
fo rm adj ec t iv es i n i n g an d s hall see h ereafter
ed o r e h ; we (2 38 )
t h at t h ey h av e th e sp ec i al n am e of parti c ip l es th us ,

a s uc ki n g pig , a h i n d ered res ul t , a b eate n d e g .

96 . In x am p l es t hus far t he w o rd d eriv ed b y add i n g

a ll o ur e ,

a su ffi x h as b een a d ifferen t p art o f sp eec h fro m t h e p rim i ti v e ,

t h e s i m p l er w o r d t o w hi c h t he s uffi x w as a dd e d an d t hat i s i n

e n era l t h e w ay i n o u r l a n gu ag e
g .

B ut i t i s n o t al wa ys so T hus w e h av e n o un s d eri v e d fro m .

,

’
a l it t l e d u
’
n o un s : as d u c kl i n g c k ; b ro o k l et a s m a ll b ro o k ;
‘ ‘
, ,

’ ’
cou t h e w ife o f a c o un t ; k i n g d o m t he real m o f a ki n g ;
‘ ‘
n t ess , ,

’
k n ig h th o o d t he ra n k o f k n ig h t ; an d s o o n
,
‘
Ag ai n w e hav e .
,

ad j e c t i v es d eri v e d fro m a dj ec t i v es as g re e n is h fro m g r e e n — an d

g ree n er a n d g ree n est as w e sa w ab o v e are reall y o f t he

,

sa m e k i n d An d t h ere ar e a fe w c ases o f v erb s d eriv e d fro m

.

v erb s (b y a c han g e i n p ro n un c iat io n n ot a n add ed s uffi x ) : as ,

c au
’
ca u
’ ’
fe ll ,
se t o fa l l ; s et se t o s it ; lay c ause t o l ie ; an d so
, ,

on (2 2 5 c ) .

97 . Th ere are a sol un s, as w ell as v erb s d eri v ed fro m

no ,

v erbs b y c han g es o f p r on un ci at io n w i tho ut an y suffi x : th us , ,

bo nd an d band fro m b in d , so n g fro m sing , s pee c h fro m s peak ,

pro o f fro m prove , an d so o n .

Tho s e wh o st ud y th e h i st o ry o f o ur la ng uage are ab l e t o sh o w th at i n m o st

o r a ll s uc h c ases t h e e war s fo r m er ly a suffi x upo n t h e d er iv ed w o rd , b ut i t i s

now l o st .

98 . Fo r the sam e r eas on , b ec ause of th e lo ss o f s uffi x es th at on ce e x ist ed ,

t h ere are n o t ain t w h re w o d few s an c es e r s of i ch o is a d iv at iv e f m

wh ne er ro

th t h r o el e b t h l ike a r d iv t i v e
e o e ,
r s o a e er a s f o m a t h i d wh i h i s n o l o g
r r p t c n er ar

o f th l n g u g e a p i el y l ike Th u
e a a ,
re re c s a . s, w ha v l v t h v e b a d l v t h
e e o e e r ,
n o e e

n u on w e h v e li ght b o th v e b a d as
a as r n no u a d m a y o th l i k
n n n s er e c a se .

99 . B ut w e l v ery freq ue n tl y take a w o rd w hi ch i s p ro p

a so

e rl y on e part o f s p eec h a n d c o n v ert i t i n t o an o ther or us e i t w i th ,

t he v al ue of an o th er w i tho ut a d d i n g a suffi x o r m a ki n g an y
, ,
42 D E R I V AT I ON AND COM P OS I T I ON .
[99

o t h er such c h an g e of form as reg ul arl y b el on g s t o a d eri vati v e .

T h us, m an y adj ec ti v es a re used as n o un s fo r e x am pl e ,

the g o o d an d t he wic ke d ,

m ean i n g go o d an d w i c k ed p erso n s or

t he g o o d , the b ea utif ul , an d the tr ue,

m ean i n g th at w hi c h i s g o o d , e tc S o m e adj ec ti v es d o n o t ad d
.

Iy (9 4 ) t o fo rm ad v erb s, b ut are t hem sel v es use d d irec t l y as

a d v erb s : fo r e x am p l e ,

m uc h , litt l e fast lo n g ill ;

, , ,

o th ers so m et i m es a dd ly a n d s o m eti m es are used as a d v erb s w i th

o ut i t fo r e x am p l e ,

f ul l , wid e , late , d e ep, m ig hty .

N oun s ar e so m et i m es used as a dj ecti v es we do n o t sa

ya g o ld e n
watc h b ut a g o l d watc h . An d b o th no un s an d a dj ecti ves are

t urn ed i n t o v er b s t h us,

I head a re b e l l io n ; I fo o t 8 bil l ;
I h an d a paper ; I fi n g e r a pie ;
l to e a m ark ; I e ye a s c en e ;
I s to m ac h a n afl ro n t
‘

; I b re as t t he waves ;
I b l a c k b o o ts ; t he f r uit m a t ur e s ;
t h ey b e t t e r e d t h ei r c o n d it io n ; t he wo rk w e a r i e d hi m .

Thi s l
a so is a k in d of d eri vati on .

1 00 W e al so hav e d eri vativ e w ords m ad e b y p uttin g s om e

.

thi n g b efo re th e p ri m i ti v e i n stead o f afteri t Thus a h ost of

,
.
,

w o rd s o f v ario us ki n d s m ay h a v e uh put b efo re th em m aki n g

, , ,

a d er i v ati v e w hi c h i s th e sam e p a rt o f s p eec h b u t o f opp osi te ,

m ean i n g For ex am p l e un t rue an d un tru

. t h f ul are adj ec ti v es
, ,

th e o pp osi t e o f tr u e an d t ru t h f ul ; an d un truly an d un tr u th f ul l y
ar e a d v erb s t h e o pp o si tes o f tr u
, ly an d tr ut h f ul ly W e c an s a y .

al s o u n t rut h t ho ug h t h ere are far few er n o un s t o w hi ch w e ad d

,

un i n thi s w ay o th er ex am p l es are un b el ief un rest An d v erb s , .

d er iv e d w ith un l ik e un d o an d un d ress are still l es s co m m o n

, , .

1 01 . An a dd ition th us m a de at t he b eg i n n i n g of a w o rd i s
ca ll ed a P R E F I X i n stea d of a s uffi x (p r efi x m ean s
‘
fi x ed or fast en ed
1 0 4] C O M P O U N D WO RD S . 43

on in P refi x es are i n En g l i sh m uc h l ess c o m m on than

s uffi x es an d t h ey d o n ot d i n aril y
or c h an ge t he p art o f sp eech
of th e w o rd t o w h i c h t h ey a re a dd e d . O th er e x am p l es are

b e fa l l , g a i n sa h an c e
y , r e ca ll , d i s ho n est , m is c .

1 02 W e sa w a b o v e t ha t t h e s uffi x f ul o f t r ut h f ul a n d o th er
.
,

w o rd s l i k e i t w as reall y t h e a dj ec t i v e f ul l add e d t o t h e n o un
,

t ru t h i n suc h a w ay t hat t h e t w o fo rm b ut a s i n gl e w o rd
, It .

w o ul d b e p ro p er th en to s ay t hat t r u t h f ul i s a w o rd m a d e up o f
, ,

t h e t w o o ther i n d ep en d en t w o rd s t r u t h a n d f ul l Furth er ex .

a m p l es are
ra i n b o w g ra ss -pl o t g en t l e m an was h t ub, , , ,

hig h -b o rn h o m es ic k b ro wb eat f ulfi l , , , .

S uch a w o rd i s c all ed a COM P O UN D t he t w o p arts are sai d t o

b e CO MP O U N D E D an d t he p ut ti n g th em to geth er i s call ed C O M P O
,

S I TI ON w hi c h m ean s si m p l y
( p ut ti n g t o geth er
1 0 3 There . are great n um b ers o f c o m p o un d w ord s i n E n g l i sh ,
an d we are a ll th e t i m e m ak in g n e w o n es .

S o m et i m es th e c om
po un d ed w o rd s st a n d in th e c om p o un d
j ust as t hey w o ul d i n a sen t e n ce, an d s ee m si m pl y t o ha v e
gro w n t og et h er i n to on e s uc h are

blac kb erry , b ro ad ax e , g e n tl e m an , hig hl an d , g ra n df at h e r .

B ut m uc h m o re o ften t hey h a v e s uc h a l
re a t i o n to on e

an o t her t hat i f w e use d them paratel y w e sho ul d ha v e t o

se

c han g e t hei r
d er o r put i n or o t h er w or d s t o c o n n ec t t h e m
, ,

o r b o th : th u s hou to p of a h o use head ac he is a n

’
s e to p is t h e
‘
, ,
‘
ac h e i n the h e ad h e artre n d i n g i s re ad i n g the heart b l o o d -red
,
’

’
i s red like b l o o d kn ee-d e e p is d eep up to the k n ee was h t ub is
‘
,
‘
,

t ub to w as h i n d raw b rid g e i s a
‘ ’
br i d g e m a d e to d ra w up ‘ ’
a ,
,

s t ea m b o at i s a b oa t tha t g o es by s t ea m ,
’
an d so o n .

Th en there a re c as es i n w hi c h t he l
re a t i o n o f t he t w o w ord s
is s ti ll m o re p ec ul iar : t hus, a pic kpo c ket i s a
‘
p er so n who p ic k s
’
o c k e ts , ’
p a t e l l ta l e i s ‘
on e who te ll s ta l es an d we ca ll on e a

r ed - bec a use h e ’
c o at w ea r s a re d c o at .

1 04 . A c om po un d i s t us g en era h ll y a ho s rten ed o r a b b re vi a ted i ion

d es c r pt
o f s o m et hi ng . T h e c o m po un d ed w o rd , t h o ug h rea ll y m ad e up o f t wo , c o m es to
44 D ER I V AT I ON AND C O M P O S I T I ON .
[1 0 4 1 07

s eem on l y on e to us a d sp i ll y b e ,
n e ec a ca us e w e pro n oun c e o n e of i t s part s m o re

g l y a d d i st i t l y t h the o th e ll d A CC E N T o n
s t ro n n nc an r — or as i t is ca e l a y an
, ,

o n e m em b er of the com po un d . Co m pare, fo r e x m pl e hi gh l

a ,
an d w t i h h i gh l an d ,

g en t l em an w t ih ge nt l e m an .

1 05 . A c om p o un d ed w or d o ften c h an g es i ts p ro n un ci at i on st i ll
fur th er, so t h at w i t h o ut study i n g
,
i ts h ist o ry , w e d o n ot t hi n k

of w hat i t c o m es h o l id ay w hi c h i s h o l y d ay;
fro m . S o w it h ,

u g ; f o rt n ig h t w hi c h i s fo urtee n n ig h t ;
-l o n
f ur o n g
l w h i c h i s f,
r r o w ,

s o w i th fore h e a d an d b re a kfas t an d m a n y o t hers , .

106 I d d w . o ly m
n k a b gi
ee ,
in g o f u d st din g the d ri v
e c an n a e e nn n er an e a

t i on a d c m po i t i
n f E g l i sh w d un l s w e s t ud y th ei h i st o y i th e
o s on o n or s, es r r ,
n

o ld e l guag es f m w h i h our E g l i h h as c o m e an d th e oth er l an g uages

r an ro c n s ,

w i th w h i h i t i s rel t d c a e

1 07 Thus far w e h av e b een l o ok i n g at the w ord s w e use i n

.

or d er t o b e ab l e t o t ell t o w h at c l ass ea c h o n e b el on s or w h at
g ,

p art o f sp eech i t i s t o see w h at are the pri n cip al uses o f each

p art o f sp eec h i n t he sen t en ce h ow so m e par ts o f sp eech are
i n fl ec t ed an d h o w so m e w o rd s are d eri v ed fro m o th ers o r put ,

t o g et h er t o for m o th ers N o w w e n ee d t o t ak e up each p art o f .

'

s peec h b
y i t s elf an d ex am i n e i t m o re full y w i th regar d t o s o m e
,

of these m att ers .

E X E R CI S E S T O C HAP TER I V .

FOR A N A LY ! ING D E R VA T V E I I AN D C O M P OU ND WO RD S .

It m l eft t o th e j ud gm en t o f t h e t e h er h ow f th pupil s sh all b e

ust b e ac , ar e

ex p t d o
ec e qui ed t o t k e apar t an d e x pl i n t h e d iv t iv e
r re r d co m po u d
a a er a an n

w ord s w h i c h o u i th e ex e i ses cc If h e ch o o ses t h i s w h l e fo urt h h pt er

r n rc .
,
o c a

m y b e o m i tt d
a t fi rst d l et h pa g aph s o
a s i m pl e d e i v at iv
,
an d a so e ra r n ,
r e, an

com po u d w d s i t he fo ll o w i g h pt s o t h e p ts o f pe h ;
n or n d th e n c a er n ar s ec an

w hol ubj e t m ay b l ft u t il t h e G m m r i s t ud i d t h o ug h a sec o n d t i e

e s c e e n ra a s e r m .

B ut i t i s b l i ev ed t h t t h i g i s b ugh t fo wa d h e e wh i c h i s
e a no t s i m pl n ro r r r no o s e

an d el m e t ary t hat c n y u g h l s m ay t ak e i t up w i th ad v t g
‘
e n i e o d n sc o ar an a e an

th t x
a i f m t h e b eg i i g i n such i m pl e an al ys i s as t h e h apte ill u
e erc s e ro nn n s c r s

t t s w il l b e a us ful i t d u t i o
ra e t t h t st ud y o f th h i t r y f E g li h
e n ro c n o a e s o o n s

w ord w h i h i t b e a i m d at b ut w h i h
s c s o n l y m o re ad v an c d w o rk s ca
e ,
c o e n

pr p l y d l w i t h
o er ea .

Th li gh t d t ea h ho ul d uppl m t f o m hi w n k w l d g th e
e en en e c er s s e en r s o no e e

i q ui i s t t d h
n r es d pt i g his f u t h
ar e i t u t i t o th c p i t i es o f h i
e re , a a n r er ns r c on e a ac s
 46 N OU NS .
[1 08

C H AP T E R V .

N OU N S .

1 08 . A N OU N i s ,
as w e hav e seen th e n am e of

an y thi n g .

We h av e n o t ice d the pri n cip al uses of th e no un i n t he sen

t en ce . M o st i m p ortan t of all , i t i s t he subj ec t of t he sen t en ce

t hus,
the s un s h i n es ; ho rs es r un .

I t is a sol th e j
ob ec t o f a v erb (7 1 ) t hus ,

I s ee the s un ; he d rives t he h o rs es .

I t i s g o v ern e d b y a prepo si ti o n (4 4 ) t hus

“

I l oo k at the s un wit h m y e y e s , t hro ugh a g la ss .

I t i s qualifi ed b y an a dj ec t iv e th us ,

I l ook at t h e b ri g h t e u11 , n ot w it h m y n a ked e ye s , but t h ro ugh

a d a rk g l a ss .

There are o th e r uses of t he no un , w hi c h w i ll b e e xp l ai n e d

l at er b ut these are t he o n es b y w hi c h w e c an b est t ry a w o rd ,

to see w h et h er i t i s or is n ot to b e ca ll ed a no un .

C L ASSE S OF N O UN S .

1 09 . A no un i s s om et i m es t he n am e o f a se p arat e or

i n d i v i d ual o b ec t :
j t h us,
a m an , a ho rs e , a t ree , a h o use ,

a s po o n , a c up , a g un , a b ric k .

B ut a no un i s a sol th e n am e o f a p art o f s uc h an ob ec t j
t hus,

h an d ,

s id e ,
11 2] KIN D S o r N O U NS . 47

Or a no un i s th e n am e o f t he m at eri a l of w h i ch suc h an

o b ec t
j is co m p o se d : t hus,

h es h , wo o d , si l ve r , po rc e l a i n , c lay.

110 . Agai n a n oun i s n o t o n l y t he n am e o f an

,
o b ec tj
t ha t can b e s een and t ouch ed lik e th o se m en t i o n e d ,
ab o v e,

b ut of o n e t hat i s p erc ei v e d b y o ther s en ses thus ,

1
n o ise , t hun d er, o d o r, fl avo r .

Al so , of t hi n gs w hi c h w e c o n c ei v e o f as e x i st in g t hough ,

o ur sen ses do n o t sho w t h em t o us d irect l y t hus ,

m in d , so ul , Go d .

1 11 . N o un s are n am es a so o f a l v ast n um b er b f qual i

t ies an d c o n d i tio n s an d re at i o n s o f o b ec t s
l j for e x am p l e ,

pl ac e , l
c o o r, he ig ht , we ig h t , num b e r,

rec t it ud e, f ra il ty, truth , ug l i n es s ,

b ea uty,

n ea r n ess , d ista n c e , prese n c e , ab se n c e , e x i st en c e .

T hese ll ed AB S T RAC T n o u b ecause w e

are ca n s, a bstr a ct
(t hat i s

d raw p
o tf, se arat e th e qual i t i es ,
an d so fo rt h from ,
t he j
o b ec ts

t o w h ic h th ey b el o n g an d t hi n k,
of th em b y t h em se l v es ,
as if
they had a separat e e x i s ten ce .

112 . A n y t hi n g i n , sh o rt , w hi ch w e put be fore o ur

c an

m in d s i n s uch a w ay as t o say s o m et h i n g a b o ut i t o r t o ,

m ak e i t b y i t sel f th e subj ec t o f an assert i o n , w e h av e t o

ca ll b y a n am e an d that n am e i s a n o un
, .

Th us, i f w e see on e b o y st rik e an o th er w i th a sti ck , we n ot

o nl y n am e the t hree se parate t hi n g s co n c ern e d ,

sa y in g
J ohn st r uc k Jam es w it h a s tic k;

b ut l
a so th e parts th us ,

the h a n d t h at he ld the s t ic k ;
the c he e k w h i c h t he st i c k s t r uc k .

An d we n am e the not i t s el f ,
s
pea k i n g of

t he s tro ke or b low w h i c h wa s st r uc k b y J o h n .
48 N OU NS .
[1 1 2

N ot i ci n g th at th e b l ow w as a qui c k an d an an gr y on e, an d t hat
i t h urt, w e c an p eak s of t h es e q ual it i es an d effec ts t hem se l v es
sayi n g , fo r e x a m pl e ,

t he q ui c k n e s s of t he b l o w a l l o wed no d o d g in g ;
John
’
s a n g e r was e v id e n t ;
t he p a i n of t he b l o w wa s se v e re ;
t he m ar k of t he b l o w re m a i n ed a l o ng t im e .

An d w e m o ra l i ze ab o ut i t t hus
pa n io n d eserv es pun is h m e nt ;
’
str iki n g o ne s c o m

suc h an o c c ur r e n c e is pa i n f ul e no ug h ;
t he s ig ht was d isa g re ea b l e to m e ;
an d so o n .

It i s n eed ess l to att em pt t o y th e w h o l e i fi n i te v i et y o f

c l a ss i f n ar no un s, b ut a

few l
c a s s es o f espec a i l i m po rt an c e hav t o b e n t i c ed
e o .

113 . A no un i s g en era ll y the n am e o f eac h m em b er of a

w ho l e l
c as s i l ar t h i n gs ; i t b el o n g s t o a
o f si m n um b er of
d i fferen t i n d i v i d ual s an d t o o n e o f them j ust as , m uch as to
an o t h er : for e x am p l e ,

m an , dog, c it y c o untry
, , d ay, m o nt h , s ta r .

B ut i n s o m e c asses l t he d ifferen t i n d i v i d ual s are of im

p ort an ce en o ugh t o h av e n am es as i n d i v i d uals , d i st i n g ui sh
i n g them from o t h ers o f th e sam e c ass l .

Th us , eac h c o u
nt y r ,
eac h c i t y or t o w n of a co un try, each street

of a c it y ,
h as i ts o wn n am e, b y w hi c h i t m ay b e kn o w n fro m
o t h er co un t ries , t o w n s , o r st reets fo r e x am p l e ,

En g l a n d , Germ a ny , Am e ri c a , C h in a ;
Lo n d o n , P a r is , B erl i n , New Yo r k , P e ki n g ;
Lud g at e , C o rn h i l l , t he B o ul evard s , B ro ad way .

So eac h d ay o f t he w eek an d m on th of t he y ear as,

We d nes d ay , S at urd ay ; Marc h , De c e m b e r .

Se eac h p l an et or s t a r as,

Ve n us , J upite r , Antare s , the P le iad es .

S o , t o i ts ac q uai n tan c es , ea c h d og a s,

T ray , S po t , Nix , Ro ver , C aesar .

1 1 5] c r as sn s o r N O U N S . 49

S o, es p ecia ll y ,
ea c h m a n t hus ,

Mo ses P a ul S o c rates
, J ul ius Ca sar
, , ,

Ma rt i n Lut h e r P i us IX Mo h a m m ed
, ,

Wil l ia m P itt Geo rg e Was h i n g to n

, .

S uc h a n am e is c al e l d a p ro p er no un o r n am e (that i s,
i n the Lat i n m ean i n g of t h e w o r d pr oper , b e l o n g in g t o
‘

so m et hi n g in p arti c ul ar ,
a
ppr op r i a ted t o i n d i v i d ual use
A P RO P ER no un o r n am e t h en i s a n a m e gi v en t o an i n
, ,

d i v i d ual o f a c as s , l to d i sti n guish i t fro m o th er i n d i v i d ual s

of the sam e c as s l .

An d i n ,
c o n t r as t t o these, all th e r est are ca ll e d C O MM O N
no un s that i s, n am es o w n e d in co m m on by a n um b er o f
t h in gs of t he s am e ki n d t h ei r
, l
c ass -n am e .

114 . Ou t h e o t her h an d ,
so m e no un s si g n i fy , n ot an y

sin g e l t hi n g , b ut a c ert a i n n um b er .
or collecti on o f si n g e l
t hin g s : th us,
pa ir , d o zen , g ro up, t ro o p, tea m ,
g an g , f a m i ly , t r ib e , n at io n .

S uc h n oun s ar e c a ll ed CO L L E C T I V ES .

115 . S om e no un s m ark th e thi n g s ig n ifi ed b y t hem as

l
m a e or fem al e t hus,
m an , wo m an ; so n , d a ug h t er ;
un c l e a un t ;
, ki n g , q uee n ;
b ul l c o w ;
, ra m , e we ;

cou nt c o u,n te s s ; h ero h e ro i n e , .

S uc h no un s are cal e l d G END ER-n o un s

(fro m a Lati n word
m ea n i n g ki n d , se x

An d t ho se g en d er-n o un s t hat s ig n i fy m a e l b ei n gs are

c a ll e d MA S CU LI NE n o un s or n ouns of th e m asc u i n e l d er ;
,
g en
w hil e t ho se t hat s ig n i fy fem al e b ei n gs are c al l e d F E M I N I N E

no un s ,
o r n o un s o f the fe m i n i n e gen d er .

All o ther n o un s th o s e w h i c h d er-n o un s o r are n o t

g en ,

ha v e n o t hi n
g t o d o w i th d e fi n i n g s ex — are o ften c all e d
N E U T ER n o un s , or nou n s o f t he n e u t er g e n d er (t hat i s of ,
50 N OU N S .
[1 1 5

n ei ther on e sex n or th e o t h er They eith er b el o n g t o

o b ec ts
j t h at h a v e no sex , l ik e
s un d ay , , h o us e ,
t re e , sto n e , h ai r , c o lo r ;

t hey are i v e n i n d i ffer en t l y t o b ei n s of b oth x es

or g g se as ,

c hi l d h o rse h o un d fi s h c rab
, , , , , m o sq uito .

T h ere is no n eed t o say a y t h i g ab o ut g d e i n n en r n c o n n ec t o n i ih

w t a no un ,
un l es s i t b e a n oun t h at a tua ll y i m pli a d i st i c t i o
c es n n o f s ex .

116 . So m e no un s m ark t he thi n g t h ey sign if y as of

sm al l siz e ; o r, if a c reat ure , as y o un g ,

n ot full —gro w n .

E x am p l es are

g o s l in g , I am b ki n , b ro o kl et , hi l l o c k , b o o te e .

These ll e d D I M I N UT I VES (w ord s sho w i n g som ethin g

ar e c a

d i m i n i shed o r m ad e sm all )
,
.

W d s li k b y b b
or e o l t l b pup h re a m ea i g li k e th at o f d i m in uti v es ;
,
a e, c o ,
am , , a n n

b ut i t i s us u l t o g iv e t h i s
a m e o l y t o w ords d ri v ed f o m o t h ers b y s u
na n ffix s e r e

wh i c h ad d th e d i m i ut iv e m in g
n ean .

T h es e ar e th e m o st i m p o rtan t c lassifi c ati ons o f n o un s a c co r d i n g

t o th ei r m ean i n g N o w w e h av e t o n o ti c e thei r p ri n c ipal c l assi
.

fi cati on s ac c o rd m g t o t hei r fo rm .

117 . N c un s are di v i d e d d in g
a c co r t o th eir form i n t o
sim p l e d eri v ati v e an d c o m
, ,
p o un d .

S I M P LE n oun s are such as w e c a n n o t t ak e ap art i n to

si m p l er el em en t s : as ,

sun m an b o y h e pe c h a ir f a m i l y
, , , , , .

D ERI V ATI VE n o un s are such as c o m e b y a dd e d su ffi x es

or
prefi x es fro m o th er si m p l er w o r d s used in o ur l an
guage as,

m an l i n ess fro m m a n (th ro ugh m a n l y ) ;

b o yh o o d fro m b o y ; g o o d n ess fro m g o o d
'

;
t r ut h fro m t r ue ; c o un t es s fro m c o un t .

C O M P O UN D no un s a re s uc h as ar e m a d e up o f t w o or m or e

w ord s use d i n d ep en d en t l y i n o ur l an g uage as ,

ho use-to p, i n kstan d , s te a m b o at , b l ac kb erry , pic kpo c ket .

1 1 9] D E R I V AT I V E N OU N S . 51

I t h as b een l y po i n ted o ut (1 06 ) that a g e t

a read r a m an y w o rd s w hi c h are
th u s d efi ed as s i m pl e a
n fo un d t o b e a ll y d
re iv t iv re er a e or c o m po und wh we en

c o m e t o kn o w m o b o ut t h em
re a T o re g i e t h e pl a i . co n z n a d evi d
n t d e iv at i n
en r o

a d
n o m p s i t i n o f E g l i sh w o d s i s t h e pro per p ep
c o o n r r ar at i on f o st ud y i g the
r n

h i st o y o f th e o bsc u o n es
r r er .

1 18 . Th e m o st frequen t an d im p o rtan t c l asses of d eri vativ e

no un s are a s fo ll o w s
a . A bs tr a c t no un s fro m ,
j
a d ec t i v es as,

g o o d n ess , l iken e ss ; f ra il ty, sec urity; t rut h , b read t h .

Or fro m no un s as ,

Go d h ead ; b o yh o o d , kn ig h t h o o d ; k i n g d o m ; d e s po t is m .

b . F em i n i n e g en d e r -n o un s, fro m m asc u in es l as ,

co un tess (fro m co unt ) , a bb ess

(fro m ab bo t ) h e ro i n e (fro m h e ro )
, .

0 . D im in ut i v es , fro m o t h er n o un s a s,

g o sl i n g (fro m g oo se ) ; b ro o kl et , r i n g et l ; I a m bki n .

d . N o un s d en o ti n g) r an a c t o r , fro m v erb s a s,

l o ve r , r un n er , d efe n d e r , b e g g ar , l
s a i o r, g ran to r .

e . N o un s d en o tin g on e w ho d ea ls 1 85th or p rac tis es an

y
thi n g , fro m o t h er n o un s as,

j l ai er, priso n er ; l awyer , g laz ier ; an na l ist , o r g an ist .

f . N o un s d en o ti n g an a c t i o n or c o n d i ti o n , fro m v erb s as,

f ee l i n g , m ea n i n g .

g . N o n us fo rm ed fro m o t her n o un s b y p r efi x es as,

un b e l ief , un c o n c ern i n ex per ie n c e , n o n s en se ; d is ease , d is g rac e ;

,

- -
e x m ay o r , a n te ro o m , s u b -o ffi c e r .

119 . The p ri n c ipal c l asses o f co m po un d no un s are as fo ll o w s

a . A no un w ith a p rec ed i n g a dj ec ti v e th at q ual ifi es or de
s c rib es it as ,

i II-w i l l , m id d ay , b l i n d wo rm , b l ac kb erry , g o o d m an , En g l is h m an .

b . A no un w i th a p rec ed in g no un that d e s c rib es it, or is in

appo s it io n (37 5 ) w it h i t as ,

m erc h a n t-ta il o r . sa i o r-
l b o y, m an -ser a n t v .
52 N OU N S .
[1 1 9

c . A no un w ith a prece d in g no un t hat li m i ts i t i n an

y o t her
w ay as ,

s un rise , s eas h o re , i n n ke e pe r , h urc h yard ra i n b o w n est-egg

c , , ,

s he llfi s h , st ea m b o at ra i l way , .

h i s c l ass i s b y far th l
T e arg e s t , a n d th l t i on o f t h e l i m i ti n g n o un to th e
e re a

o th er i s a v r y v ar i o us
e n o e (s ee

d . A no un w i th a p re c ed i n g v erb -
ro o t t aken i n th e s en se o f a

v erb al no un as,

was h t ub , t read m il l , d rawb r id g e , b a ke h o use

’
t hat i s, t ub fo r w as hi n g , an d so o n .

e . A d e s c r ip ti v e com p o un d ,
m a de ei t her o f a n o un an d pre
ce di n g adj ecti v e (c l ass a ) w ith t h e i d ea of p o ssessi on added as,

red -c o at , b l ue-sto c ki n g , g rayb e ard

’
t hat i s , ‘
on e w h o h as or w ears d c oat a n d so o n ; o r
a re , of a

v erb w i t h i ts o b ec t o r an
j a d v er bi a l exp ress i on fo ll o w i n
g it as,

pic k po c ke t , t ur n key, li e -ab ed

, r un away, to uc h-m e-n o t
’
t hat i s , on e w ho pi ck s p o ck ets ,
an d so o h .

f . A no un w i th a prefi x as,
C

i n l an d , af tert h o ug h t , o v ert h ro w un d erb rus h forelo c k

, , , out po st.

It i s n o t ea s y t o d raw t he li n e l y b etw een t h ose w o rd s fo m ed w i th p e

sh arp r r

fi x es w h ich a re to b e r eg ard ed as c o m po un d s a d th o se w h i c h are t o b e reg ard ed

n

as d er iv t iv
a es (1 1 8 g ) .

I NF L E CT I O N N O UN S
’

OF .

1 20 . N o un s are i n flec t ed ,
or v ari ed i n form ,
to ex p ress
d i fferen c es of N U M B ER an d of
C AS E .

The i n fl ec t io n n ou
of a n i s c all e d i t s D EC L EN S I O N .
(S ee
a b o v e, 58 , 6 8 , 74 ,

N UM BE R .

1 21 . The n um b ers are tw o : th e S I N GU LAR use d ,

w h en
on ly on e th i n g of th e ki n d d en o t e d b y th e no un i s m ean t ;

an d t h e P L U RAL , w hen m ore t han on e are m ean t .

(S ee

abo v e,
54 N OU NS .
[1 2 4 1

c . Die , pea , an d pe n ny form the p l ural s

d ic e , peas e , pen c e ,
b esi d es th e r eg ul ar
d ies , peas , pen n ies ;

t he d ifferen t form s b ein g us ed i n so m ew h at differen t sen s es .

d N un s n d i g i y aft r a c o s a t a d m a y o f t h o se e di n g i
. o e n n e n on n ,
n n n n 0 a ft er

a c on so a t a d d i st ad o f c h a g i g th e y t i t h us
n n ,
es n e s, n n o ,

po y p i
n ; l dy l d i
, o n es
; ll q uy ll q ui ; g
a , a
g ; p t t
es p t
co o , co o es c ar o , c ar o es o a o, o ato es ;

b ut
bo y
s, da y v ll y
s, a e s, att o rn e s y
an d a so l
b ra v es , z e ro s .

e . L et ters d fi gur es, an d a w or d o f an y

an p art of s p eec h
n ou
’
used as a n i n t h e s en se o f
‘
th e w o rd so an d so

usuall y put an a p ostro ph e b efo re t h e s th at form s th ei r pl u

ral : t hus,

d o t yo ur yo ur t
’
I S and c ro ss s ;
t h re e 9 s ;
’
i n 999 are

he us es to o m an y Is
’
an d
’
m e s a nd m ys
’
.

1 25 . A few En g l i sh no un s form t heir p l ural s i n o t her

w ay s . Thus

a . By a c h an g e of so un d wi thi n , n ot a dd in g an y en di n g °

t hus,
m an , m en ; wo m a n , wo m e n ;
fo o t , f e et t o o t h , t eet h ; g o o se , g eese ;

l o use , l ic e ; m o use , m ic e ;

t h ese l ast t w o h av e l
a so a c h an g e i n th e p ell i n g fro m
s ,
s to c .

B y add i n g en , w ith or wi th o ut o th er c h an g es th us,

ex, b x e n ; b ro t h e r , b ret h re n ( or b ro t h ers ) ; c hild , c hi l d ren .

An d c ow in o ld st yl e form s kin e .

1 26 . A d erab l e n um b er o f w or d s t ak en un ch an ged
c o n si

fro m foreign l an guages form their p l ural s ac c ord i n g t o the

r ul e s o f th o se l an g uag es .
12 8] NU M B E R . 55

S om e of th e com m on est o f th ese are

phbn o m en o n , ph e n o m en a ; um strata ;
s t rat ,

g en u s , g e n e ra ; fo rm ul a fo r m ul ae;
,

g e n iu s , g e n ii ; ana l y s is , ana l y ses ;

i n d ex , i n d ic es ; b ea u, b ea ux;
c he r ub , c he rub im .

B ut m an y of th ese w o rd s , b ei n g of frequen t us e, m ake reg ul ar

En gl i sh p l ural s as w el l as fo rei gn o n es t h us,

form ul as , c h er ub s ,
i n d ex es , g en i us es .

S om etim es
( as i n t he l ast tw o cases ) th e t w o k in d s of p l ural are

used i n d ifferen t sen ses .

127 . Som e w ord s use , ei th er ll y or i n

g en era c ert ai n

sen ses, th ei r si n g ul ar fo rm a l so w i th a p l ura l m eani n g,

i n stead of form i n g a p ro p er p l ural .

Thus
a . Certain n am es o f an i m a s, as l
s hee p, d eer , swi n e , fi sh ( l a so fi s hes) ,

an d s un d ry kin d s o f fish ,
as

t ro ut, l
sa m o n , s h ad , pi ke .

Certain w o rd s , m o st l y c o ll ec tiv es used w ith n um er

als in co un t i n g o bj ec ts or t ell i n g t he i r n um b er t hus ,

coup e, l b rac e , pai r , yo ke , d o ze n , s c o re , g ro ss , to n , head , sa i l .

c . A fe w o t her w o rd s as

c an n o n , s h o t h eath e n
, , fo l k , peo pl e .

There are fe w of t h es e w o rd s w hic h d o n ot so m et im es, in

so m e uses , fo rm a pl ural l ike o t her n o un s .

1 28 . S om e w or d s are r ar e l y o r n ev er used e x cep t i n the

sin g ul ar . T hes e are esp ec ia ll y p ro p er n am es no un s
o f m a te ri a l (1 0 9) a s,

go l d , l ead , c a l y , m o rta r , fl es h ;

a n d abs tra c t n o un s ( 11 1 ) as,

peac e , l
c a o r ic , t h a n kf ul n ess .
56 N OU NS .
[1 2 8

B ut e v en proper n am es are c apab e o f l form i ng l

p ura ls sign i fym g e i th er th e
m o re t h an on e n d i ivi d u l b eari a ng the sam e n am e as,

i h d th B w ;
t he S m t s an ll t h W d
e d y
ro f th th ;
ns a e e n es a s o e m on

or i n di vi d ua l s resem b l i g t h e t o w h o m t h n am e b l o
n e on e e n
g s as ,

t h Mil t d Sh k p e f u e tuy
ons an a es ea res o o r c n r .

M ost n ou s f m t e i al a e l so used as n am es o f a t i l es m d e o f th t m
n o a r r a r c a a a

t eri al o k i n d s o f i t o m asses o f i t an d so o u a d as s uc h h v e pl ural s as

,
r ,
r , ,
n a ,

hip
a s pp
’
s co ; th l d f
e rs f; th l y d g v l f th W t
e ea s o a ro o e c a s an ra e s o e es .

An d a g eat m a y ab st r c t n ou s form pl u a l s as s i g i fy i g th e qual i t y i

r n a n r n n n

separat e ac t s o e xh i b i t i o s t h us
r n ,

g d a h iti ;
oo
’
m an s c the h tar f u es; ea s o s m m er

th l v f the g l ; o es o th b
e an ut i f it f
e s e ea es o s o rm .

1 29 . S om e w o r d s, on th e o th er h an d , are used o nl y in
t he p l ural . E x am p l es are

b ello ws , to n g s , h ears
s , t ro users , m eas es , l v ic t ual s , Vitals , en trai s , l
an n al s , n upt ial s , o b se q ui es , t h a n ks .

New s an d m ean s , pro per p ura , ly l l hav e n ow c om et o b e used g en era ll y as

i
s ng ul ar . So a sol n am es o f b ran c es h o f stud y en di n g i n ic e, as et h c s , m at i h e

m at ic s , po t li i s c .

i
R c hes , o r i g i n all y a si n gul ar ,
h as n ow c o m e to b e used on l y as a pl ural .

1 30 . C om p oun d n oun s ad d the si g n of p l ural to the

t he
no un , or to t h e pri n cip al n o un , t he on e d escrib ed or l im ited b y
th e o t h er : t h us,

b lac kb ird s , m erc ha n t m en , ho use-to ps , st ea m b o ats , ha n g ers-

o n,

b ro t h e rs-in-Iaw , d rawb rid g es , aftert ho ug h ts .

A d escrip ti v e c om p o un d (1 1 9 e ) add s 5 t o th e l ast w o rd , w h ether

no un or n ot a s,

re d c o ats , turn keys , r un aways , fo rg et-m e-n ots .

S om e w ord s, o rigi n a ll y p o un d s are

c om ,
no l on ger felt as s uc h,
an d s o are treate d as si m p l e w o rd s t hus ,

m out h fuls h a n d fuls

, .

CA SE .

1 31 . E n gl ish no un s h av e
l y t w o c ase-fo rm s : o n e o f on

them t he P O S S E S S I V E or G ENI T I V E sho w s p ossess i o n or ap

, ,

p urten an c e ; the other i s use d i n all other rel ati on s .

1 36 ] C ASE . 57

1 32 . S i n ce ho w ev er,
, s om e p ron o un s h av e o n e c ase- o rm f
— l he t hey , w ho
, , ,
et c .
— for use w h e n th e w or d i s s ub
an d an o t her — hi m t he m w ho m — for use
j ec t, m e, , , , et c .

w h en t h e w or d is o b ec tj of a v erb or p rep o si ti o n i t i s ,

custo m ary d i st i n g ui sh thes e t w o d i fferen t uses of the

to
n oun al so an d t o sp eak o f t h e S U B J E CT I V E o r N OMI NAT I VE
,

c ase an d o f t h e OB J E CT I VE o r AC CU S AT I V E case o f t h e n o u
, n ;

a l t ho u h i fa c t th e t w o ar e a l w a y s th e sam e i n form
g n
(c o m

p are
1 33 p o ssessi v e c ase i n the si n gul ar n um b er i s m a d e
. The
b y a dd in g an s (b efore w hi ch an ap o stro p he i s w ri tten :
t hus,
’
s ) t o t he no n u .

T h i s s i g n of the po ssess iv e fo ll o ws the sam e rul es as th e of th e pl ural (1 2 3) s

w i th reg rd t o b ein g p on o u c ed as
a o r as
r an d t o fo rm i n g
n ad d i t i o a l syl
s 1 , an n

l ab l o n ot b ut i t i s n ev er w i tten w i th
e r r es .

T h us i n , t i t i s p o u c ed s
ca
’
s i n d g as ; i n e ’s an d C h l es an d
r no n a s, o
’
s 2 s x ar
’
s

c h u h i t m kes a sy ll b l e a d has t h e sou d

rc
’
s a a n z- n .

1 34 B ut a n o un o f m o re th an o n e s y ll ab l e en d i g i n an or soun d s o m e
. n s z-

t im es ( li k e a pl u ral see b el o w) o m i ts th e possess iv e si g i n ord e t o a v o i d th e n, r

d is g reeab l e repet i t i o
a o f h i s i n g l et t ers
n I su c h a c ases an apostro ph e i s . n ,

w ri tt en al on e at t h e en d o f t h w ord Th us e .
,

th p i es s f ve it ; f
r nc i ’
k
a or e o r c o n sc e n c e
’
sa e .

1 35 . P l ural s d i n g i n s m ak e thei r p ossessi v e

n o t en c ase

i n the sam e w ay as s i n g ul ars t hus ,

’ ’ ’
m en s c hil d re n s m ic e s s hee p s
’
.
, , ,

Other p l ural s p ro n un c i ation for thei r

m ak e n o c han ge in
p ossessi v e c ases ; b ut an ap ostrop h e i s w ritten after th e s
— th us 6 ’ as s ign to t he eye o f the p ossessi v e use : th us
, ,

I ad ies jud g es
’ ’ ’ ’ ’
c ats , d o gs , , ho rs es , .

1 36 . Fo r t he p o s sessive c ase in l
a m ost all i ts uses w e c an put
the j
ob ec t i ve w i th o f t h us,

t he c at s
’
h ead ,
or t he h ead of t he c at ;
'
t he ki n g s e n e m i es , or t he e n em ies of t he ki n g .

An d y m an no un s a re ra re ly or n e v er us ed i n t he p ossessiv e, t he
o t her m o d e of e xp ressio n b ei n g
:
r
em pl oy ed i n stead .
58 N OU N S .
[ 1 37

1 37 . In p oun d n o un s t h e sign
c om ,
of th ep o ssessi v e i s a dd ed
at th e en d o f t h e w h o l e c o m p o un d of ,
w h at ev er k i n d i t m ay b e
t hus , his fat h e r-ln -Iaw s h o use
’
-
.

1 38 . Th e s am e r ul e i s foll o w ed i n th e case of a com b i n ati on

of tw o p reced ed b y a t it l e
n a m es, o f a n am e , of a n o un p rec ed ed
or fo ll ow ed b y d esc rip ti v e o r l i m i t i n g w ord s ,
an d so o n th us,

Was h i n g to n ’
h atc het ; Q uee n El iz a b et h s ru
’

G e o rg e s ff ;
Mr . John S m it h
’
s h o rse ; T h o m as Ro b i n so n Esq ui re
’
s res id e n c e ;
En g l a n d y;
’ ’
t he Ki n g of s c ro wn ; his d ead m as ter Ed ward s m em o r

at m y co us i n Wil l ia m T h o m ps o n ’
s .

E v en w h en no un s are c on n ec t e d by an d or o r , t he p o ssessiv e
si gn is so m etim es a dd ed on ly to the l ast of t h em t h us,

Nat ure h an d
’
Go d an d s ;
fo rt n ig h t t h ree wee ks
’
a or po ss e s s io n .

us es un ron ou
1 39 . T h ere are c ertai n of the no
( p or n
) w h i ch

rep resen t a n o th er case o n e w hi c h w as ,

form erl y di sti n g uish ed i n
En g l i sh b y a d i fferen ce o f fo rm from th e n o m i n ati v e possessi y e , ,

an d o bj ec ti v e an d w hi c h i s stil l so d i st i n g u
,
i sh e d i n m an y l an
u a es — t he se-call ed D A T I VE c ase I t e xp resses t h e r el a t i o n
g g .

usuall y sign ifi e d b y t o o r fo r as t h e p o ssessi v e exp resses t hat ,

si g nifi ed b y o f .

Th us, i n st ead o f sa yin g ,

I s en t a b o o k to m y f r ie n d ,

I s e nt m y f rie n d a book ;

he m a d e a c o at fo r t he m an ,

he m ad e t he m an a c o at .

Frien d an d l atter p h rases hav e reall y j ust

m an , i n t he ,
as

o o d a ri h t t o b e c all ed d ati v es as frie n d an d m an after to

g g
‘

a n d f o r i n th e for m er p h ras es h av e t o b e call ed

”
o bj ec ti v es .

1 40 . B ut as t here are n o w o r d s i n E n g l is h , e v en p ro n o un s,
w hi c h h av e for s uch d at i v e uses a sp ecial fo rm d i fferen t fro m ,

th e o b ec ti
j v e, we c all a w o rd so u sed a D AT I VE OB J E CT I VE o r o b -
,
1 43] C AS E .
59

je c tiv e o f t h e I N D I RE CT O BJ E CT d istin guish the other w h en an d

,

n ecessar y ,
as th e A C C U S AT I VE OB J E CT I VE o r o bj ec ti v e o f th e D I
-
,

B
RE C T O J E C T .
(S ee S yn tax 36 3 etc ) ,
.

1 41 . N o un s hav e
d i sti n cti on o f p e r s o n (6 1 ) that i s no

t o say a n oun use d as subj ec t t ak es th e v erb a l w ay s i n

,

th e sam e p erso n th e t hir d ev en th o ugh u s e d b y th e

, ,

s p eak er ab o ut hi m self o r i n a dd ressin g an o ther : thus , ,

t he s ub sc rib er g ives n o t ic e ; is yo ur h o n o r well ?

B ut w e o ften ca ll to a p erso n or thi n g, a dd ressin g i t b y i ts

n am e as ,

0 Go d ! h ere m y f rie n d ;
ye stars ! s ee ,

w hat d o yo u m ean yo u b l o c k h ead ? ,

S o m e l an g uag es hav e fo r t hi s use a sp ec i al fo rm w hi ch i s ,

c all e d t h e v o cativ e case w e use th e s ubj ectiv e o r n o m i n ativ e

case an d w e m ay d i st i n g u i sh i t w h en t hus us ed as th e N O M I , ,

N AT I VE o r AD D RES S o r t h e VO CAT I VE N OMI NAT I VE — OI si m p l y - ‘

V O CAT I V E .

A v o cat iv e i s ev e m m b e of
n sen t en c e
r a i t fo rm s n o par t o f ei th er sub
e r a

jec t o p ed i c at e b ut st an d s b y i ts l f li k e a i n t j e t i n B ut i t m ay h av e
r r ,
e ,
n er c o .

t he sam e w o d s o r ph as s o e v
r ,
c l uses rdd ed t o i t t h at t h e o th er c as es
e ,
r en a ,
a

h av e b y w ay o f l im i tat i o n o d es i pt i n T h u fo ex am pl
,
r cr o . s, r e

Y u G f Y k t f w d!
o r r ac e o or , se or ar

0 g t S i lt ! O y th
r ea f th ! c o o m m o re an a er

Ou F th w hi h t i h v r a er c ar n ea e n .

E X AM P LE S OF D E C L E N S I ON .

1 42 . E x am p l es of th e p l ete i n flec tion

com ,
or d ec l en si o n ,

of an E n g l ish no un ,
are, the n as fo ll o w s ,

S i ng PI Si g Pl n . .

i iv
N o m n at e an d
j iv
O b ec t e ! c at c ats d res s d resses
G en i t iv P
!
e r os ’ ’ ’ ’ ’
c at s c ats d res s s d resses m an s m en s

OT HE R P AR TS OF SP E E C H U SE D AS NO UN S .

1 43 . 1Vo rd s that are n o t p rop erl y no un s ,

al so c o m b i n a
t io ns of w o r ds , ev en p hras es an d s e n t en ces (c l aus es) are ,
60 N OU NS .
[ 1 43

s om et i m es used i n sen t en c es w i t h t he v al ue of no un s .

T he y ar e t h en usuall y sai d to b e used S U B S TAN T VEL I Y ,

o r as

s ub st an t i v es
1 44 . A dj ec t i v es are es p ec i al l y o ft en use d sub st an ti v el y .

Thus
a . S om e dj ecti v es are used
a w i th t h e v al ue of an ab s tra c t

un i n t h e si n g u
’
no .
l ar m ean in g, th at w hi ch i s so an d so , or th e
l ike t hus ,

a o id
v t he w r o n g h o o s e the
an d c r ig ht;
t he g o o d , th e b e a ut i f ul a n d , t he t r ue .

So l
a so ,

s it o n m y l e ft ; a b reeze f ro m the n o rt h;
we j ud g e t he f ut ur e b y t he p a s t ;
he was i n the t h i c k e s t of t he fi g ht ;
an d so o n .

b . A lm y a dj ec t i v e m ay b e us e d as a p l ural
os t an no un , sign i
ty i n g t h e p erso n s i n gen eral that h av e th e ch aracter d escrib ed by
t he a dj ec ti ve th us,

g iv e to t he p o o r ; the v i r t uo us l
a o n e are happy ;

ho w l
s e ep t he b ra ve! the d ea d a r e m o re t h a n t he l iv i n g ;
sweets to t he s weet .

0 . M an y adj ecti v es are used as n o un s , ei th er i n th e si n g ul ar

or i n th e p l ural ,
to si gn if y a p erson or t hi n g s uch as w ou
l d be
d esc ri b ed b y t he adj ecti v e .

S o esp ec i all y an adj ecti v e th at m ean s b el o n gi n g t o a c ertain

, ,

c oun t ry or rac e or sec t o r p art y : t hus

, , , ,

an Am eric a n , t he Am eric an s , a Gree k , a Lut h e ra n ,

a S to ic , the As iat ic s , Med es and P ers ia ns .

An dj ecti v e o f c o un try
a l
o r r ace a s o s ign i fi es th e l an guage of

th at c oun t ry or race t h us ,

t he En g l is h is our m ot h e r-to n g ue ;
sa y it i n Fre n c h ; he r ea d s C h i n es e .
62 N O U NS .
[ C H AR

E XE R CI S E S T O C HAP TER V .

P A R SI NG .

We are n o w r ead y t o b egi n t o pa rse, as it i s ca ll ed , a par t of th e

w or d s n am e ly ,
th e no un s in o ur ill ustrati v e sen t en c es an d ex er

c i ses .

T o parse a w or d i s t o g i ve a co m pl et e a cco un t of i t, a s i t stan d s in

th e s en t en ce of w h i ch i t fo r m s a part .

un t d escripti on , or d efi n i t i on i n cl ud es thr ee par ts

Thi s a c co (o r )
A . W hat KIND of w o rd i t i s . Thi s i m pli es t ell i n g

1 . W h at part o f speech it is
2 . To w hi c h of th e v ari o us l
c a ss es an d s ub -cl asses i n to w hi ch
t h at part of s
peech i s d i v id ed it b el o n gs .

Th e di s t i i
n ct on s o f t h e part s o f speec h ,
i h t h e eason s f t h em are g iv en
w t r or ,

i n the s ec o n d c h apt er the c l asses et c . ar e g iv en u

’

nde e h p t o f speech r ac ai .

B . W hat i s i t s gram m ati c a l FO R M . T hi s i m pl i es t ell in g

1 . Wh ether i t i s si m pl e, o r d eri v ati v e, or co m po un d
2 . If i t i s an i n fl ec t ed w ord , w h at i s i t s fo rm a s suc h that i s, of

w h at n um b er , perso n , t en se, m o d e, o r d eg ree i t i s

c ase , An d , i n .

c on n ec ti on w i th t hi s, t h e w ord sh o ul d b e m ore o r l ess ful ly in

fl ect ed , t o sho w w hat i t s v ari o us i n fl ec ti o n al form s are .

As w as po i t ed o ut t th e n d o f t h e fo u th c h pt e (p
a en t h e fi s t o f t hese r a r . r

h e d s — th e que t i o n o f d iv t iv e c om po un d etc — m ay b e o m i tted or d e

a s er a , ,
.

ferre d at t h t h er s d i sc et i on
e eac
’
r .

C . W hat i s i ts C O N S T R U CT O N I th at i s, w hat part i t pl ay s i n th e

s en t en c e t o w hi ch i t b e l on gs ,
in w hat w ay i t i s c o m b i n ed w ith o th er
w ord s t o m ak e up the sen t en ce .

Con s tr uc ti on m ean s
‘
bu d il i ng t og et h er
’
; t he sen t en c e i s t h o ug t h of as a

s tr uc tur e or
‘
bui d l i n
g,
’
as s o m et hi
bui lt up b y
ng j o in ing in a proper m ann er

i ts v ri o us pa
a r t s, t h e p a r ts o f sp eech t hat c o m po se i t .

The v ari o us y par t o f speech ar e t he v ari ous

c o n s tr uc ti o n s of an

w ay s i n w h i ch i t ad m i ts o f b ei n g c o m bi n ed o r put t o g eth er w i th o t h er
t s o f s c h i n m ak i n s en t en c es l Ve h a ve e x l ai n ed i n t h e sec o n d
pa r pee g p .

an d t hi r d c h apt e rs uc ti on s o f the d iffer en t

a ll t he m o st usual c o n s tr

r ts o f s eec h a n d t h e r e s t w i ll b e o i n t ed o ut l at er, in t he S y n t ax
pa p p .

The c o n s truct ion s o f t he n o un n o ti c e d w ere t h ese a s ubj ec t o f v erb .

v .
) E X E RC I SES . 63

b . j
o b ect o f v erb 0 . j
ob ec t o f prepo si ti on d predi cate n o un
. 9 po s .

sessi ve quali fy in
g an o th er n o un . An y o th ers t han th ese ar e co m para
ti vely r are .

T he r e are y l es o f parsi n g a full e st y l e w h en ev er y d eta il i s g iv en

va i r o us st r ,

ab o ut t h e w o d pa sed w i t h t h e r
r r so n f e v er y t h i g
,
d a b ri efe i n w h i c h
ea or n an r,

o n l y t h e m att s o f m o st i m po t an e are m en t i o ed a d t h e reas o s o m i t t ed

er r c n ,
n n .

T h e t e h er m ust d et m i e at
ac y t i m e wh i c h st y l e sh ll b e ex pect ed
er n an H a . e

w il l t u a ll y b eg i n wi t h t h e full r
na r d p s g d ual l y t o th e b i fe w h e t h e
e ,
an as ra r e r n

o t h er b co m es a m ere b u
e rd en s o m e r pet i t i o o f t h in g s w el l un d erst o o d an d
e n

fam i li ar .

E x a m pl e of pa rs i n g n o un s .

My b ro t he r l a id J o hn s writ i n g -d es k
’
t he pa i n t i n g s on .

T h e first t hi n g t o b e d on e h ere, as a l ways ,

is t o d i vid e t h e sen

t en c e in t o p s ubj ect an d redi c at e

d raw n d o w n b et w een — by a l in e

th e tw o , if wr i t ten an d t h en t o po i n t o ut t h e b ar e su b jec t an d t h e
b are predi cat e by un d ersc o rin g th em , if w ri t ten t h us,

My b ro t h e r I l a id t he pa i nt i n g s on J oh n s ’
wr it i n g -d es k .

T h en , on e i th er sid e th e l in e ,
t h e w ord un d ersc o red i s t o b e th e
fi rst on e
parsed , si n c e t h e rest are m ere adj un cts or
tak en up an d

q uali fiers t o t hat on e An d , i n g en eral , a w ord quali fi ed by an y

.

o th er i s t o b e ars ed b efor e t hat o th er Thi s i s a rule of hi ghes t

p .

i m por tan ce .

We begin , th en , w i th b ro t h er

B ro th er i s a no un , b ec a use i t i s t he n am e o f so m eth i n
g (n am el y ,

th e n am e o l i v i n g b ein g)
f a a com m on un , b ecause i t b el o n gs
no

al ike to ev ery i n d i v id ual o f a c ass l a

g en d er-n o un , b ec a use i t 1111

pli es a d ist in c t ion o f sex m asc ul in e, b ec ause i t d en o t es o n l y a m al e

—
b ei n g (the c o rrespo n di n g fem i n in e b ei n g s ister ) it is a
pl e
s im
r
:

no un , b eca us e i t c an n o t b e t ak en apar t i n t o s i m pl er E n gl i sh ele

m en t s ; s i n g u l ar b ec ause i t m ean s o n l y o n e o f i ts c l ass ; i t i s i n
,

fl ec t ed t h us : b ro t h er b ro t h e r s , b ro t h e rs , b ro t h e rs ; i t i s i n the
’ ’
,

n o m i n a t i v e c as e, b ec a use i t i s t h e s ubj e c t o f t he sen ten c e, th e subj ect

i n at i v e th e v erb l a id
'

n om oi .

Oi
y, w e m sa
y h ere that i t i s an adj ec t ive q ual ify
o n l y n eed t o

i n g b ro th er , sh o w i n g whose b ro th er is m ea n t .

O f l a id , aga in , w e say o n l y t hat i t i s a v erb , t he b are pred i cat e o f

t he s en t e n ce , ha v i n g fo r i t s s ubj ec t t he no un b rot her .
 6 4: N OU NS .
[ C H AR

T he no un pai nt in g s , a ain
g ,
w e parse co m pl et el y, but i n a b ri efer
fo rm

P a i nt i n g s i s a no un , 8 c o m m on no un , a d erivati v e fr om th e v erb

pa i n t (as si g n ifyin g so m et hi n
g p a i n ted ) i t i s o f th e
pl ural n u m b er

b au e i t d e n o t es m t h an o n e o f t h e t h i n s d en o t ed b y pa i n t i n g ) ,
( ec s ore
g
an d i n the j
o b ect i ve case, the o b ect j of t he v erb l a id , b ein g a dd ed

t o the v erb to sh o w w ha t w as l ai d .

T he is an j
ad e c ti ve w or d ca l l ed an ar ti c e l quali fyi n g
pa i n t i n g s .

W r it i n -
g d es k i s a co m m o n no un it is po un d , b ei n g
co m m ad e

up of w r it i n g an d d es k (m ean i n g , a d esk for wr i ti n g o n i t is

i n t he j
o b ec t i ve c as e si n g ul ar, ob ec t o f j the pr eposi ti on o h , b ein g
j o i n edb y t he pr epo si t i on t o t he v erb l ai d , i n or d er t o sh o w where
t he b o o k s w er e l aid .

John s ’
is a si m l
pe p ro
per no un (b ecause used t o d i stin g ui sh a
c er t ai n i n d i v i d ual fro m o th ers o f hi s c l ass) m as c ul i n e, i n t h e g en i
,

ti v e ca se s in g ul ar i t quali fi es
an d wr it i n g -d es k , b ein g ad d ed to it
to sh o w whose w ri t i n g —
d esk i s m ean t .

Of on, fi n ally, w e n e ed l y say t hat

on it i s a preposi ti on , j oi n i n g
i ts o b e ctj wr it in g -d es k t o th e v erb l a id .

E XE R CI S E S F OR P R A CT C E I IN PAR S I N G NO UN S .

i i l
Fo r pract ce i n pars n g , c asses m ay b e m ad e t o t urn b ack t o t h e e erc ses x i
l
a r ead y iv i h h y
g en un d er th e pre c ed n g c apt ers ; o r t e m ay b e d rec t ed t o t h ei
v i
ar o u s ill iv x
ustrat e sen t en c es i n t h e t e t o r t o s en t en c es m ad e b y t h e t eac er h
or pupil s a d w i tt en o ut upo t h e b o a d ; o r t o s t en c es sel ec t ed b y th e
n r n r en

t a h e a d w i tt en i n t h e sam e w ay ; o t o p s ag s in t h R e d e s o o t h er
e c r n r r a s e e a r r

t x t b o o k s w h i h t h e c l ass 8 u in g
e c a yt h i n g t o m k e v a i et y i n t h e e x e c i
1 s n a r r s e,

and id i t o f a m ech
r i c al c h a ac ter an r .

A fewad d i t i o l x m pl es a e h e e g iv en
na e a m o st l y s uc h a s i ll u
r strat e spec i a l
r

and x c ept i o al p i t s
e n o n .

IX . M i s c e l l a n e o us e xa m pl e s .

Th e c h a m b er s of s i c k n es s an d d i s t r es s a r e m o s tl y peopl ed w i t h
th e v i ct im s of i n t em per a n c e an d sl o t h .

I h a v e b o ug h t fi v e y o k e o f o x en .

T h e s e peo pl e h o w e v er fa l l en a r e s t i ll m en
, , .

M o r e t h a n a h un d r e d c h i l d r en s c h i ld r en r o d e ’
on hi s kn ee .

C o o l s h a d es a n d d ew s a r e r o un d m y w a y .

’
I n t h i s pl a c e r an Ca s s i us d a gg er t h r o ug h .
v .
] E XE R C I S E S .
65

S o m et hi n g m or e t h an fo r tun e j o i n ed y our l o v es .

H i s b r o t h er pi r a t e s h an d h e w r un g
’
.

Th e v il e a l o n e a r e v ain t h e g r ea t ar e pr o ud .

Th y son g s w er e m a d e fo r t h e pur e a n d fr ee .

0 n i g h t a n d d ar k n es s ! ye a r e w o n d r o us s t r on g .

H e s t r o d e h aug h t il y i n t o t h e t h i c k es t o f t h e g r o up .

Fr o m g o l d t o g ra y , o ur w i l d s w eet d ay
Of I n d i an s um m er fa d es t o o s o on .

A h un d r e d of t h e f oe s ha l l be
A b an quet for t h e m oun t a in b ir d s .

So s w eet a ki s s t h e g o l d en s un g i v es n o t
To t h ose fres h m o rn i n g d r ops upo n t h e r o se .

H e g i v et h hi s b el o v ed sl ee
p .

J o v e b ut l aug h s at l o v er s perj ur y
’
.

T h e y b r in g d o w n m y g r a y h a ir s w it h s o rr o wt o t h e g ra v e ,

Hea v en fr om a ll c r ea t h i d es t h e
ur es b o o k o f Fa t e .

T h ey h o ok
s t h e d ept h s o f t h e d es er t gl o o m
W i t h t h eir h ym n s o f l o ft y c h eer .
66 P R O N OU NS .
[1 4 9

C H AP T E R V I .

P R O N OU N S .

1 49 A p ro n oun
.
,
as w e ha v e s een is a kin d of s ub
st i tut e fo r a n o un .

A p ro n o un d oes n ot p re c i sel y n am e an y thi n g ; b ut i t

p oi n t s t o o r p o i n t s out s o m e p erson o r t hi n g that has b een
n am e d b efo re or t h at i s sh o w n
,
b y a gest ure o r th at i s ,

d efi n ed b y i t s re l at i o n t o so m ethin g el se th at i s n am ed .

Th us, i f I say

t h i s is m y fat h er ; d id yo u wis h t o s ee him ?

I use my i n st ea d of m y ow n d yo u i n st ead o f t h at o f
n am e, an

th e p erson to w h o m I sp eak 5 h av i n g m en ti o n e d m y fath er, I d o

n o t r ep eat t h e n am e, b ut use him i n st ead a n d t h is d escrib es

p l ai n l y en ough th e p erson w h o m I t ak e h o l d o f, o r t o w ard w h om

I m ak e s o m e gest ur e, or w h o i s the on ly o n e n ear m e .

1 50 . The p ron o un s ha v e then i n g en eral , ,

th e sam e uses
t h at no un s h a v e i n m aki n
g sen t en c es .

B ut pro n oun s d iffer fro m no un s i n thi s res p ec t th at th ey are

l
a m ost ne v er qualifi ed b y attri b uti v e dj ectiv es : that i s
a , b y ad

jec tiv es p l ace d b efo re th em an d d irectl y qual if yin g th em

Th us for ex am p l e w e say
, ,

a m an , b ut n ot a he ;
t h es e m en , b ut n ot t h e s e we ;

g oo d m en , b ut n ot g o o d t h ey ;
an d so o n .

S om e of t h e w o rd s us ed as pro n oun s are used l

a so as a d ec
j
t i ves, q ual ify i n g a no un t hat i s exp r es s ed ,
i n stead o f s tan d i n g for
on e th a t i s om i tte d t h us, eit h er

t h i s is m y fat h er , or t h is m an is m y fat h er .
1 54 ] C LA S SES OF P R O N OU N S .
67

h
T is d i stin ct io n b et w een th e sub st an t iv e an d th e j
iv e v al u of th e sam e
ad ec t e

w o rd , or b et w een i t s use as pro n o un an d as pron o m i n a l adj ec t iv e sh o ul d ,

a l w ay s b e l c ea r ly an d ac c urat el y m ad e .

1 51 . Pro n o un s ha v e l
a so the s am e i n flec t i o n as no un s
n am e l y fo r n um b er an d c ase An d som e o f them as h as
,
.
,

b een p o i n t e d o ut ab o v e h a v e for th e obj ec t i v e c ase a spe ,

c i al fo rm f differ en t fro m th e n o m i n at i v e .

On e c l ass o f p ro n o un s th e p e r s o n a l m ak e a d i st i n cti o n
, ,

o f P E R S O N (6 1 ) a n d o n e o f t h ese m ak es al so i n the s i n u
g ,

lar n um b er a di sti n c t i o n o f G E N D ER
,

1 52 . The p ro n oun s are d i v i d ed i n t o four c l asses

1 ,
p er s o n a l p ro n oun s ;
2 . d em o n s tr a ti v e p ro n oun s ;
3 . i n t e r r o g a ti v e p ro n o un s ;
4 . r el a t i ve o r c o n j un c t i ve p ron oun s .

An d th ere i s b esi d es an o th er c ass, l t o w h i c h th e n am e o f

p ron o un l ess p ro p erl y b e l o n g s ,

an d w hi ch are c a ll e d
5 . in d efi n i te pron oun s .

There a re so few pro n oun s o f each c ass l th at w e m en ti o n an d

d esc rib e th em all — as is n ot th e case w i th an
y o th er p art of

sp e ec h .

1 . P ER S ON A L P R ON O U N S .

1 53 . The P E R S O N A L p ro n o un s
ll ed b ec ause they are s o c a

es p e c i a l l y m ark d i fferen c es o f p e r s o n th at i s t hey ,

d i st in guish the p ers on s p eak i n g o r t he FI RS T P E R S O N fro m , ,

t h e p erso n sp ok en t o o r th e SE C O N D P ERS O N an d the p erso n

, ,

s p o k en o f o r t h e T HI R D P E R S O N
, .

1 54 . p ro n o un s i s v ery i rreg ul ar : t hus

Th e i n flec t io n of th es e ,

t he p l ura l s are q ui te d ifferen t w o rd s fro m th e s i n g ul ars an d t he

p o ss essiv es us ua ll y ha v e d o ub l e fo rm s an d are n o t m ad e l ik e ,

t ho se o f n o un s a n d b o t h p o ssess i v e a n d o b j ec t iv e are s o m eti m es

q ui te d iffere n t w o rd s fro m th e n o m i n at iv e .
68 P RO N OU NS .
[1 55

1 55 . The p ron oun s o f the fi rst an d sec o n d p erson s ,

w i th
all t h ei r form s are th ese ,

F R T P E SO N
I S R . S EC OND P E R SO N .

Si gn . Pl . i g
S n . PL
No m .
l we tho u ye , yo u
P OS S m y, m in e our, o urs t hy t h i n e
, yo ur , yo urs
O bi .
me us t h ee yo u

1 56 . Th e p l ural form s of p erson al pro n oun si gn i fy

th e fi rst
th e p eak er
s h im s elf ,
t o g ether w ith the p ers o n o r p erso n s sp o k en

to, or w i th o t hers an
y set or g ro up o r co m p an y o f w h o m t he

sp eak er is on e t hus,

we [ h um an b ei n gs] h av e s pe ec h, and t h ey [ o th er an i m a sl ]
h av e n ot ;
we [ Am eri can s
] l iv e i n the western he m is here
p
we [ ith
I w m y c o m pan io n s
] to o k a l o n g wa l k to g ethe r ;

o u an d I
we [ y ] see eac h o t h er .

p l ural o f the sec on d p erson sign i fi es eith er a n um b er

S o th e
o f p erso n s a dd r essed o r o n e o r m ore su c h al o n g w i th o th ers w ho
,

are reg ar d ed as b el o n i n
g g i n o n e c o m p an y w ith t hem th us ,

yo u [ w h o m I s p eak to ] m ust l iste n to me ;

yo u [ G erm an s
] are a n at io n o f s c ho lars .

1 57 i y l es w u u u
. In c ert a n st u d b y a s i n g l e speak er of him
,
e, o r, o rs , s are se

sel f .S o espec iall y b y so v er i g n

,
a e as ,

W Vi t i Q u f E gl d ; e, c o r a, ee n o n an

a l so b y a wri t er an ed i t or or c o n t r i b utor t o a pe i o d i c l w h o speak s as i f he

,
r a ,

represen ted th w h o l e b o d y o f peo pl e c on c e n ed i n ed i tin g o r c o t i b ut i n g t o

e r n r

t h pub l i at i o n for w h i c h h e wr i t es
e c .

1 58 The p ro n oun o f th e sec o n d p erso n si n g ul ar tho u

.
,

et c i s n o l o n ger use d b y us (as i t w a s used i n fo rm er

,

t im es) W hen or d in ar i l y sp eaki n g t o o n e an o ther ; b ut i t

i s l eft for c ert ai n high er an d m ore so l em n o r m o re i m
p ass io n ed uses esp ec i all y i n p ray er an d i n p oetry Thus
,
.
,

0 t h o u to who m a ll c re at ures b o w ,

Ho w m ig h ty is t h y nam e !
70 P R O N OU N S .
[1 61

1 61 . B y th e use of th e fi rst t w o form s of thi s p ro n o un i n th e

si n g ul ar, we m ak e a di sti n c ti o n o f s ex

1 . I n t h o se c reat ures t h at h a v e ev i d en t sex , or i n w hi c h t h e

d i fferen c e o f sex is an im p o rt an t m at ter, an d es p ec i all y i n h um an

b ei n gs , m en an d w om en 3 an d
2 . S o m et i m i n p er son ifi ed
es j
o b ec t s — t h at i s, i n th o se w hi c h ,

th o ug h w e k n o w t h ey are n o t p erso n s ,
w e yet t al k ab o ut as if
th e y w ere so, as if th ey p ossessed s ex . Th us, w e s peak of th e
s un as he , an d of th e m o on or the earth o r a sh i p as s he .

1 62 On t h e o th er h an d , v en o b ec t s j t h at h a v e t he
'

. e sex , a s

us uall y
'

l ow er an i m a s, are l or o ft en d en oted b y it th eir sex ,

n ot

b ei n g o f a cco un t en o ugh t o b e n o ti ced Or i n so m e c ases

.
, ,
we
use he an d s he o f th em as he o f t h e d o g , w
an d s he of the
c at — w i th o ut an p arti cul ar referen ce to th ei r
y sex , b ut b ec ause
th ei r qual iti es i n g en eral pp ear to us i n t h at w ay An d it i s
a .

regul arl y u sed as c o rresp o n d i n g p ro n o u n t o c h il d b ab y an d ,

o th er s uc h w o rd s b ec au s e t h ey are n o t g en d er —
,
n ou n s bu t i m ply ,

an o v erl o o k i n g o f t h e sex o f t h e b ei n g s si gn ifi ed b y t hem .

1 63 . It h as a v ari et y o f sp ec ia l uses so m e of th e m or e im
p ortan t of th e m are th e foll o w i n g

a . It v ery o ften stan ds as s ubj ec t of a v erb i n st ead of aphrase

or c a l use w hi c h i s th e rea l subj ect ,
an d w h i c h i s t h en put after
th e v erb th us,

it is n ot d iffi c ult to d ie ; it is d o ubtf ul w h et h e r he wil l com e ;

it is to yo u t h at I s pea k ;
t h at i s ,

t o d ie is n ot d iffi c ult ; wh et h e r he w il l com e is d o ub tf ul ;

t h at I s pe a k
(th at i s, m y s pea ki n g ) is t o yo u .

In suc h sen t en c es, it i s ca ll ed th e g r a m m a t i c a l su j

b ec t ; an d th e w o rd o r

ph rase i s cal l ed th e l o g i c a l s ubj ec t : t h at i s ,

‘
th e subj ec t a c c o rd n g i t o the
r ea l m ean n g o r i l og i c of th e s en t en c e .
’

b . it stan d s as I M P E RS O N AL s ubj ect of a v erb : t hat i s t o

sa
y ,
n ot s ig n i fy i n g an y rea l subj ec t ,
b ut h el p i n g th e v erb to
1 66] P E RS O N AL P R O N O U N S . 71

e xpress an act i on or c on diti on w ith o ut f

re eren ce to an y ac tor
'

t hus,
it ra i ns ; it was co ld ; it g rew d ark fast ;

it will s o o n st ri ke ten ; is it f ar t o Lo n d o n ?

it c am e to b l o ws b etween t h e m .

S o m et i m perso al obj ec t t hu
i m es al s o as n s
,

th y f t
d it t h ug h t he t
e t ;
oo e h I d d it v ro t he s r ee s e or e o er m .

1 6 4 Th e w o rd s se l f (si n g ) an d s e l ves (p l ur ) are a dd ed

. to

m y ou r t hy yo u
,
r hi m
,
he r ii a n d t h e m
,
fo rm i n g a c l ass
, , , , , of

c om po un d p ers o n a l p ro n o un s w hi c h h a v e t w o p ri n c ip a l uses ,

a . To m ark em p hasis ,
eit h er l
a on e or
(m ore usuall y ) l
a on g

W i th t he si m p l e p ron o un th us ,

I m yse l f or me m yse l f ; no ne but he rse l f .

hese c o m p u d s h v e so as sum d t he c h ac ter o f em ph at i c person al

An d t o n a e ar

p o o u t h at
r n ns y l f a d thy lf re c c s i o all y fo un d w i th o ut an y p ed i g
m se n se a o a n ,
rec n

l a d thn as s ubj ec ts o f t h v rb i n t h e fi st an d s o d pers on t h us

en , e e r ec n ,

m y el f N pl ; t hy el f t G d
s am a es s ar o .

b As th e R EFL E X I V E o bj ec t o f a v erb : th at i s an obj ect d e

.
,

n o t i n g th e sam e p erson o r t hi n
g w i th t he s ubj ec t (see 30 6 )
thus,
I d re ss m yse l f ; t h ey s aw t h e m se lves d e c e ive d ;

yo u will h urt yo urse l f , or yo urse l v es .

O urs e f l an d l
yo urs e f d en o t e i l
a s ng e
pers o n ; ours e lv e s an d y o urs e lv es , m o re

t h an on e .

B ut the s m i pl e pron o un is l
a so so m et m es i used refl ex i vel y t h us ,

t he l ida hi m dow n .

1 65 . The possessiv e cases o f t h ese p ron o un s m ay al so b e

regar d ed as p ossessi ve adj ecti v es an d w il l b e treat ed o f as such ,

b el o w

2 . D E M O N S T R AT I VE P R ON O UN S .

1 66 . The on ly D E MONS TRATI VE p ro n o un s i n En gli sh

t h is an d t hat ,
i n the s in gul ar n um b er ,
an d

t hese an d t h o se ,
the c orres p o n d i n g p l ural s .
72 P R O N O U NS .
[1 6 6

All t hese w o r d s are use d b o th as n o m i n ati v e an d as

o bj e c t i v e c ases an d t h e y h a v e n o p o ss essi v e
, .

D em o n str a ti ve m ean s
‘
p o in tin g o ut ,
sh o w m
g, d irecti n g att en
’
ti on t o an yt hi n g .

1 67 . T hi s an d t hes e are us ed t o m ean so m eth i n

g n ear er ;
that an d tho s e , so m ethi n g furt h er o ff .

T h at an d t h o se are a s o m l uc h used , i n st ea d of it an d t hey , as

an t ec e d en ts (1 7 5) o f a r e at i l v e pro n o un t h us, w e s ay

h e wh o m yo u saw ;

h a t (n o t it) wh ic h yo u saw t .

Th ey ar e used t o o in p l ac e o f a n o un w hi ch w o ul d
, , hav e t o b e
rep eat ed al o n g w i t h a p h rase d es c ri b i n
g i t t h us ,

m y h o rs e and h a t (n o t ii ) o f m y n e ig h b o r ;
t
h o m e-m ad e a rt i c l e s a n d t h o s e n o t t h ey f ro m
( ) a b ro ad .

1 68 . Th ese w ord s, l
a on g wi th yo n an d yo n d er , h av e th e v al ue
l
a so o f d em o n strat i ve a dj ec ti v es,
q ual ify i n g a fo ll o w i n g n o un
see b el o w , 2 0 8 .

R espec t i ng h e r e an d h
t e re , used i n c om po s ti i on wit h prepo si t i on s in th e sen se

of
‘
t h is ’
an d ‘
th at
’
or 1t
’
as in

h e rew i t h th
,
i
e re n , th e reo f, et c .

see be l ow ,
31 4 .

3 . I N T E R R O G A T I VE P R ON OUN S .

1 69 . The I NTERROG AT I VE (that is,

‘
i n qui rin g questi o n ,

as k i n g p ro n oun s are

who , wh at , w hic h , an d w h et h er .

Thei r o ffi c e is to ask a q uest i o n ,

or to m ak e an i n t er
ro
g at i v e se n t en c e an d t h ei r us ual p l a ce i s as n ear as

p ossib l e t o t h e b eg in n i n g of th e sen t en ce : t h us,

who c o m es h e re ? w h at d o es he wan t ?
w it h w h o se pe r m iss io n d id he l eav e h o m e ?
w h ic h of us d o es he see k ?
1 73] I NTE RRO GAT I V E P R O N OU NS .
73

1 70 . W ho i s use d , w i tho ut an y c han e o f

g form b oth , as

si n g u
l ar a n d as p l ural : t hus, ei t h er

w ho w a s here ? or w ho w e r e h e re ?
I t has ,
ho w ev er ,
li k e th e p erso n al p ron oun s ,
three c ase

fo rm s

n om i n ati v e, who ; p o ssessi ve , who s e ; o b ec ti

j v e, who m .

Th e o th ers form s o f d ec l en si o n an d are use d o n l y

ha v e no ,

as n o m i n ati v es an d o bj ec t i v es ; w hi c h i s ei ther si n g ul ar or
p l ural ; what an d w hethe r are onl y sin gul ar .

W hethe r i s n ow h ard l y u ed s at all , b ein g an o ld -

h
fas i on ed w ord fo r ‘
w h i ch
o n e of two th us ,

w hethe r is g reate r , t he g ft i or t he a lt ar ?

1 71 . B etw een w ho an d w hat w e d i st i n cti on d ifferen t

m ak e a

fro m t hat w h i c h w e m ak e an y w h er e el s e i n t he l an u
g age : who
(w it h wh o se an d wh o m ) i s used o f p erso n s h um an b ei n g s wh at
,

i s used o f ev ery t h in g el s e ,
w het h er l i v in g creatures o r 1 n an 1 m at e
t h i n gs .

1 72 . W hic h d iffers from b oth who an d what i n b ei n g

S ELECT VE : t hat I is it im
, p l i es a c ertai n kn ow n n um b er or

bod y of i n d i v i d ual s , from am o n

g hom th e right
w on e i s to
be selected o r p i cke d o ut .

Th us i f w e , s ay

w h o d id it ?

w h at d id it ?

we do n ot a pp ear t o kn ow an y th i n g ab o ut the act o r b ut

wh ic h d id it ?

im pl ies that w e k n o w c erta i n p ers o n s or t hin gs, of w hi c h o n e or

an o t he r m ust hav e b een t he a c to r .

W hic h i s used b o th of p erso n s an d of t hi n gs .

1 73 . Who an d i ts c a s es a re p ro n o un s on ly ; wh at an d whic h
“
are also i n terrogati v e j
ad e c ti v es s ee 2 09 .
74. P R O N OU NS .
[1 73

W ho h t ( w it h ot her in t err ogat iv e w ord s ) are used

an d w a in an x l
e c am at or y
sense e Ch ap XV I 4 8 1
se . . .

W h e e i n c o m pos i t i on w i t h p po s i t i
r ,
i s o ft n used re o n s, e
,
especi a ll y in an t i

quat ed a d so l em n st y l e i n th e se se o f w h t see 31 4
n ,
n a : .

4. R E L AT I VE OR C ON J U N C T I VE P R ON OU N S .

1 74 . Th e d em on strati v e p ro n oun
t hat,

an d th e i n t err ogati v e p ron o un s

who , what , an d whic h,

are a so l use d i n a w ay w hi ch i s ll e d
ca
“
re ati l ve an d ,

w h en so used the y ,
ar e kn ow n as RELAT I V E o r C ONJ U N CT IVE
p ro n oun s .

1 75 . A r e at i l ve f
r e ers or r ela tes
(hen ce i ts n am e
) to
an o ther no un
p ro n o un i n th e sam e sen t en c e ; an d that
or

o th er as i t en eral l y st an d s fi rst i s c al l e d th e ANT E CED ENT

, g ,

o n e g oi n
g b efo re p red ec essor o f th e rel ati v e
,
.

B ut th i s rel at i o n i s o f a p ec ul i ar k i n d
“ ”
T he r el ati v e .

p ron oun i n tro d uces a sep arat e sen ten ce or c l ause

ha v i n g a subj ec t an d p r ed i c ate o f i t s o w n an d j o i n s t hat ,

c l au s e o n t o th e an t ec e d en t i n t he w a o f a d es c ri p ti on o r
y
l im i t ati o n of i t .

Th e l
re ati ve m ay b e ei th er the subj ec t o r o b ect o f a v erb , or
j
the j
o b ec t o f a prep ositi on ,
or a q ual i fy i n g gen iti v e or p ossessiv e .

Thus, i n

the m an w h o was s ic k is n ow well ,

th e asserti o n i s th at d escrib ed as
a c ertai n m an i s w ell , an d h e is
hav i n g b een si c k by t he c l ause who was s ic k w h ere th e rel at iv e ,

who i s s ubj ec t rel ati n g t o m an as an t eced en t an d was s ic k is p re d

, ,

i c ate . S o al s o i n

the g ift w h i c h yo u ask s ha ll b e b esto wed ,

he i n w ho m we t r us t wil l not fa il us,

t he b o y w h o s e kn ife was lo st has b o ug ht anot her,

1 78 ] RELAT VE I P R O NO U NS .
75

g ift an d he an d boy are th e an t ece d en ts an d are d esc ri b ed b y

,

t he c a l uses wh ic h yo uas k, an d in wh o m we tr ust an d wh ose kn ife ,

was l o st .

An y w o rd or ph r as e d esc r b i i n g or li m i t i g a oun m y b e t h us t urn ed i n t a

n n a o

i iv
d esc r pt e c aus e b y l h l p of
e a rel t iv e pron o u h av in g th e n ou
a n as i t s
n t an e

c ed en t T us,
. h
a go o d m an
18 th e sam e as
a m an w ho is g o o d ;
an d
i d t ly b l u h i g g i l th s m o es s n r
IS t h e sam e as
th i g i l t h t b l u h d tl y s r a s es m o es .

It i s b ecau t he rel at iv e t h us c t s l i ke a c o j un ct i
se b y j o i in g o a l ause
a n on , n n c

to th e w o d w hi c h t he c l aus e d esc ri b es th at i t i
r l so c ll ed a c o j un ct iv e ,
s a a n
”

pro n o un .

1 76 . Th e re ati l v es hav e th ei r v al ue as s uch th erefo re,

,
on ly
“
cal e l d p l ex th at
(
”
i n w h at are com sen ten ces Ch ap .

i s, i n s uc h as are d e up o f t wo or m ore sim p l e sen ten c es

m a ,

c om bin ed ei th er b y t h ese pron o un s or b y c on j un cti o n s i n to o n e

w ho l e .

Th e m od e o f use of t h ese pro n o un s as l

re at i v es is so m ew h at differen t from
th ei r use as d em on strat iv es i iv s an d has to b e ex pl i n ed o v er again
an d n t erro g at e ,
a .

1 77 Th e rel ati v e p ron o un w h en i ts an tec ed en t i s a p ro n o un

.
,

o f t h e fi rst o r o f t h e s eco n d p ers on shares as i t w ere t he per , , ,

so n o f i ts an t eced en t an d if u sed as s u bj ec t tak es th e v erb i n

, , ,

th e co rresp on d i n g p erso n thus ,

I, w ho yo ur f rien d tel l yo u so ;
am ,

T o t he e who h a s t t hy d we l l i n g h ere
, . o n ea rt h.

An d i n l ike m an n er after a v o cat iv e th us ,

Dar k ant h rac ite , t h at red d e nes t on m y heart h !

1 78 . W ho ,
w h en r e at i l v e j ust as W hen i n t errogat i v e, i s
use d y o f p erso n s an d i s b oth s in g ul ar an d p l ural
onl ,
. It
h as th e p o ssessi v e w ho s e a n d the o bj ec ti v e who m .

Fo r e x am pl e
t he m an w h o was [ or t he m en w h o we r e ] r ec e n t ly with us ,
wh ose h arac te r we res pec ted
c , who m we lov e d , an d

w ith w h o m we s h a re d joys a nd sorrows, has [ or have ]

b ee n t ake n f ro m as .
 76 P R O N OU NS .
[1 79

1 79 . W hen n ot p erson s b ut o ther c reat ures or thi n gs

, ,

are m ean t , th e c o rres p o n d i n

g re l at i v e i s w hi c h n o t wh at, as
(
i n i n t errog at i v e use) .

T h us
we h av e t he l etter w h i c h he wro te us ;
b ra n c h es w h i c h h an g f ro m the t ree .

Who se is o ften used as th e p ossessi v e of w h ic h t hus,

ta l e w h o l ig h test wo rd ,
'

a se et c .

b ro w n g ro v es wh o s e s h ado w , et c

b ut y d isappro v e t his
m an in p resen t use ,
an d thin k i t p reper to
say o n l y o f wh ic h i n st ead .

Which ,
now used on l y of th i n g s, in old ti m es app l i ed t o person s al so t hus ,

O ur Fathe r w hi c h art in h v etc

ea en , .

In o ld En g l i sh ,
an d rare l y ev en n o w, t he w h i h i s used i n st ead o f s i m pl e
c

W h IC h for ex al n p16
T w as
7
a fOO HS h q ueS t ’
T he w hi c h to g a i n and kee p, he s ac r ifi c e d a ll rest .

1 80 . T hat i s a v er y gen eral l v e ; i t m ay b e use d

re at i .

i n st ea d o f ei th er w ho o r w hi c h, r eferri n
g b o th t o p erso n s
an d t o thi n gs, an d to on e or to m o re t ha n on e . Fo r ex

am ple
t he h ead t h at we ars a c ro wn ;
o n e of t he b e s t m en t h a t ev e r l ived ;
wake ! a ll ye t h a t s l ee p ;
re pe n t t he ev i l t h a t yo u h av e d o ne .

B ut t hat as l
r e ati v e d o es n ot fo ll o w prep o sition
a . We say

on l y t he m an o f wh o m t he to wn f ro m ,
on ; n ot wh ic h an d so
,

o f t h at o r f ro m t h at .

Y et i f t h e rel at i v e o bj ec t o f a p rep o si t i o n stan d s ap art fro m

,

i t b efo re t he v erb
,
ei t h er t h at o r t h e o t her r el at i v es m ay

b e used t h us e i th er ,

t he b o o k t h at I t o l d yo u o f ,

t he b o o k w h i c h to l d yo u o f ;
but on ly
t he b o o k o f w h i c h I to l d yo u .
78 P R O N OU NS .
[1 8 4

1 84 p l e rel ativ e p ron oun t hat w h en o bj ect o f a

. Th e si m ,

v erb o r o f a p rep ositi on fo ll o w i n g a v erb i s v ery o ften o m it ted

, , ,

t h e d esc ri pt iv e c l aus e b ein g t hus l eft w ith o ut an y i n tro d uc in g

w or d : th us ,

the m an we s aw h ere is g o n e ;
t he h o rs e he ro d e o n was l a m e ;

i n stead of the m an t h at ( or wh o m ) we saw , t he ho rse t h at ( o r

whic h) he ro d e o n , et c .

In lde
o l i h a d som et i m es st il l i n an t i quated or so l em n st y l e a d in
r Eng s ,
n n

po t e r y th
t as
,
l at iv e subj ec t i s al so o m i t t d t h us
a re e ,

I h v g i f d it u a e a r e a m s no c re

T i di t l d ’
h t t t t h vi w
s s an c e en s en c an m en o e e .

1 8 5 Th e ad v e b s w h
. wh wh w hy w h i t h
r h w rel at ed w i t h w h
en , e re , en c e, , e r, o , o

an d w h t re used i n a re l at iv e s e se a l m os t as i f t h y w ere
a , a s s o f th ese w o d
n e ca e r s,

o requiv l t to wh ta en d w h i h w i th prepo s i t i o s ; a d t h ey h ave t h e s m e

a an c n n a

d ubl e v al ue s s i m pl
o d ,
c o m po u
a n d r el at iv es e x c ept h w wh i c h i s o n l y
e an as o ,

c o m po u nd T h us .
,

y u t h pl wh o i w h i h) h
s ee t d ;e ac e er e n c e s an s

y u w h (= i wh t o p l l h
s ee t a d e re n a ac e e s n s .

A d th s m th i g i s t ue o f th e c o m po u d o f w h
n e a e n w i th p epo i t i on s t h us
r n s e re r s ,

wh w i th w h
e re by w h ,
i a d SO o
ere , e re n , n n

1 8 6 T h e c o j un c t i o n s i s so m et i m es used espec i all y after u h w i t h th e

. n a ,
s c ,

v l ue o f a l t iv pro u t hus
a re a e no n ,

I l v uh l v e; o e s c as o e m

s uh c m e n i n g he
as th e sam e s t h
a wh re a o se o .

Th i s i a o t s t d o r sh o rt er e x pressi o for u h pe
c n rac e th e wh tc n s c rs o n s as os a re o, e .

1 8 7 B y a yet m o e r em ark ab l e o t ac t i
. b ut i s o
r s i o a ll y u ed aft er c n r on ,
cc a n s

a n eg at iv e v e b s a k i d of r g t iv e a l t iv e equiv al t to th t t th us
n ne a re a ,
en a no : ,

t he re i s n ot a m an he re b ut kn o w s i t ;

t h at is , ‘
a m an t h at d o es n o t k n o w i t .
’
It i s a c o n t rac t o n i fo r n ot a m an b ut
one w h o kn o w s .

5 . I ND E F I NI T E P R ON OUN S .

1 88 . I t i s usual t o put i n to a c ass l t og eth er, un d er the n am e

o f IN D EFIN I I E
’‘
pro n o un s ,
c er ta i n w o rd s w h i c h , ei th er b y th eir
d eri v at io n o r b y the w ay i n w hi ch th ey are us ed hav e a l ik e ,

n ess t o p r o n o u ns M o st o f them are used as adj ec t iv es al so.

) an d t hey i n fac t o c cupy a ki n d o f i n term ed iat e p o si ti o n

( 2 1 1
1 8 9] I ND EFI N I TE P R O N O U N S . 79

b et w een rea l pron o un s on th e on e h an d , an d no un s an d ad ec

j
t iv es on th e o t her .

1 89 . To this c ass l b el o n g

d istri b utiv es e ac h e it h e r an d n either

T he , , .

The w o rd s o f n um b er an d quan t i ty s o m e a n y , , m any, few, all ,

bo th o n e an d n o n e a ug ht an d n a ug h t
, , .

The co m p o un d s o f so m e , a n y, e very , an d n o , w i th o n e , t h i n g ,
an d b o d y: as s o m et hi n g , y
an o ne, n o b o d y; l
a s o s o m ewhat .

Th e c om parati v es s uc h , o t h er .

Of t hese w o d s o n l y e a d t h h av e pl ural form s es an d thers ; an d

r ,
on n o er , on o

th e y o l y a n l y o r n ev er ( ex c ept
r re an d th an d t he c om po un d s of o e one o er n ,

t h i g an d b d y ) fo m a g en i tiv c ase
n , o r e .

E h th
ac an d
o er th are p o n o un ph ases
o n e ano h avi n g a RE CIP R OCAL o r
er r -
r ,

m u t ual sen se an d n o w u ed as if s i m pl p on o un s B y o ri g in
’
,
s e r .
,

f d f th on o o n e an o e r,

fo r ex am pl e i s real l y,

f d f th e o ne on o an o r,

t he yl v o e e ac h tho er

t h ey l v
o h ( of th em
e , e ac t he) ot h e r,

eac h b ei ng in appos i ti o n (378 ) w i th th y an d e : so o n .

E XE RC I S E S TO C HAP TER VI .

ON P R O N O U NS .

In parsin g a pro n oun w e h a v e fi rst to tel l t o w hi c h o f the fi ve ,

c l as ses — erso n al d em o n st rat i v e i n t erro a t i v e rel at i v e o r i n d efi n i t e

p g
—i t b el on gs Then i i i t is person al or rel a ti v e i ts erson m ust b e
, , , ,
'

,
p
.

d efi n ed if o f t h e t hi rd p erso n s i n ul ar i ts en d er
g g , .

I f i t is a si m pl e rel ati ve i ts an t ec ed en t i s t o b e o i n te d o ut i f a
p ; ,

co m
po un d rel at i v e t h e eq ui v al en t an t ec ed en t an d sim pl e rel at i v e are
,

t o b e g i v en .

If i t is i n fl ect ed t h e d ecl en sio n i s t o b e i v en an d t he c ase an d

, g ,

nu m b er are t o b e d e fi n ed .

T he c o n struc ti on s o f a pro n oun are the sam e w i th those o f a n o un .

80 P R O NO U NS .
[cam

Ex a m p l e of p a rs i n g p ro n o un s .

T h ese a re t he m en , so m e of wh o m v is ite d us yesterd ay .

We fir st d i v id e t h e s e n t en c e i n t o i ts t w o c a l uses (o r t h e t w o m in or
sen t en c es o f w hi c h i t i s m ad e up) , an d po i n t out t h e b are subj ec t an d

predi c at e o f e a c h . I f w ri tt en , t h e c a l use c on t ain i n g t he re at il ve m ay

b e put un d er t h e o t her, a n d in s uch a w ay t hat th e re l at i v e c o m es di

r ec t l y b en eat h i t s an t eced en t an d t h en the t w o l att er m ay b e join ed
by a b r ac k et , t o si
gni fy t h at t h e i r r e at i on l i s w h at b i n d s t h e t w o
l
c a s es u t o g et h er in t o o n e s en t en c e . T h us

T h ese I a re t he m en

so m e o f wh o m i l v is ite d us y este rd ay .

It w ill b e po n t ed i o ut l at er , y t x ( Ch p XI V ) t h t su h a sen
i n th e S n a a .
,
a c

i ll c o m pl ex d t h t t he c l us c o t ai i g t h e el t iv e i s
”
t en c e as t h s i s c a ed ,
an a a e n n n r a

ll ed ad j c t iv e l ause b ec aus e i t d escri b es t h n o u

“
ca an e c ,
e n m en .

In par si n g, w e t ak e up t he w ord s i n t he sam e ord er a s hi thert o .

.

T h es e i s a d em o n st rat i v e pro n o un , i n t h e pl ur al n um b er (sin

g t his , .

pl t.h es e) , an d n o m in at i v e c as e, b ei n g t h e s ubj ect o f t he sen t en ce , or

su bj ec t -n o m in at i v e o f t h e v erb a re .

T he res t o f t h e w ord s i n t h e fi rs t or m a n c a i l use pass ed o er

are v h ere ,
as t h ey
a re l ik e w o rd s a read l y pars ed ( at t h e en d o f the prec edi ng c apt er) h .

S o m e isi nd efin i te pro n o un

an
(o f n um b er or
quan ti t y ) ; i t i s un i n
fl ec t ed , b ut has h ere t h e v al ue o f pl ural , si n c e
a i t sig n i fi es m ore t han
o n e m an ,
an d of a n o m i n at i v e c ase, b ecau s e i t i s t he s ubj ec t of t he

sen t en c e, or s ubj ec t-n o m i n at i v e o f th e v erb v is ited .

Wh o m is a l
re at i ve
pr o n o un , ha v in g fo r i t s a n t ec ed en t m e n , an d
j oi n in g to m en th e d escri pt i v e c l ause s o m e o f w h o m v is ite d us ye s
t e rd ay, i n or d er to sh o w w ha t m en are m ean t . It is of t h e th ird per
son ,
an d
pl ura l , b ec ause i t s an t eced en t m en i s se ; an d i n th e obj ect i v e
c ase , b ec ause i t i s t h e o bj ec t o f t h e pr epo si t i o n Of , b ei n g j o in ed b y o f
to s o m e , i n ord er to sh o w wha t t h e person s si n i fi ed b y so m e are a
g
oi
part .

Of
‘
s h ul d
o be ne xt de ib sc r ed , a n d t h e vi i t
n s ed , i n the s am e m an n er as b efo re
(p . an d t h en w e t ak e up us .

pr o n o un , o i th e fi rst perso n , i n fl ec t ed th us : I, m y
"

U s is a per so n a l
or m in e (et c : i t i s i n t h e pl ural n um b er, a n d i n t he o bj ec t i ve
cas e b eca us e i t i s t h e d i re c t o bj e c t o f t h e v erb v is ite d , b ei n g add ed t o

th e v erb to s ho w whom th e perso n s referred to vi si te d .

VL J EXE RC I SES .
81

Yeste rd ay is an adv erb q ual ifyi n g,

t he v er b v is ite d , b ei n g ad d ed to

i t t o s ho w t h e ti m e o f v i s i t in g .

If w e ha v e v e pron o un b el on gi n g n o t t o th e subj ec t b ut t o
a re a ti l
t h e predi cat e o f th e c l ause i n w h i c h i t o c c urs w e m us t rearran ge t h e ,

c l ause so as t o pu t t he r el at i v e i n t o t h e usual pl ac e o f s uc h a m em b er

o f t h e sen t en ce w h at e v er i t m ay b e
,
Th us i n t h e ex pressi o n s .
,

the m an w h o m we s aw, t he b o o k w h ic h he was tal ki n g of,

we m ust c han g e t h e o rd er o f t he re l at i v e cl a uses to

we s aw wh o m , he was ta l ki n g of whic h .

T hi s m ak es t he c al uses seem st ran

ge an d un n a t ural b ecause i n , o ur
wa ys o f speaki n g we a
put t he rel at i v e at o r
l way s n ear t he h ead of i ts
l
c a use b ut t h e rearran g e m en t i s i m po rt an t , i n o r d er to h el p t h e
l t o r eal ize w h at part t he r el ati v e n o tw i thstan di n g i ts po sit i o n
sc h o ar , ,

r eall y b ears 1 11 t he m akin g u p o f t h e sen t en c e T h e n w e st il l put t h e

-
.

rel at i v e j us t b en ea th i t s a n t eced en t : t hu s ,

the m a is g o n e I I fo un d the b o o k

we I saw w ho he was t al ki n g of wh i c h .

In o rd er to m ak e t hi s arran g em en t , a c o m
po un dv e h as t o b e re at i l
tak en part in t o t he an tec ed en t an d
a s i m pl e re l at i v e w h i c h w o ul d h a v e

t he sam e v al ue ; an d t hen , a ft er t he t w o are c o n n ec ted b y t he b rac k et,

t h e w o rd w hi c h t he y repres en t m a
y b e wr i t t en b esid e them : t hus, th e
sen t en c e

I c an n o t i m ag i n e w h a t yo u are tal ki n g ab o ut
w o ul d b e r earran
ged i n t hi s m an n er

I I c a n n o t i m ag i n e t h at 5 .

yo uI are t al ki n g abo ut wh ic h
I n t h e S y nt a x
( Ch a pter we h al l l
s o th er
earn n d b ri fer w ay o f
an a e

t rea t i n g a co m po un d rel at i v e c a l use ca lli g i t a m el y a ubst n t iv e c l aus

n ,
n ,
s a e,
”

an d ( in an e x am pe l l i k th at g iv en h
e e re ) i t l f t h e bj ec t o f th e v erb
se o .

E X E RC I S ES FO R P R AC T C E I IN P A RS N G I P R O N O U NS .

Fo r prac t i g th p u s p i l l y t h
ic e i n pars n e ro n o n ,
es ec a e l
pers o n a pro n o un s , i n
th i i m pl
e r s st u t i
er c o nth x i t Ch apt I I
r c o n s, e e e rc s es o er .
( pp. 2 1 — 2 3) m a y b e r e
s rt ed t
o Th
o d d i ti
. l t e a h g iv ill u t t
o na se n en c e s ere en s ra e es pe c a i ll y t h l iv
e re at es,

an d t he m o r ex ept i o n l u
e s s o f th
c o th e p o o u s
a e e r r n n .
82 P R O N O U NS .
[ CHAR v1 .

X M i s c e l l a n e o us
. E xa m ple s .

Th e s un h o rn o f h i s beam s
s e em ed s .

E a rt h w i t h h er t h o us a n d v o i c e s pr a i s es G o d
.
.

Th e fo r es t s l ea pi n g pa n t h er s h a ll y i el d h i s s po tt ed h id e
’
.

J ur a a n s w er s t h r o ug h her m i s t y sh r o ud
’

, ,

B a c k t o t h e j o y o us A l ps w h o ca l l t o h er a l o ud , .

H er e fo l l y s t i l l h i s v o t a r i es i n t h r all s .

T h e fur w h i c h w a rm s a m on a r c h w ar m ed a b ear
We w er e n ot b o rn t o s ue
I t w a s t o l d th e k i n g E g y pt t h a t t h e pe0 p1e fl ed
of
F
.

T o hi m i t m a tt er ed li t t l e w h i c h o f t h e t w o par t i es t r i um ph e d
“
.

W ho h a th r ed n e ss o f e y es ? 9 .
“
W h et h er of t h em t w a i n d i d t h e w ill of hi s fa t h er
I t h at s pea k t o t h ee a m h e .

I
H I S pra l se is l o s t w h o w a it s t i ll all c o m m en d .

A l l t h a t w ea l t h ’
e er g av e
Aw ai t s al i k e t h e i n ev i t a bl e h o ur .

H e t h a t w o uld h o n or w in m us t n ot fear d y i n g .

I co ul d a t a l e un fo l d w h o s e l i g h t es t w o r d w ould h arr o w up t h y
so ul .

H e t h at en d ur et h t o t h e en d s h al l be s a v ed .

Few h al l par t w h er e m an y m eet

s .

B y o t h er s fa ult s w i s e m en c o r r ec t t h ei r o w n
’
.

S o m e are h a ppy w h il e o t h er s ar e m i s er ab l e .

S om e o f h i s s k il l h e t a ug h t t o m e
'
.

T h e m a n y ren d t h e s k i es w i t h l o ud a ppl aus e .

N o n e b ut t h e b ra v e d es er v es t h e fa i r .

N ei t h er h a s a n y t h i n g h e c a ll s h i s o w n .

’
In t h is t i s G o d d i r ec t s , i n t h at ’
t is m an .

I h ear a v oic e
yo u c an n o t h ear ,

W h ic h sa ys I m us t n o t stay .

’
T i s P r ov i d en c e a l on e s ec ur es
In y c h a n g e b ot h m i n e a n d your s
ev er .

F ew a n d s h o r t w er e t h e pra y er s w e sa id
!
.

W hos o s h ed d et h m an s bl o o d
’
b y m a n s h all h i s bl o o d
,
be s h ed .
1 9 0 , 1 91 ] ADJ E CT I V ES .
83

C H AP T E R V I I .

A D J E C T IV E S .

1 90 . An a dj ec t i v e p t er on th e
, as we saw in th e c ha

p art s o f s p eec h (37 i s a w o r d use d t o q ual i fy a n o un .

I t i s a d esc ri p t i v e w o rd p o i n t in g o ut som e q ua l i t y o r c on
,

d i t i o n or ac t i o n o r rel ati o n o r t he l ik e as b el o n g i n g t o , ,

t he o bj ect s ig n ifi ed b y t he n o un i t q ual i fi es Fo r e x am p l e .

g o o d m an ; fas t h o rse ;
re d rib b o n ; q ui e t sea ;
j um pi n g f ro g ; w h i p p e d d og ;

t h i s bo o k ; yo n d er t ree .

1 91 . Th e dj ec ti v e add ed to a n o un d o es n o t d i rectl y assert

a

an y t h in g t o b el o n g t o w hat t he n o un exp resses That can on l y .

b e d o n e b y m ean s of a v erb th us,

the m an is g o o d ; t he ho rse is f a s t ;
the r ib b o n is re d; an d so o n .

The ad ec t i
j v e m erel y m en tio n s th e qual ity et c ei th er i m p l y ,
.
,

i n g th at th e qual ity m igh t b e asserted o r l i m i ti n g th e n o un t o ,

t hose o b ec ts o f
j w hi c h th e q ual i ty m igh t b e ass ert e d .

T he ad ec t j iv e i i
s s o m e t m es a m o re i m po rt an t an d so m e t m es a i
l ess i m po rt an t

a dd i tion t o t he no un an d m em b er of the sen t en c e . If w e sa y fo r e x am pl ,

e,

t he b ra v e so ldi er w as w o un d e d w t ih 3 s h a r p sw d ord hi , d bl d
an s r e oo

fl o w e d f ro m t h e d ee p c ut,

t he j
ad ec t iv es b ra ve h. s a r p, r ed , an d d ee p are s m i y
pl d es c r pt i i v e or pi t ori l c a ,

an d t he sen t en c e m e an e s s en t a i l ] y th e sam e th i n g if t e h y were o m i tted .

B ut if w e sa y
b r a v e so ldi e rs do n ot r un aw a y
s h p w d
ar k d s p ut ;
or s m a e ee c s

on ly v t b t h v
er e d bl d ;
ra es a e re oo

t he sa m e ad e c t j iv es a re of m uch m o r c n seq uen c e s i n c e i t is

e o im p li ed in eac h
84 AD J E CT I V E S .
[ 1 91

c a se t h at ,
if th e d esc r b ed qua t i li y w ere w an t ing , som et hi n i i
g qu te d ff eren t w o ud l
b e t rue .

A c c o rd i ng to t h i s d i ff e r en c e i n i ts v lua e, th e j
ad ec t iv e is ca ll ed D E S C R IP TI VE

o r C O -O RD I N ATI N G o n th e on e h an d, an d L I MI TI N G o r R ES TRI CT I VE on t he ot h er .

B ut th e d i st i i
n ct o n is on e t h at be l on gs pr oper l y t l gic o o ,
an d n o t t o g ram m ar .

1 92 . A dj ec ti v es l ik e ,
no un s d i v i d e d ac c ord i n g
are

t o t h ei r fo rm i n t o si m p l e d eri v at i v e , ,
an d c o m p o u n d .

S I M PL E adj ec t i v es are t h o se w hi c h we c an n o t in o ur
ow n l an guag e t rac e b a c k t o yet si m p l er w or d s, fro m W hi ch

t h ey are seen t o b e d eri v e d .

E x am p l es of s uch are

good , re d ,

kin d , h ars h ,

1 93 . D ER I VAT I VE a dj ec ti v es c o m e, b y add i t i o n s o r o th er

c h a n g es o f form ,
from o th er w or d s th at are i n use i n o ur
l an guage .

S om e of th e c o m m o n est an d m ost im p ortan t c l asses of d eri v a

tiv e j
a d ec t i v es are a s fo ll o w s

a . A dj ec ti v es d eri v ed fro m n o un s b y a great v ari ety o f suf ,

fi x es, d w it h reat v ari et y o f m ean i n gs : t h ey sign i fy r esem

an a
g
b l in g, p ertai n in g t o p o ssessi n g c h aracteri zed b y m ad e o f free
, , , ,

from ,
et c .
,
et c .
, th at w h i c h i s s ig n ifi e d b y th e no un . Th us

Iy, fat h erly , h o m e ly d a ily ; ,

t h f ul h atef ul u s ef u
"

w ith f ul, t ru , l; ,

w i th ous, o d o ro u s m is c h iev o u s ,
mu rd e ro us ; ,

w i th al , b ru t al f ata l n at io n a l ;
‘

, ,

w i th ic , d es po t ic t e l e g ra ph ic ; ,

w i th ab e , l m a r r ia g ea b l e pe a c ea b l e ; ,

w i t h y, fi lthy h ea rty m is ty ;
, ,

w i th is h , c h i l d is h f o o l is h T u ,
r ki s h ; ,

w i th so m e , t ro ub l es o m e t o il s o m e ; ,

w i th l ess ,
fea rl ess h o m e l e s s en d l ess ;
, ,

w i th eh ,
wo o d e n g o l d e n s il ke n ;, ,

w i th ed , h o rn e d jac kete d b arefo o te d

, ,
.
86 AD J E C T I V ES .

[1 94

b . A c om bi n ati o n o f an a dj ecti v e w ith a p reced i n g no un that

l i m i ts it in a v ariet y o f w ay s t hus,

l ife l i ke , m il k-wh ite , k n ee-hig h ,

h o m e s ic k , so uI-sti rri n g , water-t ig h t .

c . A co m bi n ati on of a n o un w it h a preced i n g a dj ecti ve t hat

qualifi es i t, an d w ith ed a dd e d as a dj ecti v e suffi x a s,

fo urfo o te d , re d - a i re d ,
h Io w-to ned ,
s e en -
v hil ed , l d a rk-eye d , o ld -
fas hio n ed .

Thi s l
c a ss, d eriv at iv e an d c om p o un d t og et her, i s an im m en s e

o n e, a n d all t h e ti m e g ro w i n b
g y n e w fo rm at i o n s .

d . A c om bi n at i o n o f an a dj e c t i v e w i th a p recedi n
g a d v erb '

ex am p l es are

v l
e er ast i n g , n e er-
v d yi n g , o ver-b o ld ,

un d er-b red , i n b re d , fo re o rd a i n ed .

1 95 . Fro m t he w h o l e b o dy o f a dj e c t i v es — w hi ch, li k e
no un s an d v erb s ,
ar e i n n um
l - w e h av e t o sep arate erab e

an d t reat b V t h em s el v es c er tai n sp eci al an d l i m i t ed c l a sses

n am el y P R ONOMI NAL a dj ec t i v es o r a dj ec t i v es rel at e d w i t h

, ,

p ron oun s ; a dj ec t i v es o f n um b er or NU M ERAL S ; an d t h e ,

ART I C L ES .

Apart f o m t h ese spec i a l c l asses t he g en eral m ass o f adj ect i v es m ay b e c on

r ,

v en i en t ly c all ed t h e

A D J E C T I VE S O F Q U A L I T Y .

1 96 . A dj ec t i v es d o n ot h av e i n E n g li sh (as t hey hav e

in m an y l an guag es)
o t h er an y i n fl ec t i o n o r v ari at i o n o f
,

form ,
to e xp re s s d i fferen ces o f n um b er o r c a se o r g en d er .

Th e l y ex c ep t io n s a re th e pro n o m in al adj ec ti v es (2 0 8 ; o r
on

al so p ro n o un s 1 6 6 t h is an d t h a t w hi c h w it h a p l ural n o u
) ,
n ar e
,

c han e d t o t h es e an d t h o s e : t h u
g s ,

t h i s m an t h e s e m en ;
,

t h a t boo k t h o s e b o o ks
,
.

T hi s i el i
s a r of th i fl t i o o f dj t iv es i an c i e t E g l i sh w h i c h was of
c e n ec n a ec n n n ,

t h e s am e sort s t h e i fl c t i o
a f nou s n e n o n .
1 9 9] C O M P ARI S O N . 87

1 97 . B ut (as we saw i n th e cha p ter on i n fl ect i on 7 7 ) ,

m an y adj ec ti v es hav e a ch an g e o f form t o m ark th e d eg ree

o f t h e qu ali t y t he y s i n i fy as p ossess e d by t h e obj ec t t h ey
g
d escrib e w hen c om p are d w i th o th er obj ects p ossessin g the
,

sam e qu a li t y .

Th us, to say
a lo n g stri n g

sim pl y im pli es t he qual it y of l en gth as b el on gi n g t o the stri n g

”
s pok en oi
a lo n g e r st ri n g

im p l i es t hat, of tw o st ri n gs c om pared ,
t he o n e re erre f d to ex

c eed s th e o th er in l en gth 5
the lo n g est st ri n g

im pl ies t hat, am o n g an
y n um b er co m pared ,
th e on e so call e d
e x cels all th e res t in l en gth .

Th e w ord lo n g e r i s sai d to be of th e COMP ARAT I VE d e

gree ,
an d t he w or d lo n g e st of the S U P ERL AT I VE d egree
(super la ti ve m ean s s urp assi n g or e x cee d in g an d th en
t he si m dj ec tiv e lo n g , w i th referen c e t o them i s sai d
p le a ,

t o b e o f th e P OS I T I V E d egr ee .

An d th e v ariat io n o f fo rm o f th e adj ecti v e i n thi s w ay

i s c all ed i ts COMPARI S ON (bec ause o f the c o m p ari n g o f o n e
t hi n g w ith o t hers w hi ch i t im p li es) .

1 98 . T he com parat iv e d eg ree s tr c t i l y im pl i es a c omparison b etween t w o

j
o b ec ts , t he s uperl a t iv e b e t w een m o re t h an t w o . Y et w e so m et m es say, fo r i
e x am l g th
p l e, on er a n a ll t he h o ug h l g th i th o r t h
o t he rs , t on y f th
er an e er an an o e

o th w ul d b e b t t
e rs o e e r .A d o n the o th er h a d b o th i o rd i n ary t l k an d i n
n ,
n ,
n a

li t r t ure it is v ry
e a
,
e co m m o t o speak o f o e o f t wo th i g s as b ei n g t h l
n n
g t n e on es ,

a l th ug h to say t h l
o e on g i s m o e a c urate an d m o re appro v ed
er r c .

1 99 . W hat v es shall b e t hus com pared d ep en d s p artl y

j
ad ec t i

on t hei r m ean i n g s i n c e so m e
, qual iti es o r c on d i tion s hard l y ad
m it of a d ifferen c e of d egree fo r e x am p l e ,

eq ual , d ead , s ec o n d , yearly, Fren c h .

B ut i t d epen ds m uc h m o re o n t hei r fo rm .
88 ADJ EC T I V ES .
[ 1 99

M os t a dj ec t i v es o f on e s y ll ab l e m ay be c om p ared thus ,

s h o rt ,
s h o rte r , s h o rte st ;

fi t, fi tt er , fi ttest ;

d ry, d r ie r , d r iest ;

b ut c om p arati v el y few of tw o s y l l ab l es : e x am p l es are

s i n c ere , s i n c e re r , s i n c e rest ;
ab e , l ab er , l l
a b es t ;

g ui l ty , g ui l t ier , g ui l t iest ;
h a n d so m e ,
h a n d s o m er , ha n d s o m est ;
c om m on, c o m m o n er, c o m m o n est ;

an d of three s y l l ab l es ,
l
a m ost n o n e .

2 00 . Adj ec ti v es w hi c h pared h av e th ei r v aria

are n ot c om

t io n s o f d egree exp resse d b y qual ify i n g w or ds a d v erb s An d , .

esp ec i all y t h e a dd iti o n o f m o re an d m o st m ak es a k i n d o f c o m

,

p o un d fo rm s o r adj ec ti v e ph rases w hi c h h av e th e sam e m ean i n g

, ,

a s t h e c o m p arati v e an d s u p erl at i v e d egrees t hus ,

f a m o us , m o re fa m ous, m o st fa m o us ;
d i s ta n t , m o re d ista n t , m o st d ista n t .

E v en dj ecti v es W h i ch a d m it
a com p arison o ften form phrases
of t hi s ki n d i n st ea d th us ,

fi t, m o re fi t, m o st fit ;
a b le , m o re a b e , l m o st a b e l ;
c om m on, m o re c o m m o n , m o st c o m m o n .

An d w h ere an j
o b ec t is sa id to hav e m o re o f on e qua t l i y t h an o f an o t he r, th e

ph rase w i th m o re is l
a on e used t h us ,

t he n ew s w as m o re t r ue t h an p l e as a n t ( n ot t r ue r t ha n p l e as a n t ) .

2 01 . As thex am p l es a l r ea dy g i v en sho w t he c o m p ara

e ,

t i v e an d s up erl ati v e d egrees are fo rm e d fro m t h e si m p l e

a dj ec t i v e o r t h e p o s it i v e d eg ree b y a dd i n g re sp ec t i v el y
, ,

o r or r an d es t o r s t t he s uffi x us u
,
all v m aki n
, g an a dd i
t i o n al s y ll ab l e i n p ro n un c i ati o n (n o t h o w e v er i n ab le r, , ,

ab l es t, an d th e l ik e) :
90 AD J E C T I V ES .
[2 0 3

It m ay fai r ly b e m ad e a q uest i o h ere w h eth e

n r we s h all i d escr b e t h e a d ect j iv e
as l y
qua if in g a n o un n o t e xpressed ,
o r as used sub st an t iv el y pr ob ab ly th e
l a t t er i s t o b e pr eferred .

M an y adj ec ti v es as ,
we sh a ll see la t er (31 3 d ), ar e used w i th
out c h an g e as a d v erb s .

B ut b o th no un s an d a dv erb s are a s o l used a s ad ec t i j v es qual i

,

fyi n g no un s .

Ad v erb s, in d eed , on ly r are l y (ex c ep t i n th e predi cate :

an d b y a l i b er ty w hi c h i s n o t gen eral l y a pp ro v e d as ,

the t hen r ul er ; m y so m e ti m e f r ien d .

B ut no un s , es p ec i all y t ho se d en o t i n g m at er ia l ,
ar e v ery o ften
m a d e a dj ec ti v es o f, w i t h o ut an
y c h an g e of fo r m t h us

a g o ld watc h ; a ra i l fe n c e ;
a s te e l pen ; a s to n e wal l ;
a h o rse la ug h ; a b ib le t ex t ;
n o o n d a y d rea m s ; c o un t r y c usto m s .

S uc hx pre s i o s r i gin t ed W i t h c o m po un d s o f t h kin d m en t i on

e s n o a
, e ed in 1 1 9 c
b ut t h ey h v e eas ed t b e fel t an d t reat ed s c o m p u d s
a c o a o n .

P R ON OM IN L AD J E C T I V E S
é .

2 04 . Pron o m i n al
dj ec ti v es are i n p art d eri v at i v es from
a

th e w o r d s a l rea dy d esc ri b e d as p r on o un s b ut i n great er

p art th e y are i d en ti cal w i th t hem the sam e w or d b ei n g ,

us e d ei th er a dj ec t i v el y ac c om p an y i n g a n o un w h i ch i t ,

u lifi e r sub t t i v l y p o n o un st an d i n for a n o un

q a s o s an
, e as r g , ,
.

Th ey are d i v i d e d i n t o c l asses c orr es p o n d i n g w i th tho se o f

th e p r o n o un s .

2 05 . The fi rst l
c ass i s th at of P O S S E S S I VE AD J E CT IV ES ,

o r, m o re b riefl y P O S S E S S I V E S
,
.

T h es e c o rr es o n d
p t o t h e pers o n a pro n o un s ( 1 53 l h ey t are, in fac t ,
j
a d ec t iv l y
e h
us ed fo rm s o f t o s e pro n o un s , an d a e h v l ad y b ee
a re n g iv en an d

d escr b ed i as iv
po sses s e c a ses . S om e of t h em ar e rea l c ases , o th ers are d er iv a
tiv e ad j ect iv es us ed i n t h e m an n er o f c a s es ; t h ey h a v e b ec o m e so a li ke i n use
th at w e c an n ot w ell h el p t reat i ng t h em al l as possessin g b o t h c h aract ers .
2 0 9] P R O N O M I N AL AD J E C T I V ES . 91

2 06 . The p o ssessi v es are

Si g n .

m y, m in e ;
t hy, t h i n e ;
his ;
he r , h e rs ; t h e i r , t h e irs .

its ;

to w hi c h m ay be a dd ed w ho s e , t he p o ssessi v e of w ho , b o th
i n teri ogat ive a n d a s re at i v e l
'

as .

Th e d ist i n c t i on o f pe son g en d er an d n um b er in t h ese wo d s i s of c o urse

r , ,
r , ,

a d i st i n t i o n b el o g i g t o t h e person s o r t h i g s po s sess i g an d n o t t o t he pe
c n n n n ,
r

s o s o t h i n g s po s
n r ss d or t h ose q u
se alifi ed b y t h e p
e ,
es iv es o ss s .

2 07 Th e sec on d fo rm s
. m i n e t h in e h e rs o u rs yo u rs t h e irs , , , , ,

— are used w h en n o ualifi ed n o un fo ll o w s th e p o ssessi ve : fo r

q
e x am p l e ,

m y bo o k an d yo urs ; yo ur b o o k and m in e ;
t he b o o k is h e rs , no t t hei rs ; goo d m o rn i n g , b ro t her m in e !
t his m an is a f r ie n d of o urs .

B ut i n o ld er En g li sh
y l E g l i sh i an d th i are frequen t l y
,
an d in o li l -s t e n , m ne ne

fo un d i n stead o f y d t hy espe i l ] y b fo re a v o w l t h us
m an ,
c a e e ,

i w ey m th i
ne o eve y w i h
n es , ne r s .

2 08 The D EMONS TRAT I VE AD J ECT I VES ar e

.

t h is t hes e ; , t h at t h o se ; yo n yo n d e r , , .

The fi rst t w o p airs are t he sam e as t he d em on strati v e

p ro n o un s an d are used w i th t he sam e d i fferen c es o f

m ean i n w h en dj ec ti v es w hen p ro n o un s
g a as .

Yo n or y n d e r p o i n ts
o to a rem o t er o bj ec t en eral l y to
g ,

on e in s ight .

2 09 . The i n terro gat i v e p ro n o un s w ho an d w hethe r are

n ot used dj ec t i v es B ut whi c h an d what are so

l
a so as a .

used an d are therefo re I NT ERROGAT I VE AD J EC T I V E S

, B o th .

o f them a pp l y e it her t o p ers o n s o r t o t hi n s an d t he y d i ff r

g e ,

o n l y i n t hat w hi c h i s selecti ve

Thus, i n gen eral ,

what b o ok hav e yo u
92 AD J E C T I V ES .
[2 09

b ut, if t w o o r m o re ar e ha d d i sti n c t l y i n m i n d, an d th e questi on

is as t o t he i n d i v i d ual o n e am o n g th em ,

wh ic h b o o k hav e yo u?

21 0 . W hic h an d w hat a re a s o l th e o nl y R E LAT IVE AD

J E CTI VES . B o th ar e usuall y c om p o un d r e at il v es ,

or im ply
th e an t ec e d en t l
a on g w i th t h e r el ati v e ,
an d whic h differs
from w hat i n b ei n g s e ec ti v e
l .

Th us,

I k n o w wh at b o o k (that is, t he b oo k i n g en eral whic h) yo u

m ean ;
I k n o w wh ic h b o o k (t h at i s, t he b oo k i n part i cul ar , o f a cer

tai n k n o w n s et, wh ic h) yo u m ean .

B ut w hi h c i pl e r l at iv e t h us
appears som et m es a s a s m i e ,

he w g e
as y d u i g w h i h ti
on a ear , he t v ll d ll o ve Eu pe
r n c m e ra e e a r ro .

The co m p o un d form s whi c hev e r a n d wh atever an d so o n ,

h av e t h e v al ue of adj ec ti v es as w ell as of p ron oun s an d ,

w i th a l ike m ean in g .

21 1 . ll e d i n d efi n it e p ro n o un s
M ost of th e s o -c a

w i th o n e o r t w o o ther kin d re d w or d s ar e us e d al s o ,
as

I ND EFI NI TE P RO NO M I NAL AD J E C T I VE S .

D i s t r i b uti v e a dj ect i v es are eac h an d every , e it he r an d

n e it h er . Of t h ese, ev e ry i s al w ay s a dj ec t iv e o n l y .

Q ua n ti t a t i v es are s o m e , a n y, m an y , f ew , a ll , b o th , an d no .

Th e ph rases a g r eat m an y an d a fe w ( al s o a li ttl e ) are

'

used w i t h a fo ll owin g
no n u m uc h as h y
if t e w ere s mi l
p e ad ec t j iv es t hu s,

a g re a t m an y m en ha v e b ee n t h e re ; he pa us e d a fe w m i n utes .

The q uan t i t at iv e i s h e re rea l l y a nou n , an d t h e fo ll o w i ng no un i s a part t i iv e

g en ti iv e .

By a v y
pec u ar
er li c on str uc t i on , m a n y ( w h i ch i s o th erwi s e used on ly ih
w t
l
p ura l n oun s ) qu al i fi es a s i n gul ar n o un prec ed ed b y an or a : th us ,

fu ll m an y it lf h
a g em ; y w il i n n oc en c e se as m an a e

C o m p m a t i v e s a re s uc h a n d o t h e r : s uc h i m pl y i n g resem
’ '

b l an ce an d o t h e r d ifferen c e
, Ot h er i s fo ll o w ed b y t h an l ik e .
,

co m p arat iv e adj ec ti v es i n g en eral t h us ,

o t her wo r l d s t h a n o u rs .
94 AD J E CT I V ES .
[2 1 4

b ut
t en t h u
o sa n d s ix hu d n re d ;
s ix m illi on t hre e hu d n red an d tw e n t y th ous an d fo ur h un d r ed an d th rt i y-s i x .

2 15 . Fo r tw o , an o ld fo rm tw a i n is st il l s o m et m esi used ; an d d o z en i s a

c o m m o n sub st i tut e fo r tw e lv e , an d s c o r e fo r tw e n t y .

From th e car din al s c om e certai n l

c asses o f d eri v ati v e w o rd s .

Thus
’
21 6 . Fi rs t, th e ORD I NAL S ,
w h i ch sh o w th e
‘
orcl er of

an y th i n g in a s eri es .

Th e or d i n al s ar e m o st l y fo rm ed fro m the car d in a l s b y th e

suffi x t h : th us ,

fo urt h , fi fth , si xteent h , sev en t iet h e ig h ty-ni n th , ,

e ig h te e n h un d re d an d sev e n ty-s ev e n t h an d so o n ,
.

B ut t h e or d i n al s of o n e , two , t h ree are

fi rst , sec o nd , t h i rd ;

an d th es e are used a sol i n th e p o un d n um b ers as

com ,

twe nty-
fi rst , n i n ety-se c o n d h un d re d a n d t hird , .

21 7 . Th e x c ep t fi rst an d s ec o n d are use d

sam e w or d s , e ,

t o d en ote o n e o f a c orresp o n d i n g n um b er o f equa l p arts

i n to w hi ch an y thi n g i s s upp ose d t o b e d i v i d e d .

Thus,
(or t h ird part ) o f a n apple ;
a t h ir d

s ix h un d re d t h s o f t he a m o unt .

In thi s sen se t he y ar e c al l ed FR ACTIONAL S

,
.

Th e f ti o
rac l p d i g t tw i h l f i t d o f
na c orres on n o o s a n s ea s ec o n d ; an d in st ead of

fo urt h w e m ore o ften say q ua rt e r .

21 8 . In or d er to sh o w how m an ythi n g i s taken

y tim es a n

or b y W hat i t i s m ul tip l i ed , th e c ard i n al n um eral i s c o m p o un d ed

w i th t h e w o r d fo l d : t h us

two fo l d , t en fo l d , hun d re d -
fo l d .

Thes e w o r d s, as t h ey i m pl y m ul tip l i cati on , are c a ll ed M U LT I

P L IC ATIVES .

Of th e sam e v al ue are
i s m p l e, d o ub l e, tr p i l e, q uad r up l e,

an d a few ot h ers i n ple , m uch l ess oft en used .

2 21 ] ART I CLE S . 95

The n um era l ad ve b s
r
o n c e, tw i c e, t hi r c e,

als o ha v e a sim i l ar m ul t i pl i c at iv e sen se .

AR T I C L E S .

21 9 . The ART I CLE S are t w o w or d s o f som ew h at p eculi ar

c harac t er an d o ffi ce .

On e th e w o r d ,
an or a, isll e d th e IN D EFI NI TE ART I CLE
ca ,

an d i s use d
y w it h a o nl g l ar n o un ; t h e o th er the i s
s in u , ,

c a ll ed t he D EFI NI TE ART I CLE .

2 2 0 T h e arti c l es are adj ec ti v e w ord s si n ce t hey are al w ay s

.
,

used a l on g w ith n o un s t o l im i t o r q ual ify t h em i n w ay s w h i c h

,

it i s qui t e n eed l ess t o attem p t t o d efi n e h ere .

T h i s a w ea k e ed fo m o f t h e d em on st at iv e adj ec t iv e th t
e . n r r a .

A or a i s a w eak en ed form o f th e n um e al
h r one .

2 21 A h i s u s e d b.e fo r e a v o w e l —so u n d a b efo re a c o n so ,

n an t

B ut if a w ord b egi n n i n g w i th a pron oun ced h h as the acc en t

on i ts s eco n d sy ll ab l e ,
m an y (o r m o st) p ers o n s use a n z t h us ,

an ho te l ; an histo ric al no v el ; an h ypo t hes is .

B efo re t he so un d of y or w , how v e er w r tten ,i on l y a i s pro per i n m o d ern

us e : t h us ,
s uc h a one ; a un i on ; a Euro pea n ;

j ust as w e sho ul d s ay a w o n d e r , a yo ut h .

Th e t he w h i ch we o ft en use b efo re a c om parati ve ( adj ec t iv e o r ad v erb ) ,

in
s uch ph ras es as

the m o re t he m e rr e r,i
the m o re he l o o ke d at he r t h e l ess li k d h
he e er ,

a re t he y th e w o rs e t o m e b ec a use y u h t th
o a e em ?
is n o t an a rt c e a t a ll , i l b ut a n ad v erb ( 31 3 e ) .

Ag a in ,
in ph
l i ke ra s es

tw il h uo m es a n o r, t hree s h illi n
gs a y a rd ,

th e an or is t p a i l y t he rt ic l e
no rec se a
,
b ut a w eak en ed fo rm o f one in an o t he r

th at o f eac h h ev ery ’
se n s e, on e , eac .
,

O n ce m ore, in
he is g o n e a h u ti
n n g, t hy e s et it a go i n
g,
an d l i ke ( w h i h e o fte
t he c ar n , and b ette r , w r i tt en a-hunt n ,
g i a-g o n g i ) , t he a h as
n th i
o g t o d o w i th e i th e t h e a
n r l
rt ic e o r the n um era l ,
b ut i s a re m n an t o f an o l d

pr po s i tio n g e er ll y o
e
,
n a n.
96 AD J ECT I V E S .
[ C H AR

E X ERC I S E S TO C H AP TER VII .

O N A D J E CT V ES I .

T o parse v e to t el l fi rst w h ether i t i s an ordi n ary

an a d ec t i j ve,
w e ha
adj ec t iv e adj ect i v e o f q u ali t y o r w h eth er i t i s a pr on o m i n a l

adjec t i v e a n um eral o r an a rti c l e

, ,
.

If a pr o n om i n al adj ec t i v e i ts c l ass (wh eth er po ssessi v e d em on st ra , ,

t i v e i n t erro gat i v e r el ati v e o r i n d efi n i t e) m ust b e t o l d

, ,
an d i f
, po sses
si v e fr om t h e perso n a l pron o u n o f wh at perso n an d n u m b er i t c o m es .
,

I f a n um eral w h eth er i t i s used w i t h t he v al ue o f an adj ec t i v e o r

, _

of a n ou n an d w h et h er c ardi n al o r d i n a l or frac ti on al
, , ,
.

I f an ar ti c l e w h eth er t he d efi n i t e ar ti c l e o r th e i n d efi n i te ; if t h e
,

l att er w hy a n an d n o t a o r t he co n trary
, , .

Th e c haract er o f t h e w o rd as si m pl e or d eri v ati v e or c om poun d

m ay b e gi v en (at th e o pti o n o f t h e t each er) an d i f n o t si m pl e i ts , , ,

d eri v at i on po si ti on ex pl ai ned
'

or c o m .

If th e adjecti v e i s co m parati v e o r super l at i v e, th e fac t i s t o b e m en

ti o n ed , an d th e t hree d egrees o f c o m pari son are to b e gi ven .

An iv e j
a d ec t h as b ut on e
g en era l c o n st r uc t i o n , t h at l i y a n oun
of q ua f in g .

B ut i t d o es th i s in h i
t r ee d fferen t w a ys hi h e m o e
,
w c ar r full y i i i h ed a d
d st n g us n

d efi n ed i n th e S y n ta x (Ch apt er X I I I ) : t h y e c ll ed 1 e ar a , . A TT RIB U T I VE : as,

em i n ent m e n ; 2 . AP P OS I TI VE as , m e n e m i t f th i vi
n en or e r s er c es ; 3. P RED I CAT IVE

as, m e n a re em i n ent ac c o r d i g t th i
n o vi e r s er c es .

Ex a m p l e of p a rs i n g ad je c t i ve s .

T h is st ud io us b o y I is t he b est l
sc ho ar a m o n g a ll m yh un d re d pupils .

A fter d i v id i n g the sen t en c e as w e ha v e d on e b efor e, w e fi rst parse

b o y, t h e b are subj ec t, an d t h en go on t o t ak e up t he adj ect i v es q uali
fyi n g i t .

S t ud io us i s a c o m m o n ad ect i j ve ,
d er i v ati v e (i t c o m es fro m t h e no un
st ud y ,
w i th t he en d in g o us , an d m ean s d e v ot ed t o an d

ual i fi es b o y, t elli n r wha t ki n d o f b oy i s spo k en of

q g)
. .

T h is i s a pr o n o m i n al adj ec t i v e, d em o n strat i v e i t i s i n t h e si n gul ar

n um b er pl ura l b e i n g t h e s e) , t o a gr ee (7 6 )
(t he w i t h t he n o un b o y,
w h i ch i t qual i fi es, b ei n g ad d ed t o sho w whi ch s t ud i o us b o y i s m ean t .

I n t he pr ed i c at e o f t h e s en ten c e , w e t ak e up first (a lt er th e v erb is )

th e pr ed i cat e no un sc h o l ar , an d t h en t he j
ad ec ti ves t hat qual i fy i t .
98 AD J E CT I VE S .
[ C H AR VI I .

Th e g o rg eo us E ast , w i t h r i c h e s t h a n d ,
S h o w er s o n h er k i n g s b a r b ar i c pear l an d g o ld .

V ery few peo pl e are g o o d e c o n o m i s t s o f t h ei r fo rt un e .

M an y a c ar o l , o l d a n d s a i n t l y , s an g t h e m i n s t r el s .

G o d i n th e n at ur e o f ea c h b ei n g fo un d s i t s pr o per b li s s .

S uc h a m an w i ll w i n y w o m an
an .

An y gi rl h o w ev er
, i n ex per i en c e d , k n o w s h o w t o a cc e
pt an o ffer .

A h un d r ed w i n t er s s n o w ed upon h i s b r eas t .

E v er y t h i r d w or d i s a l i e . .

T h es e y o un g m en w er e w i l d a n d un s t ea d y .

B y t h a t s in f ell t h e an g el s .

T h eb es d id h i s rud e un k n o w i n g y out h en g a g e ;
H e c h o o s e s A t h en s i n h i s r i per a g e .

A yr g ur g li n g k i s s e d h i s pebb l ed s h o r e
, , ,
'

O er h un g w i t h W ild w o o d s t h i c k en i n g g r een
’
, ,

Th e fr agr an t b ir c h a n d h a wt h o rn h o ar
T w i n ed a m or o us ro u
n d th e ra
pt ur ed s c en e .

A li tt l e l earn i n g i s a d ang er o us t h in g .

G r ea t i s t r ut h , an d m ig h t y a b o v e a l l t h i n g s .

U n t o t h e pure a ll t h in g s are pur e .

A t h o us a n d fl o w er s en c h an t t h e g al e
W it h per fum e s w eet as
’
l ov e s fi r st k i s s .

W it h l o w er , s e c on d, an d t h ird s t or i e s s h alt t h ou m ak e it .

I n him th e e m o ti v e w as s ubj ec t ed t o th e i n t ell ec t ua l m an .

T hey e x pi a t e l e s s w i t h g r ea t er cr i m e s .

M y fa t h er g av e m e h o n or y o ur s
, ga v e la n d .

Th e l a d y i s d ea d upo n m i n e ’
a n d m y m as t er s fa l s e a cc usa t i on .

T h er e w i l l a w o r s e c o m e i n h i s pl a c e .

A m b i t i o n m a k es m y li t t l e l e s s .
22 2 , 2 2 3] VE RB S . 99

C H AP T E R V II I .

VERB S .

222 . W e fo un d x am i n i n g th e
ab o ve (2 8 et c ) ,
w h en e

p arts o f S p eech t hat a VER B i s a w or d that t ell s or d ec l ares

, , ,

o r assert s so m et hi n g ; i t i m p l i es an as sert i o n o r p re d i c ati o n .

Hen c e ,
as a s en t en ce is an a sserti o n or d ecl arati o n o f so m e

thi n g , e v ery sen ten c e m ust h av e a v erb i n it the v erb fo rm s,

l
a on e or w i th ot h er w o rd s , th e p redicate (2 7) of a sen t en ce .

Thus, i n
T ro y w a s , he s l e e ps ,
t h ey w e n t, the b o y w a s b e a t e n ,

th ere i s an asserti o n ,
in p
each se arate c a s e, o f a b ei n g, or a co n di
ti o n , o r an a ct i o n , o r d urin g o f
th e en an ac ti o n ,
on the p art of

th at w h ic h i s exp r ess ed b y th e su bj ec t of the v erb .

223 . Verb s are as m an y an d of as v ari o us m ean i n i n

,
g
,

a l an guage as n o un s ,
an d a dj ec t i v es an d i t i s qui te i m po s ,

sib l e to c l assi fy t h em b y t h ei r m ean i n g s . B ut th ere i s a

c ert ai n d i fi eren c e of use w hi c h se p arat es th em i n t o tw o

p rin c i p al l
c asses .

S om e v erb s are usuall y ,

an d a m ost l n ec ess ari l y fo l l ow e d
,

by an j —
o b ec t that i s b y a n o un o r p ro n o un i n the objec
,

t i v e c as e s ig n i fy i n g th at at w hi ch t he ac ti o n o f the v erb i s
,

d i rec t ed
Thus ,
I awa i t , I pers uad e , I c ro ss ,

t hem se l v es i n co m p l et e ,
an d we l o ok fo r so m e w o rd ex

t h e thi n g or p erso n t hat i s aw ai te d or p ersuad ed or

th us,
I a wa it t he a rri a v l of t he m ai l ;
I pe rs ua d e m y f r ie n d to g o w it h m e ;
I c ro ss t he r o ad to m ee t hi m .
1 00 V E RB S .
[2 2 3

Oth er v erb s , ag ai n , do n ot t ak e, or are h ardl y ab e l to

t ak e, an y s uc h j ob e ct ; t he a c ti o n w hi c h t hey exp ress they
e xp ress c om p l et el y ,
w i t h o ut an a d d ed o b ec t
j fo r ex am p l e ,

I wal k , s t an d , re o ic e ,
j wee p, an d so on .

A v erb fo rm er c l ass i s s ai d t o b e a TRANS I TIV E

of th e
v erb or t o b e used TRAN S I T I VELY (tr a n si ti ve m ean s go i n g ‘

o v er th at i s th e ac t i o n o f t he v erb i s fan c i full y sai d t o

,

“
p ass o v er from the subj ec t t o an obj ect) ; o n e o f t he
”

l att er c l ass i s c all e d I NTRANS I T I V E .

B ut t h i d i t i t i o i s b y o m e s an ab so l ut e o n e ; m a y v erb s are f eel y

s s nc n n an n r

u d i n b th t h s w y
se o e ed th i s h a dl y a t a s i ti v e v e b i n o u
a s , an e re r l a guag e
r r n r n

t h at m y o t l o b e u
a n s ed i n t ra s i t iv l y
a s n e .

2 2 4 A c c o r di n g t o t h eir form v erb s (l i ke n o un s an d ad

.
,

v es are e i th er s i m p l e o r d eri v at i v e o r c o m p o u
j ec t i ) nd .

S i mp l e v erb s ar e s uc h as

he , go, s it , g ive , write .

225 . The m ost im p ortan t c l asses of d eri v ati v e v erb s are as

fo ll o w s

a . V erb s d eriv e d b y suffi x es, fro m a dj ecti v es an d (

m uch m ore

rare ly ) fro m n o un s . Th e on ly co m m o n s uffi x i s en : th us ,

b ro ad en , hard en , fa s t e n , s ic ke n , l en g then , f rig hten .

A few w o r d s h av e t h e s uffi x ize : a s,

l
s o e m n iz e , hum a n iz e .

b . V erb s d eri ve d b y prefi x es . T h ese c om e es eci a

p ll y fro m
ot h er v er bs as ,

awa ke , ar is e ; b efa l l , b e l ie , b e s pe ak ;
f o rg et , f o rg ive , f o rswe ar ; m is t a ke , m is b e h ave ;
un b i n d , un d o , un faste n ; d is q ual ify , d iso wn , d is l ike ;
re m in d , re c a pt ure , re pa y .

B ut a so l fro m no un s and a dj ec ti v es as ,

b e n ig h t , b e h e ad , b e l ittl e ;
e nt h ro n e , e n d an g e r , em b o dy ;

r e n ew .
 1 02 V E RB S
'

.
[2 2 7

227 . Verb s li ke ,
no un s an d pro n o un s hav e (as w e h a v e
,

alrea dy seen 59 et c ) th ei r ,
. i n fl ect i o n , o r c h an ges o f fo rm
i n o r d er t o e xp r ess c ert ai n c han ges o f m ean in g or o f appli
c ati on ; an d t hi s i n fl ec t i o n i s c a ll e d t h eir CO NJ UG AT I O N .

228 . Thus v erb s ,

are v ari ed t o ,
a c ert ai n e x t en t ,
n ot be
c ause o f a n y c h an g e i n t h ei r ow n i n d i v i d ual m ean i n ,
g b ut
in c o n s eq uen ce of c ert ai n di fferen c es i n th e c h ara c t er of

t hei r sub ec t j d i fferen c es n am el y i n the n um b er

, , or in
t he p ers on of th e n o un o r p ro n o un ab out w hi ch th ey as s ert

s o m ethi n g .

Th i s i s ca ll e d the i n fl ec t i on of th e v erb for P ER S ON an d

N U M B ER .

229 . For e x am p l e , g w i th t he p erso n a l p ro n o un s o f

a onl
th e t h ree p erso n s (1 5 3 et c ) i n the si n gul ar, w e use t hree
‘

d i fferen t form s of the v erb , sa y in g

I l ove , t ho u I o v e st , he lov es .

B ut no E n g l i sh v erb h as differen t form s t o put w i th t he

p l ural s of t h ese pron o un s th us ,

we lo v e , yo u lov e , t hey lo v e .

An d o ften th e v erb of t h e thi rd p erson si n g ul ar i s th e sam e

w i th t h at of t h e fi rs t t hus,

I lo v e d , he lov ed ; I c an , he c an .

2 30 d As
s num b er th e fo rm s o f th e v erb w hi ch
re ar
.
g go ,

w i th t ho u an d w i th yo uare gen eral l y difi eren t : thus ,

t ho u I o v est , yo u l o ve
an d th e form s w hi c h g o w i th si n gul ar an d p l ura l s ubj ects
o f t h e t hi r d p erso n ar e o ft en d i ffer e n t th us,

he l o ves (o r I o v et h ) ,
t h ey l o ve ;
m an l o v es ,
m en lo ve .

B ut th e form w ith I an d w i th w e i s a l w a y s the sam e

t hus,
I l o ve , we l o v e .
 TENS E AND M OD E . 1 03

E x c ept in on e irr egul ar v erb (b e, w hi ch h as a s p ecia l

fo rm for i ts three p l ural p erson s di fferen t fro m ,
an y o f tho se of

t he sin g ul ar t hus,

I am , we or yo u or t hey are ;
I was , we or yo u o r t h ey we re .

2 31 . Again v erbs ,
are v ari e d i n t w o
p e c t s t o si g n i f y res

r ea l d i fferen c es o f m ean in g b el o n g i n g t o t h em sel v es Thi s .

i s c all e d th e i n flect i o n o f th e v erb for TENS E an d M OD E .

2 32 . Te n se—
i n fl ec t i o n i s for t h e p urp o se o f sho w i n g a

di fferen ce i n the ti m e of t h e ac ti o n or con d it i on .

Th us I l o ve i s use d esp ec ial l y o f w hat i s go i n g o n n o w

, ,

at th e p resen t t im e an d i s t h erefore sai d t o b e o f th e

,

P RE S ENT TENS E w hi l e I love d i s use d o f som et hi n g go n e

b y o r i n t he p ast an d i s t h erefo re c all e d th e P RETERI T
,

TENS E An d w e h a v e i n li k e m an n er as corresp on d i n g
.
,

p resen t an d p reterit ,

I lead an d I l ed ;
I ho ld an d I he Id ;
l g ive an d l g ave .

These t w o are th e on ly ten ses d isti n guished b y real i n flecti on

in o ur v erb .

2 33 . M o d e-i n flect i on i s for the p urp o se of sh o w i n g a

d i fferen c e i n t he m od e or m a n n er o f th e asserti on w heth er

i t be a si m ple o ut-an d -out d ec l arati on , or a d o ub tful or

c o n t in as sert i o n , d
ge n t or a c o m m an .

The m o d es are three

The I ND I CATI V E ,
or t he m o de o f si m p l e d ec l arati on

I am , he g o es , t h ey went .

2 . The S U B J U NCT VE, t h e m o I d e o f d o ubtful or co n d iti on al

a s sert i o n : t hus,
it ! b e ; t h o ug h he g o ; s uppo s i n g he w e r e here
e xc e pt Go d b e with hi m ; l est s he fo r g e t h er d uty .
1 04 V E RB S .
[ 2 33

3 . The I MP ERATW E, t he m o de o f c om m an d or d em an d °

thus,

go away! be l
s i en t ! l eave us , see hi m .

2 34 . Th e i n d i c ati v e i s t h e m o d e of or d in ary use ,

an d h as the
g reat est v ari et y o f i n fl ecti on fo r p erso n an d n um b er .

Th e subj un c ti v e i s g o n e al m ost w h o ll y o ut o f us e i n th e p ret

eri t t en s e n o v erb ex c ep t b e h as a p r et eri t su bj un c ti v e di fferen t
fro m t he i n d i c ati v e t hus ,

I was , if I were ;

an d e v en i n th e
presen t t en se a d i fferen ce ex cept i n the sam e
, ,

v erb b e i s , foun d on l y i n t he sec o n d an d third p erson s sin gul ar

th us ,

if t h o ulov e ;

if he l o v e ;
if we or yo u or t hey b e .

I lo v e; an d if I lo v e .

H en ce the subj un c t iv e, as a separat e m o d e, is l

a m o st l ost an d o ut o f m in d i n
o ur l an g uag e l
; i n i t s p ac e w e put e t i h e t h e i di c at iv e or so m e of th e m od al
r n ,

p h rase s, com po un d form s m ad e w t i h aux i l i i es w h i c h w ill b e d sc i b ed l ater

ar ,
e r

( 2 79 et c .

Th e i mp erati v e h as b ut a sin g l e form w hi c h i s used i n d iffer ,

en t l y as si n g ul ar an d as p l ural Its subj ec t t h o u o r yo u o r ye .

, , ,

m ay b e exp ress ed c o m i n g after t h e v erb

,
b ut i t 8 m o re usuall y 1

o m i tt e d t hus ,

go or g o t ho u, go or g o yo u or ye .

2 35 . These are all th e fo rm s of i n flec t i o n w hi c h the

v erb h as i n E n g li sh .

B ut th ere are c ert ai n d eri v ati v e w ord s d e from al m ost ,

m a

e v er y v erb i n t h e l an g u a e w hi c h are so i m p ort an t an d s o

g , ,

m uc h u s e d a n d use d i n su,
c h w a y s th at t he y are al w ays ,

i v e n al o n w i t h th e i n fl ec t i o n al fo rm s as p art o f t h e c o n
g g ,

j ugat io n o f th e v erb a l th o ugh t he y are n o t v erb s at all

, ,

b ec ause t he y d o n o t reall y a ssert an y t hi n g ; t hey are o n l y

1 06 V E RB S .
[ 2 37

2 37 . There are t w o i n fi n i ti ves .

I nfi n i ti ve m ean s s o m et hi n g l i ke un l im i ted , i n d efi n i te, ’

be
ca use t he g en era l i d ea o f ac ti o n o r c on diti on i n t hese w o rd s i s
n o t l i m i t e d t o a p arti c ul ar n um b er or p erson ,
as i n the or d i n ary
v erb al form s .

On e i s t h e sam e w i th th e r oot
( ) 87 of th e v erb , or t he
si m p l est v erb a l form (the sam e w i th the i m p erati v e ,
an d ,

e x cep t i n b e , w i th t h e fi rst p erso n p resen t) th us ,

go , see , walk, lo ve , g ive .

It o ften h as th e p rep o si ti on to put b efo re i t as its S IGN

t hus,
to g o , to s ee , to walk , to lo v e , to g ive .

T he r uesl as t o t h e presen c e o r ab s en c e of th e sig n to w ill b e gi ve n in an ot h er

pl ac e (see 440

T he o th er i n fi n it i v e i s m a d e b y t h e en d i n g i n g thus,

g o in g , seei n g , wa l ki n g lov i n g g iv i n g
, , .

The fi rst i s ca I NFI NI T I VE o r the ROOT

ll e d sim ply t he ,

I NFI NI T I V E ; the seco n d i s k n ow n as the I NFI NI T I VE IN i n g ,

or as t h e P ART I CI P I AL I N FI NI TIV E (b ecau se i t al w ay s has t h e

sam e fo rm as th e p resen t p arti c i p l e) .

The i n fi n i tiv e i n i n g i s b y so m e ca ll ed th e g erun d .

2 38 . Th ere are a so l tw o p arti c i p l es .

’
P a r ti cip le parti c ip atin g sh ari n g b ecause these w ords
m ean s , , ,

w hi l e reall y a dj ec ti v es sh are al so i n th e ch arac ter o f v erb s

, .

On e en ds i n in g , an d is ca ll e d th e P RES ENT P ARTI CI P LE ,

b ecause i t m o re o ften d en otes p resen t ac ti o n thus ,

g o in g ,
-
see i n g , wal ki n g , l ovi n g , g iv i n g .

The oth er h as a v ari et y of en d i n gs d, or t, or n , o r

n on e at all an d is ca ll e d the P AS T P ART I CI P LE, or t he

PASS I V E P ART C P LE, I I b ecause i t usuall y b el o n gs t o p ast ti m e ,

or d en otes com
pl eted ac ti on , or c o n d iti on as th e resul t o f
2 40] CONJ U GAT I ONS . 1 07

sufferi n g o r en d uri n g (pa ssi ve m ean s en d uri n g the ac ti o n

e xp resse d b y the v erb t hus,

go n e, s een , walke d, l ov e d , t aug ht , g iven .

A person g o n e i s on e wh o h as l
a read y pe fo r rm ed t he ac t o f go i ng ; an y th i g
n

s ee n or g iv en e i t h er i s un d e go i
r n g or h as un d erg on e t h e ac t o f s ee n
g ori g ivi g
n ,

as perform ed by som e on e we c an s ay, som e o n e s aw it, or ga v e it an d so o n .

CO NJ U G AT I ON S .

2 39 . I f w e start from the

p l est form o f th e v erb the si m ,

bas e o f v erb al i n fl ec t i o n or the v erb al roo t there ar e

i n E n g li sh (as i n th e o ther l an g uages m ost n earl y rel ated
wi th E n gl i sh) t w o p ri n c i p al w a y s o f m aki n g fro m i t the
p reterit ten se an d the p ast p arti c i p l e An d ac c ordin g as .
,

they foll o w the o n e o r t h e o t h er o f t hese w a y s E n glish ,

v erb s are d i v i d ed i n t o t w o great c l asses w hi ch are c al l e d ,

CONJ U G ATI ONS b ec ause unl ik e o n e an o th er i n th eir m o d e

,

o f i n flec t i o n o r c on j u at i o n
g .

240 T he
l or c on j u
on e at i o n r e ul arl y fo rm s i t s
.
g c ass g
p reteri t an d p arti c i p l e b o th al ik e by the a dd i ti o n of c d o r
, ,

d t o th e roo t o f the v erb th us,

lo v e , l o v e d l o ve d ;
,

w is h , w is h e d wis h ed ,
.

Thi s i s ll ed the N EW c o n j ugati o n (a l so o ften the W EAK

ca ,

or so m et im es th e R EGU L AR c o n j u gat i o n ) .

The other c l ass reg ul arl y fo rm s i t s p reteri t b y a ch an g e

i n the v o w el o f the ro o t w i th o ut an y add e d en d i n g an d i ts
, ,

p art i c i p l e b y add in g e n o r n an d the v o w el o f the p arti

ci
p l e i s e i t her t h e sa m e w i th t hat o f th e r oot, o r the sam e
w i th t h at o f t he p ret er it o r el se d i fferen t fro m b o th
,
th us ,

g ive , g ave , g iv en ; b ite , b it , b itt en ;

fly, fl ew , fl o wn .

Thi s i s ca ll ed t h e O LD con j ugat ion (al so the STRONG, o r

the I R R EGU LA R co n j ugat io n ) .

1 08 V E RB S .
[2 41

2 41 B el o w are i v en b y w ay o f m o d el al l th e form s of
.
g , ,

two ul ar v erb s o n e fro m eac h c o n j ug ati on

re
g ,
.

New C o n j ug ati o n .

IN DI C AT I V E M O D E
P resen t Tense .

P ers . S i g
n . PI .

1 . I l ove we lo v e
2 . t h o u I ov est yo u (ye) lo ve
3 . h e lov es (l o vet h ) t h ey l o v e
'

P r etem t Tense .

1 . I lo ve d w e lov e d

t h o u l o v e d st yo u (ye) l o v e d
he l o ved th ey lo ve d

Old C o n j ug a t i o n .

IND I C AT I V E Mo o n
P r esen t Tense .

S in g . PL

I g ive w e g iv e
t h o u g iv e st yo u (ye) g iv e
h e g iv e s (g iveth ) t h ey g ive

P reter i t Ten se .

l . I g ave w e g av e
2 . th o u g av es t y u
o
( )
ye g av e

3 . h e g av e t h ey g ave

N e w C o n j ug a t i o n . Old C o n j ug a t i o n .

S U BJ UN C I W E
’‘
M OD E .

P r esen t Ten se .

ou
et c . lo v e (i i ) I ,
t h ,

'
i
P reter t Ten se .

et c . l ov e d ( )
i f I , th o u,

I M E R AT VE
P I M OD E .

g ive
IN FI N IT I VE .

lo v e or to l ove g ive or t o g iv e

P R E ENT
S R
P A T IC I P L E A ND R
P A T I C I P I AL INF N T E
I I IV .

lov i n g g iv i n g
P AS T P A T I C I P L R E .

l o v ed
 110 VE RB S .

Th e t h i d person s i n gul ar p es t h as a seco n d fo m m ad e

r r en r ,
b y th e en di n g t h

o r et h, a l m o st l w ay s m k in g a d d i t i on al s y ll ab l T hus
a a n a e .
,

I v th g iv th g th h p t h fi th ;
o e , e , oe , o e , xe
b ut d is a b let h .

h
T i s is an o ld -E n g li hs fo rm ,
n ow used l
a m o st on ly in so em n l st yle an d in

po etr y .

W e n ow t ak e up t h e t w o c on j ugat i o n s separat el y ,
espec i a ll y i n ord er to n ot i c e

t h eir i rreg ul ar i t i es .

NE W C O N J U G A TI ON .

2 44 . The re
g ul ar v erb s of t he N ew j ug ati o n as w e c on ,

h av e form th ei r p reteri t
s een ,
an d th ei r p a st p arti c i p l e

al i ke b y a dd i n, g e d o r d t o th e r oo t Or i n fi n i t i v e Th u s .
,

lo o ke d b e g g e d h o pe d ro b b e d ra ise d wis hed

, , , , , ,

wa ite d un ite d l o ad e d d e g rad e d , , ,

.

As t h ese ex m pl es h w t h d d d e di g m k e a a d d i t i o a l sy ll ab l e o nl y n
n
a s o ,
e a e n n a s

w h en t h e r o t d s w i t h a t so u d o r a d so u d after w h i h th e d o f t h e en di g
o en
'
-
n - n ,
c n

coul d n o t o t h w i s e b e d i st i n t l y h eard
er c .

M oreo v e t h d d d d i s s u d d l i k e t if th e
r, e a t en d s i n th e so un d s o f k
e o n e a ,
ro o ,

p t h a s i th i (i c l ud i g ) an d h ( i l ud i n g h ) : t h us
’

, t n n, , 3 n n x , s nc c ,

b k d piq u d h p d b t th d fi f d p
a e , g ph d l ugh ed
e , o e , e ro e , e , a ra ra e , a ,

h d d v x d wi h d h t h d c as e , rac e , e e , s e , a c e .

I m an y w d s o f t h i
n l as t w as fo m e l y o ften w i t t en i n stead of d an d
or s c s, r r r ,

som e p pl e eob eg i n i g t w i t e i t ag i
are ow n n o r a n n .

I n s l em n t y l s o f
o di g s d sp ak i g t h e c d i s s m et i m s s o un d ed as a
e rea n an e n ,
o e

sep t e s y ll b l
ara ft e all o t s ; a d t h
a e a o f c o u se t h e d h s i ts p oper d
r r o n en , r ,
a r

so un d .

245 . T h es e are th e re
gul ar m eth o ds . B ut a great m an y
v erb s o f t his con j ugati on are m o re o r l ess i rregul ar, so m e
(2 52 )
e v en to s uc h d egree an d i n such w ay s that i t m i ght seem d o ub t
a

ful w h et her th ey o ugh t n o t t o b e c l as s ed w i th v erb s o f th e Old

con j ugat i o n .

IR R E GU L AR T IES I .

246 . In so m e ve b s i wh i h t h e d i p u
r n c s ro n o n c ed l ik e a t, e i th er cd or t
is a l l ow ed (es pec i ll y i n th e pa t i i pl e) t o b e w i tten
a r c r t h us ,

d res s , d d o d
r es se t; r bl res ess , bl es s e d or b l es t ;

pass , passe d or pas t .

As w e s a w ab o ve s o m e are e x ten d i n g t h i s c l a ss be yo nd w h at h as b een

us ua l h i th ert o .

247 . In so m e v e bs
r ,
a fter a fi n al n or I so un d i n th e ro o t, e i th er a regul ar
fo rm i n cd ( pro n o un c ed as d) o r an i rreg ul ar i n t is a ll ’
o w ed th us

le a rn , l e a rn e d or l ea rn t ; S po il , s po il ed o r s po il t ,
2 53] NEW C ONJ U GAT I ON . 111

An d i n l k e i m an n er fro m b urn , pe n (m ean i n g s me ll , dw e ll , s pe ll ,

sp ill .

2 4 8 In s o m . e ve b r s, o f w h i ch the ro o t e n d s in d aft er I or n o r r, e i th er
t h e r eg ul ar fo rm w i th cd add ed , or an i rregu ar, l w t ih t h e fi n al d s i m pl y

c h an ged ll o w ed t h u
to t , i s a s,

b uil d b uil d e d o r b uil t ; ,

ren d , re n d ed or r e n t ;

g i d g i d d 01 g i rt .
‘
r , r e

An d th e sam e i s th e c ase w i t h g il d b d , en .

B ut l e d d p d h v e th e i
n , g ul ar form
se n , s en a rre on l y : t hus ,

s en d , s en t.

2 4 9 In a yet l arg er n um b er o f v erb s, t h e v o w el

.
of th e ro o t is s h ort en ed i n

pron un c i at i o n , an d t is add ed as en d i n g t h us,

fe e l , fe t ; l m ean , m ea n t ; kee p, ke pt .

h i s m eth o d
T ll o w ed al so b y d e l i s fo p l p w p w p An d k l a , c r ee , s ee ,
s ee ,
ee . n ee ,

l p l
ea , d h v e e i th e th e eg ul a or t h i eg ul ar fo m t h us
ea n , ream a r r r e rr r ,

k l k l d or k lt ; n ee , d n ee e d d or d t ne re am , ream e re a m .

2 50 A few w h i c h h a v e th e sam e i gul ar i t y ch an g e al so

. fi n al or rre a v 2

s ou n d o f t h e ro o t t o t or r espec t iv e l y t h us
‘
s, ,

l v l ft ; l l st ea e, e o s e, o .

S o al so w i t h l v ( spli t z c o m p e v ( al m o st o bs o l ete) an d
‘ ’
c ea e ar . r ea e ,

b v ; but the l t has ei t h er b v d o b ft

er ea e as e re a e r e re .

C l v m ea i g ad h ere i s reg ul r b ut l v i s s m et im es fo u n d used as i t s

’
ea e n n a c a e o
,

p eteri t
r .

2 51 A few sh o w a s im i l ar ch an g e o f a fi n al v o w el addi n g th e s i gn d
.
,

th u s
fl e fl d; y id ; e h ,h d e sa , sa s o e, s o .

H d fro m h e
ear i s a c se b y i tsel f b ut h as m ost l i k e ess to th ese l ast
ar a ,
n

c l as sse .

2 5 2 A n um b er o f v e b s e d i n g i t o d after a l o n g v ow el sh o rten th e
. r n n r

v owel in the p t ri t a d part i i pl e b ut tak e n o d d ed en d i g t h us

re e n c ,
a n
,

f d f d ; h t h t; ee , l d ld e s oo , s o ea , e .

S o al so w i th b l d b d p d d ee t ; li ght fo m s li ght d o lit

, ree , s ee , r ea , m ee r e r .

2 53 A d q ui te a n um b e
. n di g i t d g all y aft er a sh o rt v o w l r, en n n or ,
en er e ,

m k e n o c h an g e a t al l b u
a t fo m t h p t i t d pa t i c i pl e l i k e th e p esen t
,
r e re e r an r r

th ey are
bu t h it rs put h d pi t s e s

t hu t
c as q ui t h d pli t r s re s

t k it
c os id h ut n
p d r s s re a

ut o l t t li t e w t se s s ea

A few f t h e h o w ev o ll o w l th g ul f m i d m l y k i t q ui t
es ,
er, a a so e re ar or n a z na e n , ,

t w et w h t A d pi t f m e l y h ad s o m t i m es the
sw
p et ri t p t
ea , ,
e . n s or r e r e s a .
1 12 V E RB S .
[ 2 54

2 54 . A i l
c ert a n c ass, en di n gl y in a k or 9 so un d chan ge the v o w el
fo rm er ,

an d fi l c o s a t s i t o t h e s un d ught th us
na n on n n o a : ,

b h b ught ;
es eec ,b uy b ught ;
es o b i g b ught , o r n , ro .

A d so al o e k
n s t h ts e h th i k ; w k h s ei th e w k d or w ught
, ca c , eac , n or a r or e ro .

2 5 5 S cat t ed i
. g ul a i t i es ar t h e fo ll o w i g
er rre r e n

S ll
e d t ll fo m
an eld d t ld r so an o .

H v a e, k an d
m a e, l th are h o t n ed b y l oss o f t he fi n al c on son an t o f the
c o e s r e

roo t t h us ,
h d d l d (o l th d ) a , m a e, c a r c o e .

D a re i s e i th er reg ul ar or fo rm s the an o m l o us pret er i t (n o t pa t i c i pl e) d urst

, a r .

2 56 . Th e prin cip al p arts b ein g as h ere stated the ten se ,

i n fi ec ti o n i s al m o st a l w ay s regul ar acc ord i n g t o th e rul es al ready ,

gi v en
B ut h av e i s i rregul ar i n th e p resen t s in gul ar, form in g
I hav e , tho u hast , h e has .

Nee d h as i n t h e t hi rd i s ngul ar presen t e i th er n ee d s o r n ee d D are h as t h e .

sa m e i rr eg ul ar i t y an d i ts i rreg ul ar pret er i t d urs t d o es n o t t ak e s t in the seco n d

per so n i
s ng u
l ar .

OL D CONJ U GATI ON .

2 57 . Th e c h arac t eri st i c s of v erb s of th e Ol d c on j uga

t i on , as w e h av e seen , ar e t hese : t h at t h e y c h an g e th e
v ow el of the ro o t , ei th er in th e p ret erit or i n th e p ast
p arti ci p l e or i n b o th ; th at the y t ak e n o a dd e d en d i n g i n
t he p ret eri t ; an d that th e en d i n g o f th e p arti c i p l e i f i t ,

h av e an y, is n .

2 58 . Th e reg ul ar v erb s of this c on j ugati on fall i n t o a n um

b er d i sti n c t c l asses b ut th e g ro un d s of th e d i v isi o n are o nl y
of

t o b e seen i n th e o l d er fo rm s o f E n g l i s h an d i n so m e o f th e ,

o th er l a n g uag es rel at e d t o E n l is h a n d t h e l i m i ts o f t h e c l asses

g ,

h av e b een v ery m uc h c o n fused b y i rreg ul ar c han g es .

2 59 . On e ca use of t he i rregul ari t i es i n o ur presen t E n gl i sh

has b een t h e t en d en c y t o c h an g e th e v o w el ei ther o f th e pret eri t
or of the p arti c ip l e ,
so as to m ake th ese tw o fo rm s a ree
g w i th
each o th er .
 1 14 V E RB S .
[ 2 64

2 64 . A few v erb s fol l o w , _

qui t e i rregul arl y, th e m o d el
g ive
T h o se m o st l i k e i t ar e

b i d , b ad e (so m etim es b id ) , b d d e n ; i ea t , ate (o r e at ), e at e n ;

s ee , s aw , s ee n .

M ore i rreg ul ar are

b eat, b eat, b eate n ; li e , lay, I ain ; s i t , s at , s at .

265 . In t h e sam e m an n er as

ta ke , t o o k , ta ken

are c o n j ugated s ha ke an d f o rsa ke .

An d
d raw , d rew , d raw n , l y l
s a , s ew , s a n , l i
h a v e a righ t t o b e put i o e c l ss wi th th em t d t ho u
n n g h i t n e w fo m s
a a l so s an ,
r

i t s part i i pl li k i t p et i t t d
c e e s r er , s oo .

W k an d w k i th e fo ll o w t h e N ew c o j ug t i on th ro ug h o ut o r m k t h e
a e a a e e r n a ,
a e

pret e i t w k a d w k
r s o S t v i n l ik e m
e n a n er so m et i m es fo rm s t h e pr et eri t
o e . a e, an ,

t v
s o e, d of w an t h p t i c i pl w
ax e i n st ead o f w x ed i s so m eti m es m et
e ar e ax n, a ,

w ith .

266 . I n th e sam e m an n er as

ri d e , ro d e , r id d e n , r ise , ro se , ris en ,

ar e co n j ugated al s o st rid e s m ite write d riv e striv e an d t h rive ; , , , , ,

b ut th e l ast i s a l s o o f t h e N ew c o n j ugat i o n .

S hi an d ne b i d e w h i c h sh o u
a l d b el o n g t o t h e sam e c l ass n o w form th e part i
, ,

c ipl l i k e t h e pr t e i t n m el y
e e h r a d b d ; a d hi
a i s so m et i m s o f
,
s one n a o e n s ne e

t h N w o j ug at i o n
e e c n .

2 6 7 Th e v erb s b ite c h id e hi d e (form erl y o f th e New co n

.
, ,

j ugat io n ) slid e are c on j ugated t hus

,

b it e , b it , b itt e n or hit .

2 68 . Th e v erb
c h o o se , c h o se , c ho s e n ,

is a s p eci m en o f a c l ass t h at has b ec o m e a m ost e l x ti n c t .

W i th i t w e m ay put
f r e e z e , f r oz e , f r o z e n ; s eet he , so d , s o d d en ;

b ut s e et h e is o f ra re use, an d m o r e usual l y fo l l o w s t he New c on j ug at i on .

269 . Th e v erb s b l o w, g ro w , kn o w, th ro w are c on j ugated

thus
g ro w , g re w , g ro w n .

An d w e m ay c as s l w it h th em
fl y, fl e w , fl o w n .
27 3] O LD C ONJ U GAT I ON .
115

S ow , st ro w o r s t re w , an d s h ow a re t h ro ugh out of t h e N ew con j ugat i o n ,

or

m a y m ak e t he part i c i pl es s o w n , s t re w n o r s t rew n , an d s h ow n . C ro w i s of t he
Ne w c on j ugat i on ,
o r m a y m ak e t he pret er t i c rew .

2 70 . Th e t wo v erb s
ll f ll f ll fa ,
e , a en ,
a d
n
h l d h l d h l d ( r re ) o h l d o , e , o en a r e ,

r a ll y form o n e c l a s t og t h er h o w v e u
e n li k e t h e y m
s
y seem
e ,
e r a .

2 7 1 W e m ay c l ass t o get h er
.

d i g , d ug , d ug ( or b y N ew c on j ugation ) ;
i
s t c k, s t uc k, st uck ;

st r ik e, st r uc k, s t ruck ( or i
s t r c ke n ) ;
h hu g hu g
an g , n , n .

2 72 . We h av e fin al l y t o n t i c e t h ree o or four q ui t e un cl a ssifi abl e

n am e ly ,

c o m e, c am e , c om e ; 90 , w e nt, go n e ; d o , d id , d o n e .

W ent
is pro per ly
t h e pret er t o f w e n d ( k e s e n t fr o m s e n d ) , w c i n o w , as a li hi h
v
separat e erb , h as t h e reg uar pret er t w e n d e d l
D i d , o f all o ur pret er ts, pre i . i
v l
ser es the p ain est re c o f t h e red u li
p c at o n w c fo rm er m ad e all o u r Old li i hi h ly
preteri ts .

W it , w t ih
it s pres en t w o t an d i i
pret er t w s t ( i t has n o part c p e ) , i s n o w i i l
n ear ly out o f use Q uo t i s .h a rel hi i c ( fi rs t an d t rd perso n s s n g u
l ar pret er t ) i i
of a ve b r fo m e l y m uc h used b ut n o w w el l i g h o b so l et e
r r ,
n .

2 73 . S e i s m a d e up o f p arts com i n g from v eral d ifferen t

se

roo t s, an d is so i rreg u
l ar as to req uire t o b e i n fl ec t ed h ere i n full

P R I N C I P AL P AR TS .

b een .

IN D I C AT I V E . S U BJ U N C T I VE .

P resen t .

be be
be (b eest) be
be be
P r eter i t .

1 . was we re
2 . wa st (wert) we re
3 . was were
IM ER P AT I V E .

Ix n m r i v szs .

be or to he , b e i n g
116 V E RB S .
[ 2 73

Be et c . w ere fo rm er ly ,
an d are s om etim es sti ll , used fo r i n di cat iv e as we ll as

s ubj un c t iv e .

2 74 . Th e form s of v erb s o f t h e Old con j ug at i on ,

as he re g iv e n ,
are t h o se
w h i ch t h e b e t prese t us e app o v es B ut i n al l t h e t h e respects m e t i o n ed
s n r . r e n

i 2 59 —n m el y d ro ppi g o r ret a i n i g t h e
n a ,
o f t h e p rt i i pl e ; m k i g t h
n n en a c a n e

v o w l s o f th e prete i t d pa t i i pl e l i k e o n e an o th er ; a d m i xi g fo rm s f
e r an r c n n o

t h N ew an d Old c o j ug at i
e s — th h as b een m uc h i
n g ul i t y espec i ll y
on ere rre ar ,
a

g ag e an d s o m e o f t h i s rem ai n s part i c ul l y
am o g t h e o l d er wri t e s o f t h e l n u
n r a ,
ar

i po t i use
n e c .

2 75 . W h ere a i c i pl e i s i n use on e wi t h the en d i g

d o ub l e form t h e pa rt
of ,
n

en an d the o t h er w i th out th i h ) i s apt t o b e prefe ed w h en t he

,
e fo rm er (w t en rr

p t i i pl e h as th e v a l ue o f a o rd i n a y dj c t iv e t h us
ar c n r a e ,

a d uk ; r uk n hi p ;
en hid d
m an p i g;
a s t i k n h t;
en s a e i s r n a s r c en ear

l v h f ; f g tt p i c o en oo s or o en ro m s es .

S om e l i k e d u k
,
are a l m o st li m i t d n o w ad a y s t o t h i s ad j ec t iv e us
r n en , An d e e
.

th ere
a e a um b er o f w o rd s i n
r n n ow u sed o l y as adj ec t iv es as t h e v erb s o f en , n ,

w h i h t h y a e re l l y th e pa t i c i pl es fo m t h ei r p t i c ipl es at p esen t in an o t h e
c e r a r r ar r r

m an n er S u h ar . c e

lt
m o h p
en , s g v h v al d en, iv tt
ra e n , sw ll e h ew
s a en ,w a en , r en , ro en , o n, n, m o n,

s aw n , b o un d e n .

OTH E R IR R E G U LAR VE R BS .

2 76 . Th ere i s a ll c l ass of i rr eg ul ar v erb s m ostl y

sm a ,

use d (see b el o w , 2 91 ) al o n g w i th t he i n fi n i t iv es o f o th er

v erb s ,
to form v erb p hrases or -
co m p o u n d t en s es an d ,

hav i n g n ei t her i n fi n it i v es n or p art i c i p l es o f th eir o w n .

Th ey ar e

c an , m ay, s hal l , an d wil l ; m ust ,

an d ou
g ht .

2 77 fo ur th o ugh n ow hav in g t he v al ue o f p resen ts

. T he fi rst ,

o n l y are or i gi n all y p r eter it s o f t h e Ol d c on j u ati o n an d h en c e

, g ,

l ik e other pret erits th ey h av e th e thi rd p erso n sin gul ar (as w ell

,

as al l t h e p l ura l p erso n s
) l ike t he fi rst Thus for ex am p l e .
,

1 . I c an , we c an ,

2 . th o u c an st , yo u (ye) c an ,

3 . he c an , th ey c an .

Ma yh as th e reg ul ar fo rm m a e st y i n th e sec o n d person s ngi ul ar ; b ut s hall an d

w ill h a v e sh l t a an d w il t (l i k e a rt an d w e rt ,
118 V E RB S .
[2 8 0

28 0 . In s uc h p h rases as I do g ive , th e g ive i s n ot t h e b are

ro o t o f the v erb , b ut ( as the o l d er E n gl i sh an d th e o th er re at e l d

l an g uages sh o w ) th e i n fi n i ti ve w i th o ut to . J ust so we say,

w i t ho ut usi n g t o ,

I see hi m g i v e , I heard hi m s pe a k ;
b ut, w i th t o ,

I wis h hi m to g iv e , I ex pec t ed hi m t o s pe a k .

Th e d o p resen t an d preterit o f d o
an d d id ar e t he

These are t h e real v erb s i n t he l i tt l e ph ras es I d o g iv e an d I d id

g iv e ; an d t he i n fi n iti v e o r v erb al n o un ( 2 36 ) g iv e i s t hei r o bj ec t
‘
I d o g iv e fo r ex am p l e stri c t l y m ean s I d o o r perfo rm a n ac t
, ,

o f g iv i n g
’
IVe m i gh t p ro p erl y en o ugh al ways an al yze an d
.

pars e t he p hrase an d an y o th er sim i l ar o n e i n this m an n er

, ,
.

B ut t h e p h rase i s as w e h av e seen a ki n d o f s ub stit ut e for t he

, ,

presen t t en se of t h e v erb g ive an d t he d o i s used al on g w i th ,

t he i n fi n i t i v e of t he v erb t o leelp i n m ak i n
g it an d suc h sub sti
t ut es are form ed fro m all t he v erb s i n th e l an guage an d are used ,

in m a ki n
g sen t en ces j ust as s i m p l e v erb al t en ses are used Ao .

cor d i n g l y, w e fi n d it c on v en ien t n ot to an a l yz e the

m ,
b ut treat
t h em as s i m p l e t en ses . We ca ll th e phrases
I d o g ive an d I d id g iv e

the E MP HAT I C pr es ent an d p ret erit of th e v erb g ive . An d th e

v erb do , whi c h i s put a onl g w i t h t h e i n fi n i t i v e g iv e t o h el p i n
’
m ak i n g the em ph ati c t en ses, w e ca ll an A U X I L IA R Y or
‘
h el p i n g
v erb .

A P H RA S E i s a c om b i i
n at on o f t woi cl ud i g a subj e t a d
o r m o re w o rd s ( n ot n n c n

predi c at ) h vi g i
e ,
a n n a s ten c e t h e th e
en v l ue o f s i n g l e p rt of speech an d
o e or a a a ,

cap bla f b i g eg
e o e n r ar d d d p rsed as u h W e sh ll h av e h ereaft r t o n o t i e
e an a s c . a e c

ph ases th at
r i a re n t h sam e w ay t h e eq uiv al en t s o f adj ct iv es ad v erb s a d
e e , ,
n

so on .

2 81 Ag a i n we fo r m an o t her ki n d of p resen t an d
.
, yet
p r e t e ri t ,
n am e ly
I am g iv i n g an d I w as g iv i n g ,

b y usi n g the p r esen t an d p reteri t o f b e (2 7 3) as a ux i l i a r y ,

a n d p ut t in a l o n g w i th i t t he p res en t p art i c i p l e g i vi n g
g .
2 33] V ERB —P H RASES . 119

Here the p artic ip l e has the val ue o f a pre di cat e adj ectiv e (see
b el ow qua l ify i n g th e s ubj ec t o f th e a ux i l iary v erb j ust as
, ,

t h e adj ect i v es g e n e ro u s an d l ib e ra l qu a l i fy I in
Q

I am g en e ro us; l was li b eral .

We m ight a l w ays an a l yze th e p hrases i n t hi s w ay i n d escribi n g

th e s en t en c e 5 b ut i t i s,
v en i en t t o t reat th em as i f as b efo re, co n

t h ey w ere s im p l e t en ses An d b ec ause i n t hem t he ac ti on i s .

th o ugh t o f m ore di sti n c t l y as c o n t in ui n g , l astin g , b ei n g i n p r og

r ess w e c a ll t h es e c o m p o u
,
n d t en ses th e CON I N U O US o r P R OGR ES T

S I V E p resen t an d p ret erit .

2 82 . Agai n ,
ou
p l e v erb al form s h av e a d i stin cti on
r si m

o f t en se o n l y for t he d i fferen c e o f t im e p resen t an d t im e

p ast If w e w an t t o sp eak o f an y thi n g as t o b e d on e i n

.

t i m e t o c o m e w e use as aux i li ari es th e p resen t t en ses o f

,

th e i rregu l ar v erb s s hal l an d w i l l (2 7 6 p ut tin g a l on g

w i th th em th e i n fi n i t i v e o f t he v erb e xp ressi n g th e a c ti o n .

Thus
I s ha ll g iv e ; he wil l g o .

Thi s th en , ,
as it s ig n i fi es fut ure ac ti o n or c o n di ti o n , we
ca ll a FU T U RE t en se .

I n t hese phras es ,
ag ai n
(as in I d o g iv e) , th e i n fi n iti v e i s th e
j
o b ec t of th e a ux i l iary c o n si d ered as an i n d ep en d en t v erb .

’
S h al l m ean s o ri g i n a ll y ‘
o w e, b e un d er ob l igati on ; an d wil l
’
m ean s
‘
w i sh , res o l v e d eterm i n e
,
. Th e phrases r ea ll y s ig n if y ,

t h en ,
I o we , a m b o un d or ob l ig ated t o , t he ac t o f g iv i n g ;

I in te n d e m d ete rm i n ed o n g iv i n g , ,
.

2 8 3 Out o f th i s d ifi ren c e i n th e o i g i al m ea i g o f th e aux il i y h as

. e r n n n ar

gro w d i ff ren c e b et w en t h e f m o f t h fut u e x p es i n i t h fi t p

n a e e or e r e r s o n e rs er

son o n th e e h d d t h e s o d a d t h i d p r o s o n th o th e h n d
on an ,
an ec To
n n r e s n e r a .

d n t e s i m pl y s m th i g th t i s g o i n g t o t k pl c
e o o e w e o rd i n ari l y u
n a se h ll i n a e a e, s a

t he fi rs t p rson d w ill i t h
e ,
th s
an th u n e o er s,

1 I h ll g . s a o,

2 t h u w il t g . o o,

3 h w ill g . e o,
1 20 V E RB S .
[ 2 34

2 84 . T o use w ill i n th e fi rst perso n i m pl i es rat h er an a ssen t or pr o m i se

t h us
ill g (ii i t i s ask d of m e) I w
.
o e

o r w h en em ph at i c a d et erm i n at i o
,
t h us
,
n ,

I w i ll g I (wh t ev m ay o ppose) o a er .

T o use h ll i t h e seco n d
s a d t h i d pe so i m pl i s
n t h er a p mi se t h us
an r r n e ra ro ,

y u h ll h v it ; h ll g ly
o s a h a e f th t ; e s a o, re on m e or a

an d w h en em ph t i c a d et
,
m i t i o o t h e pa t f t h speak er t h us
a ,
er na n n r o e ,

y u h ll g ; I t it f y u;
o s a o ex ac o o

h h ll g i pi t e f hi e s d f y u a o, n s o m an o o .

2 8 5 B ut i ask i n g q uest i o n w e a ac c u t o m d t o use h ll o w ill ao

. n a ,
re s e s a r

c o rd i g a s t h e o n e
n t h e o t h er i t b e used i repl y
or T h us w e say s o n .
,

h ll y u g h ll h g ? s a o o s a e o

i f w e ex pect th e repl y I ( o r h ) h ll ( o h ll t ) g ; b ut
,
e s a r s a no o

w ill y u g ? w ill h g ? o o e o

i f w e ex pec t I ( o h ) w ill ( o w ill r t) g e r no o.

In l i k e m n r in o t i t h e st t m e t o pi i o n o f an o th er : t h u
n s we a e n r o n
p an g e ,
re r

say
yo u s ay yo u s hall g o , he t hi n ks he s h lla fi n d it ,

if w e i m pl y th at th e p rso h m s lv s say e n s referred t o w ou d t l e e e

I h ll g I h ll fi d i t s a o, s a n .

2 8 6 T h ese re o l y t h m a i o ut l i es o f t h e d i ff e ce b etw ee h ll a d
. a n e n n er n n s a n

w ill . T o d fi n e i t co m pl t l y w ul d t ak e a g e t d l o f o o m
e an d s o m e o f
e e o r a ea r

t he di st i n c t i o s re v y d l i c at e
n d d iffi c ul t
a T h e peo pl e o f I r l
er d a d
e an . e an n

S t l a d a d o f a p rt o f t h U i t d S t at es h av e l o g b een i n c c urat e i n t h i
co n n a e n e n a e r

use o f t h e t w o ux il i i es putt i g w ill o ften w h ere th e ul t iv t ed a d app v ed

a ar ,
n c a n ro

i di o m requi r s h ll t h u e s a : s,

I w i ll b bl t g t w ; e a e o o o -m o rro

w w i l l h v t d y u y; e a e o o as o sa

an d t h e i n acc u ac y h as rec e t l y b een g re t l y i c ea i g i n t h e U n i t ed S tates

r n a n r s n .

287 . The preterits h o uld an d wo ul d of t he sam e a ux i l i ari es, s ,

fo rm w ith th e i n fi n i t iv e ph rases w hi ch are esp ec iall y use d t o

, ,

exp ress a c on di ti o n a l assert i o n : t h at i s o n e th at d ep en d s o n a ,

co n d i t i o n Thus .
,

I s ho uld g o (ii I c o ul d g et aw ay) ;

he wo ul d g iv e (i i h e h ad t he m ean s) .

Th es e, t h erefo re, are ca ll ed I I

C O N D T O N AL fo rm s .

Often , l
a so , t h ey are used in exp ressi n g t h e co n d i ti o n itself
th us
if he s h o ul d c o m e, yo u wo ul d see him .
1 22 V E RB S .
[ 2 39

An d t h en , h v a e c om in g to s eem ll an d
a m ere a ux il i ar y of past t im e ,
as s ha

w i ll o f fut ure al l v e b s o f ev e y k i d fi all y m d e t h i p st t n s s w i t h i t

,
r ,
r n ,
n a e r a e e .

For a l o g t i m e h o wev e
n ,
a d w c o t i ued t o b e used in t ead as
r, am n ux ili ary
as n n s a

for so m e o f th e i t an s i t iv e v e b ( s st ill used fo r ex am pl e i n G e m an an d

n r r s a , ,
r

Fren c h ) a d rem a i n s o f t h i s use a e t o b e seen i n o c a i o a l ph r ses l i k e

n r c s n a

he i s c o m e, t h ey a iv d h wre ga rre b f y u d v e up
e , e as on e o re o ro .

2 90 T h e p er f e c t p l up e rfe c t a n d fu t ur e v er b —
p hrases or c o m
.
, , ,

p oun d v erb al form s are an al ogo us in use w ith the t en s es o f the

,

s i m p l e v erb ; th e y ad d p ri n c i p a ll y a d iff eren ce o f ti m e t o th e

m ean i n g o f th e v erb a l r o o t B ut t h e c o n d i ti o n al h as m ore t h e

.

ch arac t er o f a m o d e i ts d ifferen c e fro m t h e fut ure resem b l es

th at o f th e subj un cti v e from t h e i n d i cati v e .

I d eed th e c on d i t i on al i s often used w h ere w e m i g h t al so us e the pret erit

n ,

su bj un c t iv e th us i st ad o f
,
n e

if I h ul d b
s o u l u ky
e so t h ug h h
n c h ul d l y e
, o e s o s a m ,

t h t w ul d e t i ly b a b tt o c r a n e e e r,

w e m ay a l so say ,

it I w e u l u ky th ugh he l y
‘
er so n c , e o s a m ,

th t w e t i l y b tt a er c er a n e e r.

2 91 An d o t her v erb p hrases o f a m o dal m ean in g

.
-
, ,

w i th th e aux il i ary v erb s m ay c a n m u st an d o u g ht , , , .

Thus th e p hrases
,

I m ay g ive I c an g ive , ,

as t h e y e xp ress esp ec i all y t h e p o ssib i l it y o f th e acti o n are call e d ,

P O T E N T I AL form s p o ten ti a l m ean s

( h av i n g

An d
I m ig ht g ive , I co uld g iv e ,
w hi c h are a k in d d iti on al o f a som ew hat d ifferen t v al ue
o f co n ,

fro m t h e o th er are c all ed P OTE N T I AL P AS T b ei n g fo rm ed w i t h

, ,

t he p ast i n st ead o f th e p resen t t en se o f t he sam e aux i l iari es .

An d w i th m ust an d o ug h t (to ) w e m ake form s w h i ch m ay b e

call e d O B L I G A T I V E
’
i m p l y i n g o b l ig ati o n
,
th us ,

I m ust g iv e I o ug h t to g ive
'

.
,

Not al l t h e c om b i at i o s o f t h ese v e b s w i t h a i fi i t i e are pro perl y t o b e

n n r n n n v

g d ed as v erb ph ases S o m et i m es t h ey h a v e as i d pe d e t a m an i n g a d
re ar - r . n e n n e n

ch ac t er as o t h er v erb s w h i c h h v e
ar i fi n i t iv e d epe d en t on t h m
a an n n e .

2 92 As wi th t h e p resen t a n d p ret eri t o f h av e w e m ad e

.
,

a dd i n t he p ast p arti c ip l e o f t h e v erb 3 p erfec t an d a p l u p erfec t

g ,
2 94 ] V E RB —P H RASES . 1 28

t en s e, so, w i th th e future ,
the d itio n al an d s o
co n ,
on , o f hav e ,
we fo rm a future p erfec t ,
a c o n d i t i o n a l p er fec t ,
an d so on ,

thro ugh th e w h o l e seri es of c o m pou n d fo rm s th u s ,

I s h al l or w ill h ave g ive n ;

I s h o ul d or wo ul d h av e g ive n ;
I m ay or c an h av e g iv e n et c , .
,
etc .

2 93 . On c e m o re, we m a
y m ak e con ti n uous or p r og r es s i v e

form s (2 8 1 ) for the en tire seri es b y p utti n g i n eac h case t he ,

c orresp o n d i n g t en se o f th e v erb b e b efore t h e p res en t p art ic ip l e

thus
I have b ee n g iv i n g ; I ha d b een g iv i n g ;
I s ha ll b e g iv i n g ; I m ig h t b e g iv i n g ;

I m ust or oug ht to hav e b ee n g iv i n g ;

a n d so o n w i th t h e r es t .

But th e em p h a t i c fo rm s w t ih do as a ux il i ar y , are m ad e o n ly fro m

i
t he presen t an d pret er t , t h e s m p e t en ses, an d n o t fro m i l an y o f th e co m po un d
h h i
t en ses, w et er i n assert o n o r i n q uest o n an d n eg at o n i i . Fo r e x am pl e t h o ug h
,

w e are all o w ed to say e i th er

I do hv a e or I ha v e, d o es he hv a e? or has he ?
t he y d id n ot hv a e, or thy e ha d n ot,

w h en h ve ai n d epen d n t v erb w e say

i s an e ,
o nl y

I h v g iv h
a e b g iv ?
en , th y h d t g iv
as e en e a no en ,

wh en i t i s an aux il i ry — an d so w i t h al l the o t h er a
a ili i s nn ai e .

In fac t t h e em ph at i c fo m
,
f b ( b ut c m pare r w ill h ll
o y e o , s a , m a , c an ,

m u t an d ug ht i n o t ad m i t t ed e v en i n t h e m or i d p d e t u
s , o s o f t h es e
,
e n e en n ses

ve br s .

2 94 Th e i n fi n it i v es an d p arti c ip l es b ear th ei r sh are i n thi s

.

e x a n s io n o f th e s i m p l e form s o f t h e v erb i n t o a sc h em e o f v erb

p
phrases .

T hus al o n g w ith the si m p l e i n fi n i t i ve

, ,

g iv e or to g ive ,

w e hav e t he P E RFE CT I N F I N I TI V E ,

have g iven or to h av e g ive n ;

an d b o th of these hav e t he ir p ro g ress i ve fo rm s n am e ly ,

b e g iv i n g or to b e g iv i n g ;
hav e b een g iv i n g or to h ave b ee n g iv i n g .
1 24 V E RB S .
[ 2 94

W it h t he p resen t p artic ip l e h avin g , , we m ak e a P E R FE CT P AR~

TI C IP L E
havm g g iv en ,

w i th i t s p ro gressi ve fo rm c o rr e s po n d in g ,

h av i n g b een g iv i n g ;

an d, as l
e sew h ere, the sam e fo rm s ser v e t he uses l
a so of par
t i c i pi al i n fi n i tiv e .

Fi n all y, t he p ast or p assiv e p artic ip l e , g ive n , has i ts pro gres

si v e form ,

b e i n g g ive n ;

an d fro m it is l
a so m a de a P E R FE CT P A SS I V E P A RT I CI P L E (wi th o ut
p ro gressi v e form ) ,

h av i n g b e e n g ive n ,

w hi c h i s a p art ,
rat h er, o f th e p assiv e co n j ugati on
2 95 . If w e put all t h ese form s togeth er i n t o o n e sc h em e, it
w i ll -b e as b el o w .

T he i g i l an d s i m pl e fo m s o f th e v e b re h ere put i S M ALL CAP I TAL S t o

or na r r a n ,

d i st i gu i sh t h em a m i d th e c w d Fo b vi t y s k e t h e subj u t iv e o f th e
’
n ro . r re sa ,
nc

fi st f u t e s s (fo m d f
r o r n e p f c t a d pl up f t w i t h t h e s ubj un ct iv e o f t h e
r e or er e n er ec

aux i l i a y h v fo e x am pl it h h v g iv ) i s o m i tt ed O l y th e fi st per
‘

r a e: r e, e a e en . n r

son si g ul ar o f
n h t en se i s s t d o w
eac e n .

P R IN C I P AL P A TS, R
GIVE , GA E , V G I V EN .

P r es en t .

E m ph at i c .

d o g iv e
P r eter i t .

GA E V d id g ive w a s g iv i n g

P f
er ec t.

h av e g ive n h ave b ee n g iv i n g

P lu
p erf ect .

ha d g ive n h ad b een g iv i n g

F utur e .

s h al l or w il l g iv e s ha l l or will b e g iv i n g
1 26 V E RB S .
[ 2 96

2 96 . i l e t o d raw an y ab so l ute l i e b etw een such verb ph rases

I t i s i m po s s b n -

as h av e h a d am ed ab o v e an d th o se yet l o o ser d m ore acc i

b een s et fo rt n n an

d t l c om b i n at i o s i n t o w h i c h w ord s e t er i n se t e c e
en a n i n o d er t o l i m i t an d n n n s, r

d efi e an ac t i on i
n t ill th er w ay s as eg a d s t i m e a d m an n e
n s o ,
r r n r .

T h us o n e m i gh t pref r t o c l ass as fut ures ph r s es li ke t h ese

,
e a

I g i g t g iv ; em I o nb ut t g iv ;o e am a o o e

I t h p i t f g ivi g am on e o n o n .

Th ere i s n o v ery m k ed d i ff e b et w ee ar er n c e n

I y or g iv m a c an e,

I em a ll ow e d to g iv e ; I am ab e l to g i ve ;
it i s i n m y po w er t o g iv e .

No r, ag a n , i b etw een
I m us t or ought to g iv e.

an d
I am to g iv e ; I h v a e to g iv e ;
I am com pe ll ed to g iv e ; it is m y d uty to g ive .

B ut w e l t o m ak up a k i d f c o m pl et e sc h em e o f
se ec t , e j ug at i on t h o se n o c on ,

ph ases w h i c h a e o th e w h l e t h e m ost f quen t a d th e m ost reg ul ar t h ose

r r n o re n

i n w h i h t h e rea l v e b al fo m h as m ost d i sti c t l y t h e c h arac t er o f n au

c r r x ili y n a ar

o r h el pe o l y ; an d fi n al l y t h o se w h i c h m o t n ear l y c o r espon d t o t h e
r n ,
ea l s r r

m o d es an d t e ses o f t h e v e b s o f o t h e l
n g uag s Th sc h o l a m ust b e c a eful
r r an e . e r r

t t o c o fo u d t h m w i th th e t rue v e b l f rm s : t h e y are after all n o t h i n g

’

no n n e r a o , ,

b ut ph rases c o m po s d o f e l v
,
b al f m ( the ux ili a y
e a d i ts li m i t i n g
a r a er or a r n

a dj u c t s ; c m b i at i on s o f i n d pen d en t w ord s e c h o f w h i h c an b e pa s ed
n o n e ,
a c r

sepa t ly
ra e s a m em b e ,
o f th e se t e c e
a I t i s o l y as a m at t
r o f prac t i c al n n . n er

c onv i e c e t s v e t i m e d n ed l s pet i t i o th at w e t e t th em as c o m
en n ,
o a an e e s re n, r a ~

p un d fo m s o f th e v b
o r d m e a d pa s e t h em i er t h e sam e w ay as t h e
,
an na n r n

s i m pl e form s .

T h ere i s o e m o s et o f v e b ph rases
n co spo n d i n g t o th e t ru
re e v erb al r -
,
rre

form s o f m an y o t h e l a g u g es yet rem ai i n g t o b e d escr ib ed

r n a ,
n .

P A S S I VE V E R B -P H R A S E S .

2 97 W e c al l e d ab o v e ( 2 38 ) the p ast p arti ci p l e al s o the

.

p as si v e p arti c i p l e b ecause i t usuall y m ark s th e thi n g ,

d escri b e d b y i t as s ufferi n g o r en d uri n g or b ei n g the ‘

,
’ ‘
,
’

o bj e c t o f th e a c t io n d efi n e d b t h e v e rb
,
y .

Th us a b eate n cl o g i s on e th at s o m e o n e has b een b eati n g ;

,

a lo v e d p e rs o n i s o n e r e ar d ed wi t h l o v e
g ; a l am p i s l ig h te d i f
s o m e o n e h as l i ht e d i t an d so o n
g .

2 98 N o w b y p ut t i n g th i s p assi v e p ar ti c i p l e al o n g w ith
.
,

al l t he v ari o u s fo rm s s im p l e an d co m p o u n d o f th e v erb b e
, , ,
2 9 9] P AS S I V E V E R B —P H RASES .
1 27

we m ak e a set o f v erb —
p hrases w hi ch usuall y are ca ll ed th e
PA S S I V E CON U G AT ONJ I of the v erb b ec ause b y
, m ean s of

them w e t ak e w h at i s the o b ec t o f an y
j v erb a l fo rm i n the
or di n ar y j ug at i on an d turn i t i n to a
c on , su bj ec t r ep resen t ,

in g it as en d u ri n
g or sufferi n g t he act i o n e x pressed by that
v erb a l form .

Thus, t o
t he d o g h i t h i m ,

th e c orres p on d i n g p assiv e is

he w a s b i t t e n b y t he d o g ,

t he o b ect
j him b ei n g t urn e d i n t o th e subj ec t h e to

I s h all see t h em ,

t hey w i l l b e se en by me ;

yo u m ig h t h av e g iv e n me t he b o o k ,

th e p ass iv e is
t he b o o k m i g h t h av e b e en g iv e n m e b y yo u;

an d so o n .

2 99 . iv
T o t h e pass e t en ses t ere i s n o e m p h a t i c form , h m ad e w t ih do, i
s n ce

( as w as i v
po n ted o ut ab o e, 2 93) t he au i ar o f t h e pass x il y iv e ,
be, n ev er m ak es

an em ph at i c t e n se-fo rm we say o n ly
I am struck ; am I str uc k ? I am n o t st r uc k ;

an d so o n n ot d o I be s t ruc k ? et c .

B ut i n r ec en t l i h ( p ob ab l y s i ce th e l atter pa t o f th e l ast c en tury )

En g s r n r

t h e e h a v e b en c o m i g i n t o co m m o u p
r e n g i fo rm s fo r th e t w o s im
n se ro r es s ve

l t t t n d r t e i t f o m m d e w i th t h
r p o g ress iv e i n s t
r sd f a e r ea o
p es en e p
s s, e r s en p a e

t h e si m pl e fo rm f t h e p st
o p ss iv e pa t i i pl
a or E x am pl es re
a r c e . a

th h u e o i b i g b ui l t ;
se s e n th b k w b i g p i ted ; e oo as e n r n

th d i w b i g
e t
n n er as e n e a en .

T e eh s e t h e c o rre p n d i g pa s iv s t o t h e p o g ess i v e e x pres i on

ar s o n s e r r s s

th y e b ui l d i g t h h u ;
ar e n th y w e op i t i g th b
se k; e e re r n n e oo

th y w t i g th d i
e ;e re e a n e n n er

j us t as
t he ho us e i s b u t il , t he b o o k w as pr i n ted , t he d i n n er w as e a te n .

co rre s po n d to

t he y bu ild t he h ouse ; t he y pr i n t e d t he b o o k ; hy
t e a t e t he d i n n e r.
 1 28 V E R BS .
[ 2 99

Th ese pr o g ress iv e passiv e fo rm s a st ill egard d b y so m e as b d E g l i sh re r e a n ,

an d

c aref u ll y v i
a o d ed b ut t h y a al so f eel y u d e v e
e b y w r i t e s o f th e
re r se n r fi rst
l
c as s, e pe c i a ll y i
s E n g l an d ( l ess g e all y i n Am er i )
n en r ca .

300 . Th e s y n op si s of t he p assi v e co n j ugati on i s t he n as fol

l ow s (om itti n g th e n am es o f th e t en ses )

S i m p l e. P ro g ress ive.

em l o ve d am b e in g l o ve d
was l ov e d was b e i n g loved

h av e
l ov e d b ee n
had b ee n l o v e d
s h al l or wi l l b e l o v ed

s ha l l or wi l l h av e b een l o v ed

shou l d or wo ul d b e l o v ed
s ho u l d or wo ul d h av e b ee n l o ve d
m ay o r c an b e l o v e d

m ay o r c a n h av e bee n l o v e d

m ig h t o r c o u l d b e l o ve d
m ig h t or c o u ld h av e b ee n l o ved
mu st o r o u g h t t o b e l o ve d
mu st o r o u g h t to h av e b een lo ved
b e l ove d

(to ) b e l o ve d

(to ) have b een l o ved

L O VED b eing l oved
hav i n g b ee n l o ve d .

The past part i i pl e

c ,
as be i ng in i ts l f p
e a s s i v e, i s th e on e s m i l
p e fo rm i n t h e
w h l e p ss iv c o j ug at i o
o a d
e n g b w i t h i t as n x ili y
an ,
n o t h a vi n e pass e au iv
ar , i s

ab l e t o t ak e i t as p g es iv e s i g n An d b i g l v d ro d h vi g b
r s l vdae . e n o e an a n ee n o e r

n o t o l y pa t i i pl e
n b ut al o ( l i k e t h o t h
r c s,
ph ases fo m ed w i t h t h e v e b l
s e er r r r a

w o d e d i n g i i g as aux ili a y ) pass iv

r n n pa t i i pi l i fi it i e ph ases presen t
n r e r c a n n v r ,

an d perfec t .

301 d is tin c ti o n fro m t he p assi v e c o n j ugati on th e o th er

. In ,

an d s i m p l er o n e i s o ften c all e d t he A CT I VE an d i n l an guages

w h i c h h a v e rea l v e rb al fo rm s fo r b o th us es t he t w o set s are ,

sty l e d resp ec t i v el y t h e ACT I VE V O I CE an d the P AS S I V E V O I CE o f

the v erb .
1 30 V E RBS .
[ 30 5

30 5 . We o ften h at i s r eall y g o v ern ed b y a

separat e a n o un or pr on o un t
p po s i t i on ( 73) f o m t h at p epo s i t i o
re l vi r l atter after t he v erb as if
r n ,
ea n g the ,

i t w ere r t h e n d v b qua l i fy g t h e v erb

a r a a T h us i n st e d f
er in .
,
a o

I h d l e d y th ught f th t pl
a a r a th po w i th w hi h h
o t ; a an , e s oo n c e a e

w e ay l o s a s

th t pl a I h d l d y t h ught f ;
an a th a re a
p whi h h t e w i th
o o e s oon c e a .

S o i t c m es t o seem t o us as if th ught f a d t w i th w ere t r

o i t iv e v rb s o o n a e an s e ,

an d pl a d w h i h t h e i r d i rec t o bj ec ts
an n an d w e m ak e t h e c o rrespon d i n g
c

p ss iv es
a ,
t h t pl l d y th ught i b y ; ‘

h d b
'
a an a ee n a rea o o m e

th p w hi h w t e w i th b y h i
e s oo n c as e a n m .

Th i s k i n d o f pass iv i s v er y c o m m o n Oth e e x am pl es are

e . r

h w s e t lk d b ut ;
as a e th j u a y h
o b e lved o ; e o rn e as een r so n

th u e ut s t b -I k d t ;
n m s thno i g e h ll b
e oo t fe ; a e c a rr a s a e s en or

hi d i i i pp l ed f s ec s o n s a ea ro m .

E ve w h e n v erb i s tran s i t iv e d h s a d i ec t obj ec t b es i d es b ei n g fo ll owed

n a an a r ,

b y prepo s i t i o w i t h i ts obj ec t th e l att e i s so m et i m s m ad e t he subj ect o f the

a n ,
r e

c o r spo di n g p ss iv e ph
r e n s T hus t h e sen t en c e
a ra e .
,

w t k ti f u h f ll w s e a e no no ce o s c e o

m y b e m ad e pass iv e ei th
a as er

ti i t k by f u h f ll w
no no ce s a en as o s c e o s,
o r as
suc h f lle o w s a re t aken no n ot c e i of b y us .

An d for
t he y m ad e m uc h of hi m ,

we h av e the d o ub l e pass iv e fo rm ,

m uc h w as m ad e o f hi m ; he w as m ad e m uc h of .

Ag a i n, in s uch ph rases as

ygv
t he a e th i s m an to un d erst an d (s o an d s o ) ;
I t l d hi
o m to l v ea e ;

t h e word s t h i s m an an d him v erb

ar e st r c t i ly i di n r ect j
o b ec t s , st an d n g i t o th e
i the
n l ti f a d at iv e ( 1 39 )
re a on d ot a o ac cusat i v e Y et w e t urn th em an n n .

m t i m es i t i s n t a ll o w ed i n t h e c ase o f m an y v erb s i t o subj t s o f pass iv e

so e o ) n ec

ph r s t h us
as e ,

th i w g iv
s t ud
m an t d as h w t l d by
en t l eav
o n e rs an e as o m e o e .

R E F L E XI V E AN D I M PE R S ON A L VE R BS .

306 . S uc h fo rm s as

I was h m ys e l f , we had was h e d l ve s ours e ,

t h o u was he d st t hy se l f , yo u w ill was h yo urs e l v e s (o r yo urse l f ) ,

h e has was h e d h im s el f t h ey wo ul d was h t h e m se l ves
"

, ,
30 7] R E FLE XI V E AND I M P E R S O N A L V E RBS . 1 31

i n w hi ch th e d en o t es t he sam e p erso n or thi n g as th e

j
o b ec t

su bj ec t are so m et i m es c all e d a R EF L E X I V E c o n j ug ati o n or t h e

, ,

v erb i n t hem i s sai d t o b e used R E F L E X I V E L Y (t he ac t io n b ei n g

”
t urn b ack up o n th e act or i n st ead o f p assi n g o v er
’
m ad e t o , ,

tr a n si tively t o a d ifferen t o bj ec t)
,
.

T h ere is h o w ev er
,
o reas o for tak i g an y par t i c u
,
n l ar ac c oun t o f s uc h form s
n n

i E n g li h
n s .

307 Verb s used w i th t h e s ubj ect ii w h en i t d oes n ot m ean

. ,

an y d efi n i te act or b ut o n l y h el p s expres s th at so m e ac t i o n or
,

p ro c ess i s g oi n g o n (1 6 3 b ) are c all e d I M PE RS O N A L v erb s or are, ,

sai d t o b e u s e d I M P E R S O N A LL Y E x am p l es are .
,

it rai n s ; it is fi n e weat h er ;
it g rew d a rk fast ; it wi l l fa re in w ith hi m .

E X E R C I S E S T O C HAP TE R VI I I .

ON V E R BS .

U n d er t h e n am e v erb we d o n o t, he
y wh ere el se i n c l ud e i fi n iti ves
re o r an ,
n

o r part i c i pl es ex c ept a s t h ey a e used a l o g w i th au

,
x il i a i s t o fo rm v erb
r n r e

ph ras se . S o far as t h ey d i ffe f o m o th er n o u s an d adj ec t iv es t h ey w ill b e

r r n ,

c o n s i d ered in a l ater c h apt er (XV .

I n d escri bi n g a v erb w e h a v e fi rst t o s ee w h et her i t i s a si m pl e v er b

,

or rea l v erb fo rr o r a v erb ph ras e

- n, I f i t i s a v erb phrase i t m ust b e
- .
-
,

tak en apart i n t o t h e aux il i ary an d t h e i n fi n i t iv e o r part i c i pl e w hi c h

o es w i th t his t o m ak e u the Then i f th e aux il iary i tself i s
g p phrase .
,

a v erb
phrase i t m ay at the d iscret i o n o f t he t each er b e d i v id ed
-
, , ,

aga i n — an d so o n t i ll o n l y a si m l e v erb -fo r m rem ai n s

, p .

T he n ext q uesti o n i s w heth er t he v erb i s t ran s i t i v e o r i n t ran si ti v e

,

t h en o f w h i ch c o n j ugat i o n
, i t o f t h e N ew w h ether reg ul ar o r i rreg ,

ul ar t he pri n c i pal parts are th en t o b e g i v en ( w i t h as m uch o f t he

r es t o f t he c o n j u a t i o n a s t h e t eac h er s hal l t h i n k b es t T h n t he
g ) e .

m od e an d t en se a re to b e s tated , an d th e perso n an d n um b er an d t he
te nse m a
y be i n flec t ed .

I f t he v e rb is l
c ea r ly d er iva ti v e or com po un d , t his sh o ul d b e
po in ted o ut .
1 32 V E RB S .
[ca m

T he v erb , in an assert i v e sen t en c e ,

has b ut o n e c on st r ucti o n , t h at o f
b ein g t h e pred i cat e o f th e sen t en ce, o f asser ti n g so m eth i n
g ab o ut a
su bj ect w e n eed , t h en , o n ly t o po i n t o ut w hat t he s ubj ec t —
n o m i n at i v e

of th e v erb i s, an d th at t he v erb g rees w i th i t s subj ec t i n n um b er

a

— b ein
an d per so n g al w ay s o f t he t hird
person if t h e s ubj ec t i s a
no un .

Ex a m pl e of p a rs i n g ve r b s

Yo u g av e us o ur o rd ers ; we l iste n ed , and we s hall n ot fo rg et

t h em .

All th e w ord s e xc ept t he v erb s i n t hese l

c a uses b e passed o v er
m ay

h er e, as t h e w ay o f parsi n g t hem h as been suffi c i en tl y expl ai n ed al

r ead y .

Gav e i s a v erb v e (b ecause i t tak es a d irec t obj ec t sho w i n g

,
t ran si ti ,

wha t i s gi v en ) o f t h e Old c o n j ug at i on : pri n c i pal par ts g ive g av e

, , , ,

g ive n ; i t i s i n t h e i n d i cat i v e m o d e pret er i t t en se w hi c h i s t h us i n , ,

fl ec t ed : I g av e t h o ug avest he g av e we yo u t h ey g av e ; i t i s o f
, , , , ,

the sec o n d person pl ural t o ag ree w i t h i t s sub jec t t h e pro n o un yo u

, ,
.

Liste n e d i s a n i n tran si ti v e v erb o f t he N ew co n j ugat i o n (b ec a use i t ,

form s i ts pret eri t an d parti c i pl e al ik e b y th ead di t i on o f c d ) ; i t i s ,

m a d e i n t h e pret eri t i n d i cat i v e an d i s o f t he fi rst person pl u ral t o

, ,

a r e e w i t h i t s s ubj ec t t he pron o u n we
g , .

S h a l l fo rg et i s a v erb phrase m ad e up o f t he auxi l iary s h al l an d

-
,
“
t he i n fi n i ti v e f o rg et t h e t w o for m i n g t o get her th e so call ed
, fut u re -

t en se o f t h e v erb f o rg et Fo rg et i s a c o m po un d v erb m ad e up o f
.
,

g et an d th e prefi x fo r ; i t i s tran si ti v e o f t he Ol d c o n j ugat i on (pri n ,

ci pal par ts fo rg et fo rg o t f o rg o tte n )

, ,
i t i s o f th e fi rst person pl ural
, ,

t o agree w i t h i ts s ubj ec t t he pr on o un we ,
.

O e o r t w o furth e ex am pl es w ill ill ust at e t h e w ay i w h i h t he an al y si s o f

n r r n c

an i t r i c at el y c o m po u d v
n b ph ase m y b e i f d e i ed f ll o w ed up t o t h
n er -
r a ,
s r ,
o e

en d an d t h t i
,
w h i c h t h e pass iv ph
a n es o f v i u k i d m ay b t e t d
e ras ar o s n s e r a e .

He m ust h av e b ee n s uffe r i n g i n te n se ly s i n c e his l eg was b ro ke n ,

.

Must h av e b e e n s ufferi n g i s a v c rb ph rase m ad e up o f th e a ux il -

,

i ary m ust h av e b e en an d t h e presen t part i c i pl e s u fferi n g t h e t w o ,

c o m po si n g t o g e th er t h e so c al l ed
r ro res si v e
p g f -
o rm o f the o b lig a

t i v e perfec t o f t he v erb s u T he aux il iar y m ust h ave b ee n

”
ffe r . ,

aga i n i s al s o a v erb ph rase m ad e up o f t h e aux i l i ary m u

,
-
,
st h av e an d

th e past par t i c i pl e b een t he t w o m aki n g t o g eth er t h e so -c all ed

,
o bl i

at i v e per fe c t o i t h e v erb b e T h e aux i l i a ry m u st hav e on c e m o r e

'

g .
, ,
I 34 VE RB S .
[ C H AR

I t e l l yo u t h a t w h i c h ye y o ur s el v es d o k n o w .

W e d i d n o t d o t h es e t h i n g s i n t h e g o o d o l d d a y s .

J ud g es a n d s en a t es h a v e b een b o ug h t fo r g o ld .

A l o v eli er fl o w er on h w a s n ev er s een
e ar t .

W h en I s h all h a v e b r o ug h t t h em i n t o t h e l an d , t h en w i ll t h ey
t ur n t o h er g o d s
ot .

I t h o ug h t I s h o ul d h a v e s een s o m e H er c ul es .

W i t h o ut t h e ar t o f pri n ti n g w e s h o ul d n o w h av e h a d n o l earn
,

i n g a t a ll fo r b o o k s w o uld h a v e per i s h ed fa st er t h an t h e y c o uld

h a v e b een t ran s c r ib ed .

T h e y a ppr e h en d ed t h a t h e m i g h t h a v e b een c arr i ed o ff b y gyp

s i es .

I do en t rea t t h a t w e m ay s up t og et h er .

No m an can d o t h ese m i r a c l es , e x c ept G o d b e w i t h h im .

T h ey s ha ll
purs ue t h ee un t i l t h o u per i s h .

’
Sh e 11 n o t t ell m e if s h e l o v e m e .

I f t h ou h a d st s ai d him n a y, i t h a d b een sin .

H ug o i s g o n e t o hi s l o w l y b e d .

M en w er e g r o w n i m pa t i en t o f r epr o o f .

Th e P i c t s w er e n ev er ea r d o f i n h
i st o r h y a ft er t h es e g r eat

T h i s w o rk b e d i s pen s ed w i t h b y an y b o ok -l ov er
c an n o t .

Th e m o s t s a cr ed t h in g s m a y b e m a d e a n ill u se of .

It i s lai d h an d s upo n an d k i ss ed .

So am I
g i v en i n c h a rg e .

Th e v er y d o o r -s t e p i s w o r n w i t h'
m y feet .

T h e b arl e y w a s j us t r ea ped .

S h e i s w ed d e d ; h er h usb an d i s b an i s h ed .

T h us i t w a s n o w i n E n g l an d .

W ilfr i d h a d r o us ed h i m t o r epl y .

H e w a s fo r b id d en a c c es s t o the s a c r i fi c es ; h e w as us ed t h
r ef

pr o t ec t i o n o f l a w .

Y o u w o uld b e t a ug h t y o ur d ut y .

P l an s an d l v ation s
e e o f t h ei r pa l a c e h a v e b een m ad e fo r t h em ,

an d ar e n ow b ei n g e n g ra v e d fo r t h e pub l i c .

S om e c r im i n al i s b ei n g t r i ed fo r m ur d er .

M y P r o m e t h eus , w h i c h h as b e en l o n g fi n i s h ed , i s n ow b ei n g
t ran sc r i b e d .

It i s a ct in g th e ev i l w h ic h i s b ei n g a c c om pl i s h ed w i t h i n h i m .
W IL ] E XE R C I S E S . 1 35

A l ph a b e t i c a l L i s t of I rre g ul a r V e r b s .

Be l o w a e g iv i al ph ab et i c l o rd er the v e b s of the Old c on j ug t i on an d

r en ,
n a ,
r a

t h e i regul r v e b o f t h e New wi th referen ce from eac h t o t h e parag raph w h e e

r a r s ,
r

i t s c o j ug t i on i s d escri b ed
n a .

a b i d e, 266 d o , 272

a w a k e, 265 d ra w , 265

b e , 273 d r eam , 249

b ear , 263

b ea t , 264

b egi n , 261

b en d , 248

b e r ea v e, 250 £31 1, 270

b es eec h , 254 f ee d, 252

b i d, 264 fee l , 249

b i n d , 262 fi gh t , 262

fi n d , 262
fl ee, 251

ni n g , 2 61

fl y, 269

f o rsa k e, 265

fr eez e, 2 68

l
b ui d , 248 i h
fr e g t , 262
b um , 247 g et , 263
b ur s t , 253 gil d , 248
b uy, 254 gir d , 248

c an , 277 gi v e, 264

eas t , 253 g o, 272

ca tc h , 254 gr i n d , 262
c hi d e, 267 g ro w , 269
c h o o se , 268 han g , 271
c eal v e, 250, 263 ha v e, 255—6

c li g
n , 261 h ea r , 251

c o l th e, 255 h v ea e, 263

co m e, 272 hid e, 267

c o st , 2 33 hi t 2 53,

c r ee p, 249 h ldo , 270

cr o w , 269 hu t r , 253

c ut 253
, k ee p, 249
d a re, 255 6 — k n ee l ,
249

d ea l , 249 i
k n t , 253

k n o w , 269
1 36 AD V E RB S .
[ 303

C H AP T E R I X .

A D VE RB S .

308 . W e saw
d ch ap t er (4 1 2 ) th at w hi l e a
i n the sec o n

w or d t h at q uali fi es a n o un i s c all e d an a dj ec t i v e o n e th at ,

q uali fi es a v e rb i s c all e d an ADV ERB an d al so t h at b esi d es ,

v erb s a d v erb s q uali fy a dj ec ti v es an d so m et i m es o th er ad

,

v erb s . Thus ,

he s po ke t r ul y ; a t r ul y uprig h t m an ;
I s ee him v e ry o fte n .

Th at ad v erb s som et i m es al so qual ify preposit i o n s ,

i s po i n t ed o ut b el ow

30 9 . N ot all ad v erb s c an b e used w t i h all th e parts of speech t h at ad v erb s

Th e ad v erb s th at qua f l i y o th er ad v erb s ar e alm ost o n l y t h o se of d eg ree : as

v y er , to o , m o re, m o st .

Th e s a m e ar e l y w i th adj ect i v es B ut as adj ec t iv e sh ad e o ff

used m os t fr ee .
,
s

i t o part i c i pl es i m pl yin g so m ethi n g o f o d i t i on o r a t i o t h ey t k e m o e o r

n , c n c n, a r

l ess f e l y t h e w h o l e seri s o f qual if yi n g ad v e b s w h i h t h e v erb t ak es

r e e r c .

Out h e o th er h an d ad v e b s o f d egree are l ess used w i t h v e b s

,
r S o m e o f th e r .

co m m on est f th m s v o y an d t e e v en d o
,
a o t g o w i th
er erb s d i ec t l y at allo o, n v r

t h ey h av e t o b e h a g ed t o v y uh t
c n uh er m c , oo m c .

H en c e th ese are al so a v o i d ed wi t h past part i c i pl s ex c ept suc h as h a v e b een e ,

t u n ed full y i n t o adj ec t iv es t h us w e s y
r
,
a

v y t i i d b ut v y u h f i ght d ;
er m , er m c r en e

v y g l d b ut v y u h j i d ;
er a , er m c re o c e

t w y b ut t oo u h f ti g u d ; ear , oo m c a e

t g y b ut t oo uh an
g d r , oo m c e n ra e .

31 0 . Ad v erb s sh a
d e o ff i n t o p rep o sitio n s an d c on j un cti on s ;
an d th e sam e w o r d o ften i s us e d as tw o o f t h ese
, , th ree p art s o f
speec h , or e v en as a ll th e th ree .

T hus, th e o l d est an d si m pl est prep osi ti on s ,

s uch as

ih , on, ofl ,
’
up, to ,
l 38 ADV E RB S .
[ 31 1

p o t e n ti a l are

per haps , po ss ib ly , pro b ab ly;

ca us a l are

he n c e , t h e refo re , ac c o rd i n g l y .

T he m od a l ad v erb s o ft en est c om e t o b e used as c o n j un c t i on s .

T he sam e ad v erb m ay b e o f o n e an d an ot h er c l ass ,

i n di fferen t m ean in gs an d

c on n ec t o n s i .

31 2 . Ad v erb s , agai n , lik e th e o th er p art s of s p eech , are

ei th er si m p l e d eri v at i v e
, ,
o r c om p oun d .

E x am p l es o f S I M P LE a d v erb s or o f ,
s uc h as c an n o t b e traced
to sim p l er fo r m s w i th o ut g o i n g o utsi d e of En gli s h, are

so , n o w, ill , m uc h , q uite , e no ug h , o fte n .

31 3 . T he p r i n c i p al l
c asses of D E R I V A TI V E a d v erb s a re as

foll o w s
a . Ad v erb s ar e form e d from a dj ec ti v es w i th th e suffi x
Iyz e x am p l es are

t rul y, who l ly , hast ily , d ist re ss i n g ly , po n d e ro us ly , d is i n terest ed ly .

Thi s i s b y far th e l argest l

c ass of o ur d v erbs m ost
a

a dj ec t i v es o f qual i t y , an d so m e o f o th er k i n d s t ak e t he ,

suffi x Iy t o m ak e a c o rres p o n d i n g a d verb .

B ut ad ec t j h o rt en b l ly i to My th us
iv es in b le s e n : ,

b ly t i bly p t b ly
a , e rr , r es ec a .

An d t h o se in i c h a g e th e t i n t o i l b efore Iy t h us
c n o ca z ,

f ti lly u ti ll y uth t i ll y
ra n ca , r s ca , a en ca .

b A few a d v erb s are fo rm e d fro m adj ec ti v es

. an d n o un s b y
t he s uffi x wis e : thus,

l ikewis e , o t herwis e , c ro s swis e , le n g t hwise .

T h ese i gh t al m ost m o e properl y b e c all ed

m r c om po un d , i
s n c e w se i h as n ot

g o n e ab so l ut el y o ut o f use as a i d epe d e t w o n n n n rd .

c . Ad v erb s o f d irec tio n are fo rm ed fro m o th er a d v erb s (rarel y

a dj ectives an d n o un s) , b y th e s uffi x ward or ward s : thus,

to ward o r to ward s , upwa rd or upwa rd s f o rwa rd , ,

b ac kward , af terward , d own ward , ho m eward , s ho reward .

31 3] D E R I V A T I V E ADV E RBS . 1 39

d . N at a few a dj ec ti v es are used as a d v erb s w i th out an y

c han g e o f form : t h us ,

m uc h , m o re , l ittl e , al l , i l l , f a s t , fa r .

S om e s uc h dj ec ti v es take al so t he en d i n g Iy t h ere b ei n g som e

a ,

d ifferen ce g en erall y i n reg ard t o m ean i n g b et w een t h e fo rm w i th

ly an d t h e on e w ith o ut i t t h us,

e en v an d e v en ly ; m o st an d m o st l y;
h ard an d ha rd l y ; l ate an d l ate l y ;
w id e an d wid e ly ; s o re an d s o re ly .

In p o et ry esp ec i all y t he use o f an adj ec ti v e

, , as ad v erb
di rectl y w i tho ut an y ad d ed en d i n g i s v ery c o m m o n
, , ex am p l es

are,

t he b i rd s sa n g c l ear; v
r i e rs g l id i n g f r e e ;
t he l isten e r sc arc e m i g ht k n o w ; so ft s ig h ed t he fl ute .

A few a d v erb s are a d v erb i all y used c a ses o f n o un s t h us,

ho m e, b a c k , ha l f ,

w hi c h are j
o b ec t i ve c ases an d n ee d s , w hi c h i s a p ossessiv e
c as e ; an d wis e , way s , d ay s , t im es , an d so on ,
in c om pou n d ad

v erb s ,
are o f th e s am e o r ig i n .

e . Three s eri es o f ad v erb s corresp on d i n g to on e an o th er c o m e

fro m p ron om in al ro o ts t hey are

h ere h ith e r h e n c e ; , ,

t h e re t h it h er t h e n c e t h en t h u
, s , , ,

wh ere w h it h e r w he n c e w hen w hy , , , , , how .

Th e l as t s e ies w h used el t iv l y a
r ,
j u t i on s
en r a e ,
re co n nc ra t h e th an
r ad v erb s
s ee 331 A d t h e t h o f u h ph ases a
. n e s c r s

t he so o n er t he b e tt e r

is rea ll y a p o n r om in a l ad v erb ,
o f th e t h i
e r e s er es , m ea n n g i (re l at iv el y ) b y h o w
m uc h an d ( d em o n s t ra t iv l y )
e by so m uc h .
’

f. A n um b er d v erb s c o m e
of a fro m no un s an d a dj ectiv es by
t he prefix a
(us uall y fo r earl ie r o n ) t hus ,

a b ac k , a h ea d , as id e , afo o t , at h i rst ;
a r ig ht , an e w , a o n g , l a b ro ad , afa r .
1 40 A DV E RBS .
[ 31 3

An d t h e b e of b et i m e s , b es id e , b eyo n d , betwee n , b efo re , an d

so o n ,
is in l i ke m an n er fro m t h e p rep o s iti o n by .

31 4 . C O MP O U N D a d v erb s are m o st l y l itt l e p h rases of t wo

ly ds i t w ere gro w n t o g eth er i n t o
(rare m ore
) w or ,
w h i c h h av e as

on e fo r e x am p l e ,

a l ways ,
l
a re a d y a l m o st ;
, so m e h ow , s o m et i m es ; he n c efo rward .

S uc h com b i n ati o n s of a p rep o si ti on w ith t h e w o rd w h i c h i t

go v ern s are es p eci all y com m o n : t hus,

i n d ee d , e rew h il e , o v erhead , b efo re h an d ,

per h aps , fo rs o o t h , f o rev e r .

h ere t h e re an d wh e re are c o m b i n ed w ith m an y

Th e a d v erb s , ,

p rep o siti o n s fo rm i n g c om p oun d ad v erb s w hi c h are equi v al en t t o

,

it t h is or t h at an d wh ic h o r w h at al o n g w i th the p rep ositi o n

'

, , ,

t hus,

here i n i n t hi s ) l ies t he d iffi c ulty;

i n t he d ay t h o u eat est t h ere o f of i t) ;
i n w h ats o ev e r s tat e I am , t h erewit h w i th t h at ) to b e c o n te nt ;

t he m ea n s ( wh e re by I l iv e ; s b y w hi c h)
wh erew it h ( w i th w h at ) s ha l l I sav e I s rae l
2

31 5 W e h av e al s o m an y A D V ERB P H RA S E S g en erall y lik e th e

.
-
,

c om p o u n d a d v erb s o n l y n o t
g ro w n t og eth er i n t o on e w
,
o r d l i ke

th ese . Th ey an s w er t h e p urpo s e o f si n g l e ad v erb s an d o ften ,

are n o t eas i l y an a l y z e d an d p arsed s ep ar at el y b ecau se t h ey ei th er ,

c o n t ai n w o r d s w hi c h are rarel y or n e v er fo u n d e x cep t i n t h ese

p hrases t hus ,

b y st e al t h o f yo re at ra n d o m i n l ie u , , ,

o r are of i rreg ul ar c o n s tr uc ti o n , b ei n g m a de up o f an a dj ecti v e

(rea ll y ,
on e used '

as a no un ) w it h a prepo si ti o n go v ern in g i t
thus,
in va in , in s h o rt , o f o ld , o f l ate ,

at a l l , at l as t , on h ig h , e re l o ng , f ro m f a r , f o r g o o d .

31 6 . M an y a d v e rb s of q ual i ty , l ik e a dj ectiv es of th e sam e

k in d , a re ca
p b l
a e of b ein g m a de to e xp res s v ario us d egrees of
1 42 ADV E RB S .
[31 3

T he r espo n s i v es st an d t hus fo r a w h o l e s en t en c e h en ce are n ot prope l y

,
an d r

p a r ts o f speec h ”
(1 9 , 2 0) at al l, in t h e rea l m ean i n g f that n m b ut are o a e,

l
m o r e an a o g o us w t i h th i e j
n t er ec t o n s i B ut al th o ug h t h y fo m a c l a ss b y e r

th em sel v e s, it is t oo sm a ll a l
c a ss to ca ll f m ore th an t hese f w w ords o f
or e

ex pl t io
an a n .

P A R S I N G OF A D VE R BS .

v
I n parsin g an ad erb w e n eed , as 1 11 th e c ase o f t h e ot h er parts o f speec h ,
to

po in t o ut i t s ki n d , i t s f orm , an d i t s con s tr ucti on .

As r eg ard s the c o n st r uc t i on , t h e ad v erb isl way s a qu l ifyi g w d

a a n or ,
an d has

( 380 ) n o v ari et y o f uses as suc h i t i s en o ,

n, e w o rd i s ugh t h e t o m n t i on wh at
q ualifi ed b y i t .

I n to th e quest i on o f fo rm , as d eri v at iv e or c o m po un d , t he pupil m ay b e re

q ui r ed t o en t er ac c o rdi n g t o h i s st ag e o f ad v an c em en t at th e d i s c r et i o n o f ,

t h e t eac h er B ut ad v erb s c om in g fro m adj ec t iv es b y t h e c om m on s ufii x Iy

.

sh o ul d , at an y r at e, b e po m t ed o ut an d e x pl a i n ed fro m a v ery ear l y st a e an d g

al so , u su all y t h e ad v erb s w h i c h ar e i d en t i ca l i n fo rm
,
w i t h adj ec t iv es If t h e .

w ord i s a c o m parat iv e o r s uper l at iv e, t h i s sh o ul d b e n o t i c ed ; o t h erw i se, t h e

su b j ect o f c o m par i so n m ay b e pa ssed o v er .

T h e c l a ssi fi c at i o n i h o ut diffi c ul t y s i n c e the c l asses are n ot

o f ad v erb s is n ot w t ,

d ivi d ed b y fi d lin d t h sam e w o d m y b e put i n on e o r an o th er c l ass

xe es , an e r a

d i g t o s li g h t c h g es o f i t s m e i g I t i s pe h ps o f m o e use t o l et
'

ac c o r n an an n . r a r
, ,

t he pupi l t ell in w h t w y o fo w h t pu po a a th, d v b g u l i fi e th e w ord

r r a r s e, e a er a s

t o w h i h i t i s dd ed w i t h out t t em pt i g pr c i sel t o d fi e i ts c l ass

c a ,
a n e v e n .

An ad v e b ph ase m y b e s i m pl y d fi n d as such or i t m a y b e an al y ed a d
r - r a e e ,
z n

i ts part s d efi ed a s sh al l se m b est t th e t eac h e

n ,
e o r .

E x am pl es o f ad v e b s h a v e b een g iv r ab u d a t l y i th e ex e c i ses on prev i o u

en s n n n r

c h apt ser d o t h ers wi ll b e g iv en i n th e ex r i ses on S yn t x ( Ch apt ers XII I

,
an e c a ,

XIV ) i t is t h erefo e un n ec essar y t o ad d a y h ere

. r n .
32 1 ] P RE P O S ITI O N S . 1 43

C H APTE R X .

P R E P O S IT I O N S .

31 9 . A p rep osi ti o n ,
as w e h av e ah ead
y s een
(44 6) is
n ot a w ord that p o i n ts o ut or asserts o r qualifi es
n a m es o r

o r d esc ri b es an y thi n g ; i t o n l y sh ow s a rel ati o n It i s a .

w o r d t h at co n n ec t s o th er w o rd s sho w i n g th e re l ati o n b e ,

t w een them .

Regul arl y an d usuall y

p rep ositi on i s fo ll ow e d b y a
,
a

n o un o r p ro n o u n It i s a c on n ect i n g w o r d b y w hi c h a
.

n oun o r p ro n o un i s m a d e t o l i m i t so m e o th er w o r d o r b
y ,

w hi ch i t i s at t ache d t o that oth er w or d i n a rel at i o n w hi ch

the p rep osi ti o n d efi n es .

32 0 . The no un or p ron o un on w hi c h t he
p rep o sit i on ex
erc i s es i ts c o n n ec t i n g o r att ac h i n g fo r c e i s c a ll ed i ts o bj e c t ,

an d, l ike the o bj ec t o f a v erb i s i n t he o bj ec t i v e c ase ,

thus,
wit h me ; f ro m hi m ; to us ; on t h em .

It i s, th en , s ai d of t he p rep o si tio n as o f the v erb that

, , it
g o v er n s i ts j
o b ec t i n th e o bj ec ti v e c a se : t hat i s re qui res i t , to
t a ke t he form of t hat c as e .

32 1 . The w o rd w i th w hi ch th e no un or p ro n oun is
b ro ug ht i n to r e a t io n
l b y th e p rep o sit i on m ay be an y o f th e
o th er p arts of sp e ch a l ready d es c rib e d
e
.

T hus , i t m ay be

a . A v erb : as ,

he we n t wit h us ;
it fe l l t h ro ug h t he a ir to the g ro un d ;

put it on t he t a b l e y o ur po c ket ;
or i n to
t h ey y
s ta e d un t il n ig h t un d e r s h el te r .
1 44 P R E P O S IT I O N S .
[ 32 1

b . An a dj ec ti v e : as ,

g oo d f o r n ot h in g ; f ree f ro m d i rt ;
h o ary with ag e ; pr iz e d ab o ve m eas ure .

0 . An a d v erb (rarel y) as,

s uffi c ie n tly fo r m y purpo se .

d . An o th er no un or pro n o un as,

a box of wo o d ; t he t o p of t he h o us e ;
a ri n g fo r t he fi n g e r ; d o o rs wit h h i n g es ;
pi n s w it h o ut h e ad s ; so ul s ab o ve d e c e it ;

t h ey of I taly ; w ho am o ng yo u?
An d , as w ill b e po i n t ed o ut i n t he S yn t a x ( 400 et c . ac c o rdi n g to t hese dif
fer en t o ffi c es , the p h rase c om po sed of t h e prepo s t i io n an d i t s o bj ec t i s c all ed b y
d ifferen t n am es .

32 2 . prep o siti o n n ot un frequen tl y tak es for its o bj ect

B ut a

a n a d v erb
(o f p l ace o r tim e) t h us ,

f ro m ab o v e f ro m b e h i n d s i n c e t h e n
, , ,

b efo re t h e n t il l n o w t o h ere at o n c e
, , , ,
‘

b etween n o w a n d t h e n fo r eve r ; ,

an d h en ce al s o n at ura ll y en o u h a p rep o si t i o n a l a d v erb p hrase

g -
, ,

or a p h rase h av i n g t h e v a l u e o f an a d v erb a n d m a d e u
p ,

o f a p rep o si t i o n an d i ts o bj ec t thus ,

f ro m un d e r t he h o use ; t il l afte r t he b a l l ;
sinc e o v er two wee ks .

It h as b een l
a read yp i o n t ed out ( 31 5 ) t h at i n c ert a i n ad v erb i a l ph rases a

prepo s t ii on go v ern s an ad ec t j iv e (reall y used a s a n o un ) t h us,

on h i gh , of o ld , in v i a n, fo r g o o d .

32 3 . A p rep o si ti o n esp ec i all y ,

in p o et r y i s s o m ,
et i m es m a de
to fo ll o w i n st ea d o f p rec ed i n g t h e w o r d i t g o! r m s th us ,

t o wan d e r ea rt h aro un d ; t ies a ll o t h er t ies a b o v e ;

t he fi e l d s a m o n g; look t he w h o l e w o rl d o v e r .

B ut v ery fre q uen t l y , i n al l st y l es of E n g l ish , t h e o b ec t o f a

j
prep o si t io n is p l a c e d b efo re th e v erb i n th e sen ten c e, w h i l e th e

prop o sitio n c om es aft er i t fo r ex am p l e ,

1 46 P R E P O S ITI O N S .
[ 32 5

c . Fro m v erb s : t h us,

sa e v or sa vin g , d uri n g , no tw it hstan d i n g , to uc hi n g ,

c o n c er n i n g , r es pec t i n g , e x c ept or ex c ept i n g , past .

Ag o (for ea r li er a g o n e : t h at i s ,
‘
g on e b y )
’
m ay a so l be reg ard ed as a prepo
s it i o u, l w ay s fo l l o w i n g i ts o bj ec t t hus
a ,

h e l ft h u g ; e an o r a o

o r, b ett e a s an a d v erb o f t i m e
r, q ualifi ed b y th e ,
ad v erb i a l j
o b ec t iv e (390 )
an h u et c as i n h u
o r .
,
an oh u h
r s o o n e r, an o r en c e .

32 6 . Th er e ar e m an y p hra ses ,
com b i n at i o n s of i n d ep en d en t
w o rd s, w hi c h are used i n
l i ke th at i n w hi ch p rep o a w ay so

si ti o n s ar e use d t h at t hey are c on v en i en t l y an d p r o p erl y en o ugh

treate d as equi v al en t s o f p rep o siti on s o r P REP OS I TI ON P H R AS E S ,
-
.

S uc h are for ex am p l e , ,

out of, f ro m out , as to , as fo r , on t his ( or t hat et c .

) s id e ,

l
a o n g s id e , i n f ro n t o f, b y way o i , b ec a us e o f, fo r t he s a ke o f ,
‘

in s tea d or i n lie u o f , i n res pec t or reg ard to , ac c o rd i n g to ;

an d n ot a few o t h ers .

P ARS IN G OF P R E P OS I T I ON S .

Ne i t h er th e k i n d th e fo r m of a
pro po s t o n c a s fo r d efi n i t i on i n parsin g
n or ii ll
t h e w o rd I t n eed s o n
. ly i
t o b e po n t ed o ut w at w o rd o r p rase i s t he o b ec t h h j
i i
o f t h e prepo s t o n , t o w a t i t i s o n ed b y t h e h j i
at t er, an d f or w at pu rpo se l h
a s w as s u l y ill
ff c en t i i
ustrat ed i n th e e erc ses o n C apter V Furt er e am p es x i h . h x l
e d efe
ar d u t il t h e rre n c l as s ifi c at i o n of prepo s t i i o n al ph rases i s t ak en up, i n
Ch apt XIII er .
 147
’ ‘
32 7 ] CONJ U NC I I ONS .

C H AP T E R XI .

C O N J U N C T IO N S .

32 7 . j un c t io n (4 7
A co n l ik e a p rep osit ion i s a c on ,

n ect i v e a w o r d t hat j o i n s o th er w or d s t o get h er at th e sam e

, ,

t im e sho w i n g so m ethi n g as t o t heir rel ati o n t o o n e an o th er .

B ut a c o n j un c ti on i s a v ery d i fferen t ki n d o f c o n n ec ti v e
from a p rep o si ti on .

I n th e fi rst p l ac e i t s usual an d p ri n c i p a l c ihoe i s t o c o n

,

n ec t tw o sen t en c es t og ether : t hus,

he s po ke an d t h ey
l iste n e d ;
t h ey l is ten ed b ut t h ey c o ul d n o t hear ;
,

we pipe d w h i l e t h ey d a n c e d ;
t h ey we n t b e c a us e t h ey c o u l d n ot he l p it ;
he wi l l pay i f yo uw is h it ;

I s ee t h a t t he way is h ard ;
he kn o ws w h e t h e r h e d id it .

I f a p epo s i t i o i s u ed to j i a s n t e c i t d o f a w o d t o an ot h er i t i s
r n s o n e n e n s ea r ,

n o l o n g er a prepo s i t i o b ut b ec o m e
n, o j u cti o ( 331 ) t h us
s a c n n n ,

y u y w it
o m a t i l h a ; 0 n e c o m es

h w ill e b f com e y u h v w it d l
e o r e g o a e a e on .

I n the sec o n d p l a ce t h o ugh so m e o f t h e c o n j un c ti o n s

,

esp ec ia ll y an d , o r, b u t o fte n c o n n ec t w o rd s i n the sam e

sen te n c e th ese w o rd s are a l w ay s CO ORD I NAT E (the w o r d

,
-

m ean s of e u a l or d er o r ran k t h a t i s t o say t h e y are

q ,

used al ik e i n the sen ten ce o r h a v e th e sam e c o n struc ,

tio n .

They m ay b e, fo r e x am p l e ,
tw o o r m o re s ub ec ts o r o b ec ts
j j of

th e sa m e v e rb t h us ,

he and I ra n a rac e ; I s aw t he c at a n d t he d o g ;
1 48 CONJ U NCT I ONS .
[ 32 7

o r ad ec ti j v es or a d v erb s q ua l ify i n
g t h e sam e w or d t hus

an h o n est b ut m ista ken m an ; h e r we l l

n e it nor t r ul y s a id ;
or p rep osi ti o n s g o v ern i n g th e sam e w ord th us ,

by and w it h o ur c o n se n t ; e it he r fo r o r ag a i nst m e .

Ev en two v erb s h av i n g the sam e s ubj ect are l

a so o ften c on

n ec t ed b y th ese con j un cti on s as ,

he c a m e a n d saw h e ard b ut ref used the req uest

it ; we .

I suc h a case th q uest i o

n e i s w h eth er w sh l l o sh ll n o t c o i d r th e
n ar se e a r a ns e

sen t en ces as t w o th e s ec o n d h a vin g i t s subj e t o m i t t ed

,
s ee 4 8 7 c .

32 8 The m o st i m p ort an t d i v i si o n o f t he c o n j un ct i o n s
.
,

acc o rd i n g t o th eir u se i s t h at i n t o C O-O R D I NA TI N G an d SU B

,

O R D I NA TI N G c o n j un ct i o n s .

T h i s di st i n c t i on c a o t b fu l l y un d e sto o d e x pt i n on n ec ti on w i t h t h e
nn e r ce c

subj ec t o f c o m po u d d c om pl ex s en t en es w h i h w ill b e treat ed l at e i n th

n an c ,
c r, e

S yn t x (Ch apt er XIV )

a .

32 9 C O ORD I NAT I N G c o n j un ct i o n s ar e th ose th at j o i n

.
-

t og eth er sen t en ces o f equal o r d er o r ran k .

Th e co m m on est co n j un c ti o n s of t h is l
c ass are

a n d , o r, but , fo r .

An d p l y co up les o r j oi n s o n o n e sen ten c e t o an o ther an d

si m ,

h en c e i s c all ed c op ul a t i v e Oth ers o f s im i l ar fo rc e are

.

al so l ikewise e ke to o b es id es m o reover
, , , , , .

Or i m p l i es an a l t e r n a t i v e an d i s b est s o c all ed o thers l ike ,

it are
h
e i t er , l
e s e , n ei t h er , no r .

Eith e r an d o r, an d t hei r n eg at i v es n eit h e r an d n o r , are ca ll ed

c o r r el a ti v e (th at i s, h av i n g a m u t ua l re l ati o n b ec ause t h ey

o cc ur gen erall y t o g eth er i n tro d uci n g t h e t w o ,

a l t ern ativ es ,
an d

th e fo rm er o f th e m i s a l w ay s fo ll o w ed b y th e l att er t h us,

h e r he m ust l eave o r I s h al l g o ;
e it ,

n e i t h e r t h is m a n s i n n e d n o r h is pa ren ts ,
.

There are al s o c o rrel a t iv e c o p ul at iv e c o n j un c t io n s thus b o t h ,

a n d ; a t o n c e (o r a l i ke ) an d ; n o t o n ly but a l s o ; as

we l l a s ; w h at w h at . .
1 50 CO NJ U NCT l O NS .
[ 330

After t h e com parat iv e con j un ct i on s ,

th e c a l use i s espec a i ll y often sh orten ed ,

so m eti m es to a s ng e i l w or d ( c om pare 4 94 ) fo r x
e am p le ,

h e is a b e tt e r m an t h an I [ am ] ;
h u h lt l vt o s a o e t hy ne i g hb o r as [ t h o uI o v est]
l h
t ys e f .

An d w i t h th e r el t iv w h t h a e o, an i s t reat ed as i f i t w ere a
prepo si t i on ,
req uiri ng
an o b j ec t iv e c ase t h us ,

t ha n w h om t h e re is n one b ette r .

T h at s u
( p art fro m i s e i n t h e sen se o f i n o rd er tha t ‘
e . t
a

t h us he d ie d t h at we m ig h t l ive) h a s a p ecul iar v al ue i n i n tro

,

d uci n g a sub stan t i v e c l a use th at i s a c l aus e used w ith th e v a l ue ,

of a n o u n
(4 2 2 ) for ex am p l e as subj ec t n o un , ,

t hat he was h ere is n ot t rue ;

as o b e c t n o j un ,
I d id n o t say t h at he was here ;

j
p rep o si tio n
a s o b ec t o f a ,

I s h o ul d t ry ex c e pt t h at I fea r to , fail .

W e m ay b est c all i t th en the s ub s t a n ti ve , , j un cti on

c on .

331 . On l y a few si m pl e w or d s are used s ol el y as con jun c

tion s s uch are
and , e ke , o r, n o r, l e st , t han .

M an y j un cti on s are al so ad v erb s an d i t often i s n o t p ossi

co n

b le t o d raw a d is ti n c t l i n e b et w een th e use o f a w o r d as ad v erb

an d as c o n j u n c ti on As ab o v e p o i n t ed o ut
.
th e sam e w o r d
i s an a d v erb W h en i t d isti n ct l y quali fi es th e v erb i n a c l ause a n d ,

a con j u n c t i o n w h en i t
q ual i fi es rath er t he w h o l e c l ause d et er ,

m i n in g i ts r el at i o n t o an ot h er .

Fo r e x am pl e ,
we ha v e ad v e b ial r uses i n
he fi n i s he d hi s w o r k, an d t h e n w en t aw a y;
he m i gh t ha v e s ta e d , y b ut he c h os e o the r w i s e ;
w h en we l eft , he w as ye t l ivi n g.

An d w e h av e con j un c t i o n al us es i n

hv
a e yo u fi n is he d ? t h en go aw a y;
h e w as y
an gr , o t h e rw i s e he w o u d l hv a e s ta e d y
he is v y ill
er , ye t he m ay liv e a w e ek .

Th e w o rd s
w h en , whe re , wh it h e r , w h e n c e , w hy, ho w,
 331 ] C O NJ U N C T I O N S . 1 51

w hi c h d v erb s w hen used i n t errogati v el y are co n j un cti on s

are a ,

w h en used rel at i vel y s i n c e t h ei r r el at i v e fo rc e 1 7 5) di

rect l
y j o i n s on t he c l ause w hi ch co n tai n s th em t o an an tec ed en t
w o r d o r c l ause .

Man y prepo s i t i on s are al so used as c onj un c t ion s espec i all y , b y th e o m i ss i o n

o f t he su b stan t iv e c o n j un c t i o n that w h i c h fo r m erl y fo l l o w ed t h em ( an d i s s o m e
t i m es st ill used ) th us,
he ha d l eft b efo re I arr iv ed ;

l ft b f e th t I iv d
he had e e or a a rr e .

Outh e o th er h an d i n o ld st y l e En g l i sh th t i s superfluousl y i n sert ed

,
-
,
a aft er

m an y c o n j un c t i on s for ex am pl e ,

wh th t th p h v i d;
en a e oo r a e cr e

if th t y hu b d w w a b ut
m t u ed ! s an no ere re rn

T h t as co n j un c t i o
a as w el l as th t as rel at iv e pro n o u
n , is a n o ft en

om i tted : see 436 .

PARS I N G OF C ON J U N C T I ON S .

B es d esi n am in g a c on j un c t i on or con j un c t i on -ph rase as such ,

we n eed o n l y to
po i nt o ut w h eth er it i s i
c o o rd n at n g o r s i ub ord i n at i n g, an d w h at are t h e w ord s
or the sen t en c es w h i ch it c o n n ec t s . B ut th i s c an be on l y i m perfect l y d on e un t il
t he s ubj ect of co m po un d an d com pl ex sen t en c es h a s b een t ak en up ( Ch apt er
an d an y s pec a i l ex e c i ses on
r c on j i
un c t o n s h ad b et t er b e o m t t ed un t i il
t h en .
 1 52 I N T ERJ E C T I O N S .
[ 332

CH AP TE R XI I .

I N T E RJ E C T I O N S .

332 . As we saw i n t he
p t er (50 an i n seco n d c ha

t erject i o n i s n o t i n th e p ro p er sen se a
”
p art of sp eech ,

“
s i n ce i t d o es n o t c o m b i n e w i t h o t her p arts t o fo rm th at
w ho l e w hi ch w e c all a sen t en ce I t i s a d i rec t i n t im at io n .

o f feeli n r o f w i l l m a d e ex p r es si v e chi efl
g o y b y th e t o n e
, ,

t he i n fl ec t i o n o f v o i c e w i t h w hi ch i t i s uttere d , ,

Thus, for e x am p l e , ah ! e xpresses a n um b er of d iff eren t feel

in gs — s uc h as jo y pai n, ,
surp rise d i s u
g s t — ,
ac c o r d in g t o t he

w ay i n w h i c h i t i s uttered .

333 . Th e i n t er j ec t i o n s are n o t r ea l n at ura l o utb urst s of fe e l i n g l ik

,
e a

i h t h ug h t h ey c o m e n e e t o t h i s c h aract r th a
'

sc ream ,
a
t g r o an , a s g ,
o y ar r e n a n

t h i g el
n l se in Th y
an g uag e e l i k e l l o u o t h er w o d s m ean s o f c o m m u i
. e ar ,
a r r ,
n

c at i o t h ey are utt e a c es b y w h i h w e s eek t o s i g i fy t o o t h e s t h at w e a e

n r n c n r r

m o v ed b y su c h a d su c h fe l i n g s
n H en c e e c h l n g u g e h as i ts o w n set o f i
e .
,
a a a n

t j c t i o s m o e or l ess d i ffe e t fro m t h o se o f o t h e l a g uag es

er e n ,
r r n r n .

334 S o m e o f th e or d i n ary E n g li sh i n terj ec t io n s are

.

a . Of joy , gl ad s urp rise ,

p l easan t em o t i o n
oh! ah ! ha l hey! h u rra h ! h u zza !

b . p ai n ful feel i n g o r sufferi n g

Of
l - - -
oh! a ! h a a s ! w e II a d ay ! d ea r m e ! h e i g ho !
h

0 . Of d i sapp ro v a l o r c o n t em p t

po h ! fi e ! fa ug h ! f u d g e ! w h ew !

(1 . Of ca ll in g atten ti o n
h o l h o l a ! h o l l o ! h e m ! lo !

e . Of qui eti n g or rep ressi n g

h is t ! h us h ! t ut ! m um !
f . W ord s m ad e i n i m i ta t io n o f n atural so un d s are a k i n d of

i n terj ec t i o n : th us ,

po p ! b an g ! b o w-wo w ! d i n g -d o n g ! r ub -a-d ub !
1 54 THE S I M PL E SE NTENCE .
[ 337

C H A P T E R XI I I .

S Y N TA X : THE S IM P L E S E N T E N CE .

337 . S y n tax t reats of th e c om b i n at i o n s of w or d s for us e

in t he xp ressi on of our thought s
e .

Not a few o f th e l eadi n g prin c i pl es a d r ul es o f syn t a x h av e b een a lr ead y

n

st at ed an d ill us t r at ed w e h a v e h ere t o t ak e t h em up in a m ore c on n e t d an d c e

s y s t em t i c w y repeat i n g m a y t h i n gs t h at h av e b een sa i d b efore an d ad di n

a a ,
n
,

o t h e s t h at are n ew
r .

338 The c o m b i n at i o n s o f w or d s w h i ch w e m ake i n

.

exp r essi n g o u rsel v es are c all e d S ENT EN CES an d th es e sen

,

t en oes are o f thr ee ki n d s

1 . As serti o n s or stat em en t s ;
2 Q uesti on s ;
.

3 Com m an d s (d em
. an ds ,
w i sh es) .

339 . Th e usua l sen t en c e i s th e assert i on or st at em en t ;

or (as w e h av e c al e l d i t b efore see 22 ) th e AS S ERT I VE S EN
TEN CE .

T hi s i s t h e reg ul ar form of o ur expressi on 5 i t i s the m o d el , as

i t w ere, of w h i c h th e o th er t w o are v ariati o n s For th i s reason .

we sh a ll for t h e p resen t fterw ard (Chap

c o n si d er it l
a on e, t h en a

t er XV I ) t aki n g up th e o th er t w o k i n d s o f sen ten ces an d al so

.
,

ap t er XV I I
( C h ) th e i n co m p l et e o r ab b rev i at e d sen t en c e i n w hi c h
.
,

o n e o r an o t h er p art u su all y e xp r esse d is w an t i n g

, ,
.

34 0 . No s en t en c e c an be d e e x c ep t b y m ean s o f a
m a

v erb ,
si n c e the Verb i s t h e o n l y p art o f sp eec h th at asserts ,

or d ec l ares ,
or p r e d i c a t es .

34 1 . Al l th at i s ab so l ut e l y n ec essar y b esi d es a v erb t o

m ak e a c om p l ete assert i on , o r a ful l sen t en ce, i s th e n am e

o f so m e p erson or thi n g ab o ut w hi ch the assert i o n is m a e d .

34 5] S UB J E CT AND P RE D CATE I . 1 55

Thi s n am e m ust b e ei th er a n o un
(w h i c h i s th e p art o f
s p eech that ‘
n am es or a p ron o un t h e usual sub st it ute o f
,

a no un ,
o r so m e o th er p art o f sp eech used s ub s t a n ti v e l y ,

or w i th the v al ue o f a n o un ( 1 4 3 et c ) .

342 . As thi s n am e i s th e s ubj ec t of th e st at em en t, o r

t h at ab o ut w hi ch t h e st at em en t is m a de it is,
ca l l ed in

gram m ar t he S U BJ E CT of th e sen t en ce ; an d th e v erb i s

’
ca ll e d t he P RED CAT E I t hat i s,
‘
t h e t hi n g st at e d or ass ert e d .

343 . As t he v erb i s t he l p art of ev ery sen ten c e essen t i a ,

or th e p art th at m ak es th e a sserti o n t he su bj ec t o f the sen ,

ten ce i s a l so c all e d the s ubj ec t (or s ubj ect — n o m i n at i v e

) of
the v erb An d e v er y v erb si n ce i t i m p l ies a st at em en t
.
, ,

m u st hav e al o n g w i th i t i t s su bj ec t o r th e w o r d sh o w i n g ,

w hat t he st at em en t is ab o ut .

344 . p l es o f th e s i m p l est
E x am s en t en c e, c o m p osed on ly
of a v erb an d i t s subj ec t ar e ,

Go d r ues l ; m en o b e y; sto n es fa l l ;
s m o ke r is e s ; J o h n read s ; ch il d ren s pel l ;
I s pe a k ; yo u h ear ; he o b eys .

Ot h ers h a v e b een g iv e n i n t he se c o n d c h a pt e r an d t h e x e c i ses upon i t

e r .

As we sh a ll p l ai n l y
see m o re h ereaft er, h o w ev er l on g a sen

te n c e m ay b ec o m e i t c an sti ll ,
be d i v i d ed i n t o th e sam e tw o
part s t h e subj ec t b e i n g t he fu ll d esc ripti on o f th e
d efi n i t ion or

pers o n o r thi n g ab o ut w hi c h th e s ta te m en t i s m ad e an d th e ,

p red icate b ein g the com p l ete assert io n m a d e ab o u t i t (c o m p are

34 5 . In al l t ho se w o rd s — n am e ly ,
m o st of th e pro
no un s — w h i c h hav e b es id es th e gen i ti v e o r p o ssessi v e a
, ,

d o ub l e c ase-fo rm t he n o m i n a t i v e o r subj ec t iv e c as e i s
al o n e u se d as t he s uhjc c t o f a s t atem en t : thus, ‘

I g iv e , n ot me g iv e ; he l ov e d ,
n ot h im l ov ed ;
t h ey we n t , n ot t h e m we n t ; who s po ke , n ot wh o m s po ke .
1 56 T HE S I M PLE S E NT E N C E .
[ 34 6

34 6 . Ag ain so far as t h e v erb h as d i fferen t

,
fo rm s o f
p erso n a n d n um b e r t h e fo rm us ed i s o f th e sam
, e p erso n

an d n um b er w i th t he s ub ec t
j b ei n g t here fo r e
, ,
a l w ay s i n

t h e thi r d p erso n i f i ts subj ec t is a no un ( 141 ) t hus,

I g iv e , n ot I g ive s ; t h o u g o e st , n ot th o u g o or g o es ;
he run s , n ot he run ; t he m an runs , n ot t he m a n run n es t ;
we a re , n ot we am or is ; t he m en we r e , n ot t he m en was .

T hi s ( as we h av e s een b efo re, 6 0 ) i s a so

-
l e x p ess
r ed y
b y sa i n g t at th e erb h v
a g r ees w t i h i t s subj e
um b er a n d perso n ; o r h
ct in n j t a t t h e s ub ec t g o v e r n s
t h e v erb i n n um b er a n d pers o n — t h at i s, r eq ui r es t h e v erb t o b e o f a c ert a i n
c h arac t er i n t h e se r es ec t s
p t h e subj ec t b ei n g g iv en t h e yerb is c o m pell ed t o ,

c o rr espo n d w i t h i t i n n um b er an d perso n .

34 7 . \Ve ha v e th en y n t ax w h i c h
, ,
t h ese fi rst r u
l es of s ,

a pp l y t o all s en t e n c es b ut w h i c h are t h e on l y o n es t hat ,

app l y t o a b a r e s en t en c e a sen t en c e c o m p ose d o f a v erb ,

an d i ts s ubj ec t an d n ot hi n g m ore
'

I . A s en t en ce is com po sed of s ub j e c t an d p r ed i ca te : th e
ub j e c t , un (o r ord ords h a vi n th v al ue of
'

s a n o a w or w g e a.

n o un ) , n a m es t hat of W h i ch so m eth in g is a ss e r t e d or d e

c l a red ; t h e p r e d i c a t e, a v er b ,
ex p r e ss e s t h a t W h i c h is a s se r t e d

or d e c l a r ed of th e s ub j ec t .

II . Th e s ub j e c t of th e sen t en ce (a l s o c a ll ed th e s ub j e c t
n om in ativ e of th e v erb
) is in th e n om in a t i v e c as e .

III . The v er b a g r ees in per so n an d n um b e r W i t h i t s s ub

j ec t .

34 8 . A few s p ec i a l c ases un d er th ese ru

l es n ee d to b e n o ti ce d
here

a . A v erb s o m et i m es h as for i t s s ubj ec t th e pr on o un it

( 1 6 3 b ) n o t as s tan d i n g for an y real a ct o r b ut as

, ,
h el p i n g to
s ig n if y th at a cert a i n c o n d i t i o n o r ac t i o n ex i s t s or i s go in g on .

T h us,
it ra i n s , it t h un d ers , it i s d a r k , it st r ikes se e n v .

Th ese are c a ll ed I MP E R S O N AL exp ress i o n s s ec 30 7 .

b A v erb i s o ften used i n th e p l ural a on l g w i t h a co ll ecti v e

1 58 T HE S I M PL E SE NTE NCE .
[ 352

352 . A w or d t h us use d i s I
ca N O U N or a
ll e d a P RED CAT E

I
P RED CATE A DJ E CT VE ; I or t h e n o u
,
n o r a dj ec t i v e i s sai d t o

s t an d in t h e p re di c at e o r t o b e use d p re dic at i v el y
'

, .

Thi s i s b ec a us e i t i n a m an n er co m p l etes th e predi cati on or

ass ert i o n m a i t q uali fi es t he s ubj ect, b ei n g m ad e

de b y t h e v erb
p art o f th e assert i o n resp ecti n g t he l atter 3 i t d o es so b y t he hel p
o f th e v erb , w hi c h b ri n gs i t i n t o c o n n e c t i o n w i th t h e s ubj ect .

35 3 . The n um b er of v erb s t hus t ak i n g

pred i cat e adj ecti v e
a

or n o un i s n ot a v ery l arg e on e . Th ey are so m eti m es c all ed

VERB S OF I N C OMP LE TE P RED CA T ON I I . S uch are

a . T he v erb b e : t hus ,
I am i ll ; he w a s angr y; t h ey wi l l b e t ired ;

yo ua re a sc ho lar ; s he was t he h e ro i n e ; t h ey hav e b e eh so l d iers .

Th is i s b y far t h e c o m m o n est o f th e w h o l e c l ass . Th e v erb b e, i n all its

v i ar o us fo rm s, h a s c o m e t o s t an d as a m ere c o n n ec t iv e o f assert o n i b et w een a

s ubj ec t an d som e w o rd or w o rd s d esc r b i in g t h at s ubj ec t ,

an d so h av e n o to
m ean n g i of i ts ow n e x c ept t h t of
a s i gn i fy i g th a se ti on
n e s r . I t s i m pl y cou p les
t o g eth er t w o w o rd s in t h e re a l tio n of a s ubj ec t an d a pre d i te
ca It i s t here
.

fo re l y c al l ed th e C OPU L A ( t h at i s
c om m o n ,
cou pl er
I d d ev y v e b ad m i ts o f b i g t ak e ap t o
n ee ,
er r l y d i n t o so m e fo m
e n n ar ,
r an a ze ,
r

of thi s pul co b w h i h e x p esses t h e act o f asser t i o

a e, c a d a p edi cat e
r ou n, n r n n

or ad j c t i v e ( esp c i ll y th e v e b al dj c t iv e t h e presen t part i c i pl e ) e x press i g

e e a r a e , ,
n

the c o d i t i o
n qu li t y o a t i o n p di t ed
n or a Tb u r c re ca . s,

I sta n d

is n ear ly I em e r ec t , o r, st il l m o re n ea r ly ,

I am s ta n di n
g ;

we ga v e, t hy
e b eg,
ar e eq i u v a l en t to
w e w e re g iv e rs , 01
‘
w e w e re g ivi n
g
hy
t he y
b ggi g ;
a re b e g g a rs , or t e a re e n

d i n a s i m il w v w e fo m t h p o g essi v e v b ph a es ( 2 8 1 b y the s id e
- r s
an ar a r e r r er

o f ll t h s i m pl t e
a e s d t h e i m pl
e ph s s t h us
n se an s er ra e ,

w g iv e d w e, g ivi g an e a re n

w h ll g iv e sa d w a h ll b g ivi g ;e, n e s a e n

w y h v g iv e d w
m a yh v b a eg ivi g ; en , an e m a a e ee n n

an d so o u .

b . B e c o m e , w it h i ts n ear eq ui v al en t s g ro w , g e t , t urn , an d

th e l i k e t h us ,

I b ec am e i ll ; h is fac e g rew b l ac k .
354 ] P RED C ATE I NOUN AND AD J E CT I V E . 1 59

c . Re m ai n , c o n t in ue , s ta y ,
an d th e l ik e : t hus,

Joh n re m a i n e d s i e ntl ; he c o ntin ues g rateful .

d . S ee m , a ppe a r , l ook ,
an d t h e l ik e : th us,

s he see m s a g o d d es s ; it l o o ks terrible .

e . S o un d , sm e ll , f ee l , an d t h e l ike th us,

we f e e l o utrag ed ; it sm e ll s sweet .

f . Verb s o f c on di ti on an d m otio n , l ik e sta n d , s it , 90 , v

m o e,

an d s o on th us,

t he d o o r sta n d s o pen ; t h ey ute ;

s at m

he wil l g o m ad ; m y b l o o d runs ld co .

g . Th e p ass iv es of v erb s w hi c h tak e an o b j e c t i v e p red i c at e

(b el o w , th us,

he was l l ed c an n ib al s
m ad e a n g r y; t h ey are c a .

354 Th e predi c at us o f th e adj ec t iv e sh ad es o ff i n t o a

. e dv e b i al c on
e n a r

s t uc t i o n
r a d t h e t w o a e n o t a l w ay s t
,
n b r ad il y o r c l l y d i st i gui sh ed
r o e e ear n

fro m e c h o th er aTh ei r d i st i n c t i o d epe d s o th e d g ee t o w h i c h th e ad d ed

. n n n e r

w o d i s i t e d ed t o qual i fy t h e s ubj t on t h e o n e h an d o r th e ac t i on o f th e
r n n ec ,

v e b i t s l f n t he th
r e T h us w e m ay say
o o er .
, ,

w f l w it i b u i d d e p
e ee a r m , s r e e ,

w he fe l u l v s t o b e w arm b uri d so s t o b e d e p ; o r w e
‘ ’ ‘ ’
we m e
n an e o rs e e ,
c a e

m ay s a y
w e f ee l w a rm ly , it is b ur i ed d ee p ly ,

w h en w e m ean t h at th e fee li ng is a w ar m o n e, t h at th e b ury i ng w as a d eep on e .

An d in
llhe l o o ks w e ,

un d ers t an d ll b e pred i cat e d j ec t i v e w h en t he s n s e i s h e l o ok s i

‘
we we to a e n

go o d h eal th he appea, rs a s if h e w w ell b ut ad v erb if th e sen se i s h e i s

ere
' ‘

go od
- l o ok i n g B ut i .
’
n
he s it
s n e xt ,

n ext m ay b e un d erst o o d i n c i thc r way w t ih o ut an y m i po rtan t di fferen c e .

Aga i n, we sa v o f a f ru t , i
iti p it l ll i p it t t
o o ks r ipe, it fe e l s r e, sm e s r e, as es r ipe ;

b eca use t h e m ea i g i th a t i n th s v i u w y s w e j ud g
n n s e e ar o s a e it ac t uall y t o be
ri p eA d w l l —s t b l i h l us g
. n ll o w u t ay
e e a s ct a e a s s o s

th gi l l
e k p tty;
r th oo ll w t ; th w i
s re e ro s e sm e s s ee e ne t aste s s o ur

a l th ug h i ac h a t h d v e b p tt il y d
o n e w o ul d i
c se e a r ,
re an so o n ,
n st r i c t t h eo ry be
b et ter .
1 60 T HE S I M PL E S E NTE NCE .
[ 35 5 _

355 . W i th ditio n an d m o ti on (35 3 f ) esp e

t he v erb s of c on ,

c i ally t h e q u
,
al i fy i n g force o f t h e p red i c at e a dj ec t i v e i s yery o ft en

r ea ll y d i stri b ut e d b et w een th e s ubj ec t an d t he v erb Th us i n .

,

he s ta n d s fi rm ,

we m ean n o t o n l y t hat h e i s fi rm i n h is s tan di n g ,

but a sol that
th e s tan din g i tself i s fi rm . So l
a so in

the s un s hi n e s b r ig h t ; the m ess e n g er c o m es r un n i n g ;

t he t o n e r i n g s c ear a n d l f ul l .

An j
ad e c ti v e thus used m a
y be di sti n g uish ed as an AD V E RB I AL
P R ED C AT EI .

Th e pred i c ate adj ect iv e especial l y th e ad v erb i al pred i c at sh ad es 0 5 i n to the

,
e,

appo i t i v
s dj ec t iv
e a e

Y et n o t h e k i d o f p ed i ate adj c t iv e o r n o un an o bj ec ti v e o f c t i t iv e pred

a r n r c e ,
r a

i c at e w ill b e d esc i b ed fart h e

, n r r o

356 A w o r d i n the p red icate (ex cep t a p red i cate p os sessi v e

.
,

38 8 ) o ugh t si n ce i t q ualifi es th e subj ec t t o b e i n th e sam e c ase

, ,

w i th i t a n d t hi s r u l e i s gen erall y o b serv ed i n En gl ish — that ,

i s t o s ay i n th e p ron oun s th e on l y w o rd s w hi ch d isti n g uish

, ,

n o m i n at i v e an d o bj e c ti v e Th us w e say .
,

it is I ; it was w e ; if it were s he ;

an d s o o n . Carel ess an d i n acc urat e s p eakers ,

h o w ev er, o ften use
s uc h e xpressi o n s as

it is t h e m ; it was us ; if it we re h e r ;
an d i n th e c as e o f
it i s m e

th e p rac ti ce h as b ec o m e so c om m o n th at it is e v en r e ar
g d ed as

g o o d E n gl i sh b y resp ec tab l e aut ho riti es .

357 . We h a v e th en t he d efi n i t i o n
, ,
an d r u e l '

IV un i s ug h t
'

. A p r e d i ca t e a d jec t i v e or n o on e W h i ch i s b ro

by a v er b i n to r e l a t io n w i th i ts s ub j e c t , as q ua l if yi n g or d e

sc r ib in g th e s ub j e c t .

V . A p r e d i c a t e (p r o n o un ) a g r ees r eg ul a r l y i n c a se W i th th e
s ub j e c t W h ich i t q ua l i fi es .

[ S ee E x i erc s e XI V .
,
at the en d o f th e c h apt er .
]
1 62 T HE S l M P LE SE N T E N C E .
[ 36 0 _

36 0 . B ut v erb s w hi c h can t ak e an o b ec tj i n th e w ay h ere

d es cri b ed ,
an d w hi c h are t herefo re or di n ari l y c all ed tran si ti v e,

m ay i n E n gl i s h, l
a m ost w i t h o ut
x c ep ti o n b e e ,
used w itho ut an
y
e xp ressed o bj ect or ,
I NTR AN S I T I VEL Y I n t hat . case, t h ey si g n i fy
s im p l y th e d o i n g o f t he ac t i o n , w i t h o ut t aki n g an
y ac c o un t of

w h om or w hat i t i s d on e to . Fo r e x am p l e
I l ov e , he s t r i kes , t h ey s ee , yo u s peak .

36 1 . On t h e o t h er h an d , th ere are v erb s w hi ch d o n o t prop

er ly t ak e a ft er t h em suc h an o b e ctj t h us, fo r e x am p l e,

s it , fa l l , r un , l ie .

We m ay sit on s o m et hi n g , fall f r om s o m ew here, r un over so m e

o n e, an d so o n b ut w e d o n o t si t an y on e or an ythi n g . S uc h
v erb s are cal e l d I N TR AN S I T IVE S .

Th ey are al so som et i m es c ll ed ut b ut t h i s i s a t erm b el o g i g t o th e

a n e er n n

d ivi i o
s i n t o ac t iv pass iv e d uter ; a d i E g l i sh w e h av e n o passiv e
n e, ,
an ne n n n

v e b s b ut o l y passiv e v erb ph as s (2 9 7 et c ) ll our v erb s a e “ ac ti v e

r ,
n - r e . a r ,
”

an d t h erefo e o e o f t h em
r e d s to b
no n d fi ed as such n e e e n .

36 2 . B ut ev en so m e i n tran si ti v e v erb s t ak e an o b ec t j in
c ert ai n p ec ul iar co n str uct i o n s .

Th us
a . An o b ec t e
j xp ressi n g in no un —
form th e ac t i o n ,
or a v ariet y
of th e ac t i o n ,
s i gn ifi ed b y t h e v erb i ts elf a s,

he has l ived a l o n g l ife ; I l

s e pt a d e ep s l e e p;
t h ey ra n t h ei r r a c e ; yo u w il l d a n c e a jig ;
l et us d ie t he d e a t h o f the r ig h teo us .

’
Th i s i s ca ll ed a COGN ATE j
o b ec t : th at i s, on e
‘
a ll ied or

re at el d in m ean i n g t o t he v erb i tself .

“
b . An o b ec t j fact iti v e pred ic ate th e v erb
a onl g w i th a

b ei n g tak en i n t h e sen se (see b el o w 37 0 ) o f p ro d uc i n g a c er ,

t ai n etfc c t b y t h e ac tio n w hi c h i t expresses as ,

he wal ke d hi m se lf weary ; t h eyy aw n ed t h e ir jaws o ut o f jo i nt .

0 . An i n d efi n ite or i m pe so r n al o bj t it ( 1 6 3 b ) i su h ph rases as
ec ,
n c

t h y f li
e ro c it a ongl ; s h q u tt
e co it w i th v y t ll w h s es
e es e er
‘

e o s e e .
36 6 ] D I RE CT AND I ND I RE CT OB J E C T .
1 63

d . Oc casi o n a ll y , a refl ex i ve (306 ) o bj ec t a s,

s he w en t an d s at h e r d ow n o v e r a g a n st i hi m ; stan d t he e c os e , l t he n .

As fo r c ert ain apparen t o b ec ts j w hi h

c a r e n o t r ea ll y so ,
s ee be l o w, 390 .

36 3 . Th e k i n d o f o b ec t j w hi c h w e h av e t h us far c o n

s id ered is a sol ca ll e d a D IRE CT o b e c t , j b ec ause i ts r e at i on

l
“ ”
t o the v ern i n g
o v erb i s so c l o se an d i m m e d i at e a s
g
n ot to a d m i t t h e hel p o f an y aux i l i ar y w o r d as a p rep o ,

si t i o u t o d efi n e i t
,
.

36 4 . B ut so m e v erb s t ak e ,
a on l g w i th such a d irec t
o b ec t, an o th er o f a
j d i fferen t c h arac t er, in a r e at i o n l w hi ch
we m ore usuall y e x p ress b y to or fo r : fo r e x am p l e ,

he g av e m e t he b o o k ;

[ m ad e him a c o at ;
t h ey paid the m an his w ag es ;
we fo rg iv e o ur f r i e n d s t h e ir f a ul ts .

I n th e fi rst sen t en c e, m e p o i n t s o ut to w h o m th e ac t i o n

of g i v i n
g t h e b ook w as d o n e ; i n the d him sho w s f or
s ec o n ,

w ho m t he act i o n o f m aki n g th e c o at w a s p erfo r m e d an d

S O OH
u
.

Thi s appears c l ea l y en ough w h n w e ch an ge r e the p l ac e of t h e w o rd s i n q es

t i on put t i g t h em a ft
,
t h d i ec t o bj ec t
n Th er e r . en w e ar e l
o b i g ed t o us e prepo s i
t io s
n yi g
,
sa n
h g ve t h b k t ; Ie a e oo o m e m ad e a c o at f o r him .

36 5 . S uc h I ND I RE CT
a se c o n d o b ec t ,
j t he n , i s ca l l ed an

o bj e c t b ecause i t rep res en t s w h a t i s l ess d i r ec t l y a ffe c t ed

,

b y the ac t io n o f t he v erb a n d b ec ause t he sa m e rel at io n ,

m ay b e a n d o ften i s e x p resse d b p ep o sit io n s —n am el y

, y r , ,

by to o r m o re rare l y b y fo r
, , ,
.

On e m m v b k t k es e d i d i e t o bj e t i n a rel t i n usu ll y
co on er ,
as ,
a a s co n or n r c c a o a

e x pres d b y t th u
se o z s,
I a s ke d him h is n am e ;
b ut
I a s ked a fav or o f him ;

an d l ke
a i c o n s tr uc t i o n i s n o w and th en m et w tih i ,
rreg ul arl y , i n t he c ase o f

o th er v e b r s .

36 6 . The i n d irec t o b ec t ,
j l ike t he d irec t i s put ,
i n the
o b ec t i
j ve c as e . B ut t he o bj ec t i v e i n t hi s us e i s to bc
 64 T H E S I M PL E SENTE N CE .
[ 36 6

D AT I VE —
“
ca ll e d the OB J ECT I V E ,
si n c e it an sw er s t o th e da
ti v e c ase o f o th er l an guages ,
as the o b ec t i v e o f
j the d i rect
o b ec t
j an s w ers t o th e
“
ac c usat i v e (c om p are 1 39 It
i s put i n t h e ,
sen t en c e, b et w een t he v erb an d th e d ir ec t
o bj ec t .

Th e ad ec t j iv es n i gh , n ea r , ne xt a d li k b o th i adj ec t iv e a d i n ad v e b i a l
,
n e, n n r

use, m ay be an d us ual l y are fo ll o w d b y a d at iv e o bj ect iv e d i rec t l y ( w i t h o ut

e -

t he c o n n ec t iv e t o ) t h us ,

he w as n ea r xt ; fa lli ng ; s he s it s ne m e

li k f w th ;
a m an h d el i k J hu e o e rs e riv es e e .

A l th o ugh w e m ay use t an d f i ex p ss i n g t h e r el t i o oo f t h e i n d i ec t or n re a n r

o bj t w e m ust o t m k e t h m i st ak e o f su
ec ,
n
ppo s in g t h at a t
a f i s l ft o ut
e o or or e ,

a d to b e
n un d erst o d ex p essed a l on g w i t h t h e o b j ec t i t e l f
o as a ym o e
r s n r

t ha nt h t o f i s l ft o ut w i t h J h
a b ec use i n st ead o f i t w m ay s y f J h
e o
’
n s, a e a o o n.

Th e d at iv e i s n o t i n d ed l i k th po ssess i v e n o w d i st i g u
,
e i sh ed b y a en d i g
,
e e
,
n n n

o f its o w b ut i t w as so fo m e l y
n r r .

36 7 . S om e v erb s, l i ke pay an d f o rg ive , o ften t ake thei r i n

d irec t o b ec t
j l
a on e, as w el l as th ei r d i rect : t h us, ei ther, w i th
d irec t o b j ec t ,

we paid the w a g e s , h e fo rg av e t he o ff e n c e ,

or, wi th i n d i rec t ,

we pa id t he m a n, he fo rg av e t he o ff e n d e r .

E i t her j
o b ec t , w h en t h us used l
a o n e, is a pt to seem t o us a

d i rect on e ; an d it is on ly w h en w e c om e t o put t h em t og eth er

t hat w e s ee thei r t r ue l
r e at i on .

An d n ot a few v erb s w h i h w ere c form l y i tran s i t iv e t aki g a i n d i t or

er n ,
n n rec

d at iv j
e o b ec t , are n o w r eck o n ed b y us as o l y t an s i t iv e ( a
n ex am pl e i s f ll w )
r n o o .

36 8 . We m a
y sum up as fol l o w s
VI . A tr a n si ti r e v er b ta k es a d ir e ct ob j ec t , ex p r e ss i n g t h at

w h i ch is im m ed i a t el y a ff e c t e d b y th e a c tio n of th e v er b ; an d

s o m e ti m es a l so an i n d i r ect o b j ec t ,
ex pr es si n g th a t t o or f or

w hic h th e a c tio n i s pe rf o r m ed .

VII . The ob j ec t of a v erb ,

w h e t h er d i rec t or i n d i r ec t, i s

i n th e o bj ect i ve c a se i r ec t
(th e d b ei n g an a cc u
s a t i ve -o b j ec t i v e ,

th e i n d i r ec t a d a t i v e -o b j e c t i v e ) .
 1 66 T HE S I M PLE S E NTE NCE .
[ 36 9

S uc h
x am pl es as y u
e hi u i g sh o w t h t
o s ee m r sh ad s u
nn n fi a th e c o n st r uc t i o n e
'

i n to i n w h i c h t h e adj ec t iv e i s ath r t o b e eg ard ed as ppos i t iv e

on e r e r a

37 0 An o bj ec t al o n g w i th a p red i ca te w o r d qual ify i n g i t i s

.

t aken esp eci all y o ften b y a v erb t hat i s used i n a f ac ti ti ve sen s e

’
t h at i s, i n th e sen se o f m aki n g or c ausi n g o r b ri n g in g ab o ut
s o m et h i n
g by m ean s o f th e ac ti o n w hi c h th e v erb sign ifi es .

Thus , t aki n g sing i n t he us ual sen se, w e sh o u

l d n ev er sp eak
of
( 4
S i n gi n g a t hi o at b ut w e m a
y say,
I san g m y t h ro at h o a rs e ,

’
m ean i n
g
‘
I m a de m y throat h o arse b y s i n gi n g . An d , i n lik e
m an n er,
s he wrin g s t he l
c o t hes d r y;

t he l ig h t n i n g s t r uc k him d e a d;
t h ey p l a n e d t he b o ard s m o o t h;
w h ere wri n g s d ry
’
m ean s m ak es d ry b y w ri n gi n g , an d so o n .

Ev en i n tran s it iv e v erb s are thus used fa ctiti v el y (36 2 b ) , w it h

o b ec t an
j d qual ifyi n g p red i cate th us ,

h e d an c e d his fe et t ire d;

t h ey we pt t h e ir e es y b l in d .

A v erb , w h eth er t ran sit i v e or in tran si ti v e, i s es p ec iall y o ften

used fac titi v el y w h en i t i s l use d r efl ex i v ely (30 6 )
a so t hus,
t h ey san g t h e m s e l v es ho ars e ;

he wal ke d h im sel f w eary .

371 . An
dj ec t i v e or n o un th us m a d e b y a v erb
a t o qual
ity i t s o bj ec t i s cal l ed an OB J E CT I VE P RED I CATE or ,
a FACT I
T I VE P RE D I CATE a dj ec ti v e o r n o u , n .

An d w e h a v e th e rul e
VI II . Ah ad j ec t iv e or a n o un i s c a l l ed o bj e c t i ve or fa c t i t i ve

p r e d i c a t e w h en it is b ro ug h t b y t h e v erb i n to r el a t i o n W i th
t h e d i r ec t o b j ec t , as q ua l if yi n g or d esc r i b in g th at ob jec t .

In la ng i ch d i st i g ui h th e bj e t iv e c ase th ough ut f om th e sub

uag es wh n s o c r o r

j t i v o n o m i n t iv b y d i ff
ec e r a t f m t h i p d i at e w o ul d o f c o urs b e i n
e a er e n or ,
s re c e

t h e o b j ec t iv t h o rde, as y p d i at i th n m i t iv e ; b ut an i n sta c f
e i n ar re c e n e o na n e o

s u
c h “
agr e m t ca e t o u i E gl i sh ex c ept aft e an i n fi n i t i ve see 45L
en nno cc r n n ,
r

[ S ec E m w is c XV at the en d o f th e c h apt er ]
 37 4 ] ATT R I BUT I V E AD J ECT I V E .
1 67

A T T R I B U T I VE A ND A P P O SI T I VE
_ AD J E C T I VE AND N OU N .

37 2 . We h av e th us far seen t hat a no un m ay c o m e to

b e q ualifi ed o r d esc ri b ed by an a dj ec ti v e or a n oun used
p red i cati v el y that i s i n th e w ay of an assertio n t hat such
,

a q ua l i t y o r st at e o r c harac t er o r o th ee, o r t he l i k e b el o n g s
,

to i t a re at i o n
l w h i ch n ee ds a w or d o f asserti o n , a v erb ,

t o b ri n g i t ab o ut .

373 . dj ecti v e al so an d m uch o ft en er q ual i fi es

B ut an a , ,

a n ou n m ore d i rec t l y b ei n
g s i m p l y a dd ed t o t he n o u
, n to

d escrib e it th e qual it y an d so o n i s n ot asserte d but o n l y ,

m en t i on ed as b el on gi n g t o t hat w hi c h th e n ou
,
n e xp resses .

Thus , i n
this m an is o ld ,

we m ake th e age th e t h i n g w h i c h w e assert b ut in

t his Md m an ,

we m ak e it p art of th e d escri pti o n of th e p erson ,

a b out w hom
we m ay t hen to m ak e an asserti o n as,
go on

t h is o ld m an has w h ite hai r ;

w h ere w e use an o th er ad ec ti j ve to d escrib e al so the j

o b ec t ha ir
‘

374 . An dj ect i v e thus used t o d escrib e a n o un w ith out

a

be in g p art o f t he assert i o n o r p re d i cat io n m a d e ab o ut i t i s

c all ed an ATTRI B U T E o r an ATTR I B U T I VE a dj ec t i v e o r i s sai d
, ,

to b e used ATTRI B U T I VE LY (a ttr i bute m ean s si m p l y as cri bed

o r at tac h e d

W hil e a p red ic ati v e adj ec ti v e q ual ifi es o n l y t he subj ec t

o r t h e d irec t o bj ec t o f a v er b an att ri b ut i v e a dj e c t i v e m a
, y
q u a l i fy a n o u n i n an y s i t ua t i o n w h at e v er I t i s gen erall y .

u t b f t h ou F r e x am p l e
p e o re e n n o .

m y d e ar f r ie n d s g e n e ro u s h ea rt le d
’
hi m to g ive the t ire d
t rave l l er a d el ig h tf u l rest l ast week i n t he b est ro o m o f
, ,

h is e l e g a n t ho u se .

F th l o g i c al ( t g r m m at i c l ) d i t i c t i
or e no a a b tw st h pu l y d cri pt iv e
n on e een e re es

a d t he rest i c t iv e o l i m i t i n g u
n r r s o f t he at t ri b u
e t iv e d j t iv e see 1 91 a ec ,
.
1 68 T HE S I M P LE SE N T EN C E .
[ 37 5

375 . A no un i s ,
m uch l ess ft en use d t o d esc rib e
o , an

o th er n o un i n a w ay som ew h at si m i l ar t o t h i s .

Thus, i n

m y f r ien d the h unter c arr ies h is weapo n , a r ifl e , o n h is

s h o ul d er ,

w e h av e the no un s f r ie n d an d we apo n l i m i t ed or d escrib ed b y

the a ddi ti o n of h unter an d r ifl e . Th ere ar e i m p l i ed i n the sen
t en ce t h e t w o as serti o n s t hat

my f ri en d is a hunte r, an d h is wea po n is a r ifl e ;

b ut th ey are o n ly im p l ied , n o t act ua ll y m a d e .

A no un thus used i s ca ll ed AP P OS I T I VE, o r is s ai d t o b e IN

AP P O S I T I ON w i th th e oth er n oun .

’ ’
This m ean s
‘
in p o siti on b y th e si de o f, or set a on g si l de ;
b ecause th e pp ositi v e n oun seem s l ess c l o sel y c on n ect ed
a w i th
th e n o un w hi ch i t d esc ri b es l ess d ep en d en t o n i t than th e at, ,

t ri b uti v e adj ec ti v e i t i s rather an i n d ep en d en t w or d add ed t o

, , ,

t h e o t h er for th e p urp o se -o i furth er d escrib i n g t h e sam e t hi n g .

37 6 . B ut
dj ec t i v e i s al so o ften j oi n e d t o a n oun i n
an a

a l oos er an d m o re i n d ir ec t w ay s o m uch l ik e t h at o f th e ,

a pp o si t i v e n o un th at i t i s al so t o b e c all e d an A P P OS I T I VE

AD J ECT I V E .

E x am p l es are

f o r these reaso ns , a o we d v and s ec ret ;

a ll po etry , a n c i e n t o r m o d ern ;

yo un g , h a n d so m e , an d v
c le e r , t he pag e was t he d arl i n g

of t he ho use ;

w h ere th e sh a de o f m ean i n g is a l ittl e d i li eren t from w h at i t

w o ul d b e i n

f o r t h ese v
a o wed and s e c ret reas o n s ;
a l l a n c i e n t o r m o d e rn po e try ;
t he yo un g , h a n d so m e ,
and l v er
c e pag e .

We h av e ,
n am e ly ,
i n th e appo s t i iv e dj e t iv e a m ore d i st i
a c n ct s ugg es t i o n o f an
 1 70 THE S I M PL E S ENTE NCE .
[ 37 9

37 9 In l an guag es w h i ch i n fl ec t t h eir adj ec t i v es, an d in fl ect t h ei r n o un s

.

m o re fu ll y, attr i b ut iv e an d appos i t iv e w ord s are reg ul arl y m ad e t o a g r e e i n c ase,

m b er an d c as e, w i t h t h e n o u n s ) w h i c h t h ey
o r in n u n s ( o r pron o u
qual i fy o r
d esc r i b e B ut n o suc h ag reem en t i s po ss i b l e w i t h t h e E n g li sh adj ec t iv e, b e
.

c au se i t i s w h o ll y u n i n fi ec t ed ( w i t h t h e e x c ept i on o f th i s an d t h es e th at an d ,

t h os e : s ee an d l y i m perfec t l y m ad e i th e po ssessiv e
it is on n c ase o f th e
appo s i t iv e n o m r . W e are all o w ed t o say i n d eed , ,

t he ifl i myf i d
r e t he h u t e s ;
s r en
’
s, n r
’

b ut th e e x pressi on seem s a wk w ard t o us, an d w e pr efer t o say t he sam e t in g i n h

s o m e ot h er w ay as,
hu t
it b e l o n gs to m y fr ie nd, t he n er.

Or w e put th e sign o f t h e po ssess iv e c ase o n l y o n t h e l a st n o un

, ( see 1 38 ) t h us ,

yf i d th h u te s ifl m r en e n r
’
r e .

It i s usel ess t h en t o add a y u,

l e ab o ut ag reem en t
,
n r .

[ S E x i XVI t th d f th ch pt
ee erc se ] .
, a e en o e a er .

A D VE R B .

38 0 . As the adj ecti v e i s th e usual qualifi er of t he n oun , ,

so th e a d v erb i s th e usua l qualifi er o f t he o th er m em b er o f

th e si m ple s en t en ce, th e v erb .

Ad v erb s qual i fy v erb s i n all th e v ari etyo f m ean i n g th at b e

l on gs t o th em , b ut w i th o ut y d iff eren c e o f rel ati o n (l ik e th at
an

of th e p redi cati v e an d at tri b uti v e rel at i o n i n th e adj ec ti v e)

w hi c h i s of i m p ortan c e en o ugh t o b e distin guish ed an d d efi n ed .

38 1 . A d v erb s ( as w e h av e l
a rea dy s een , 4 1—2 , 30 8 - 9 )
q uali fy al so a dj ec t i v es ,
an d so m et i m es o th er a d v erb s .

There are e v en cases i n w h i ch an a d v erb q ual ifi es a p rep osi

ti o n : thus,
a res ut l f a r b eyo n d h is h o pes ;
he j um ped c l e a r ov e r t he wall ;

a n ai l d r iv e n d e e p i n to t he wo o d .

S uc h c ases s h ad e o ff i n to t h o se in w h ich t h e q ua f l i y i g w ord

n is no pro per
ad ve br ,
b ut an j
ad ec t iv e be l o n g in g t o th e n ou n , to w h i c h th e prepos t i i o n al
p h rase i s add ed .

38 2 . An a d v erb i s q ui te o ften used w i th th e v al ue of a p red

i c at e j
a d ec t i ve fo r e x am pl e ,

t he s un Is d o wn , t he m oon is up , an d the stars a re all o ut ;

he was t her e, b ut yo uwer e away.
38 4 ] A D V ER B . 1 71

v e b s i s m u h used as sub st i t ut e for adj ct iv s

An d th e ad r o c e e as we ll as ot h er

parts o f speec h to a v o i d repet i t i o n,

4 93 F e x am pl e s ee . or ,

hi t p w li ght f hi h t w s s e as ,
or s ea r as s o .

L ess o ften as an app o sit iv e adj ec t i v e t h us

, ,

as k at the ho use next a b o ve ; m y stay t h ere wil l b e s ho rt ;

t
t he wa l l wit h i n an d t h at w it h o ut .

S om etim es
(an d .
l ess p rop erl y ) ,
e v en as an at tri b utiv e a d ec
j
ti v e : t hus ,

the ab o ve passag e ; the t he n r ul e r ;

l i m pud e n c e
‘
m y s o m et im e frie n d ; h is a m o st o t m a n n er .

As t o t h e us e o f an ad ve b
r w it h t h e v al ue o f a no un , as o b ec t o f a j pr epo s i '

t i on , see 32 2 .

38 3 . We hav e t hen t he r ul es
, ,

XI . An a d ve r b q ua lifi es a v erb ,
an ad j ec t i v e , or a n o th er

ad v er b .

XI I . An a d v erb is so m e t i m e s us e d w i th th e val ue of an

ad j ec t i v e , es p ec i a l l y o f a pr ed i c a t e ad j ec tiv e .

[ S ee E x i X VI I
erc se .
, at the en d o f th e c h apt er ] .

G E N I I I VE
' ‘
OR P O S S E S S I VE CA SE OF NOU NS .

384 . We ha v e seen ( 6 8 et c .

) th at E n g l i sh no un s an d

p ro n oun s hav e an i n fi ec ti o n al fo rm w hi ch i s ca ll e d t h ei r
GENI T IVE o r P o ss e s srva c a se : t h us ,

J o h n s fro m J o h n ;
’
m an s
’
fro m m an ;
m en s
’
fro m m en ; h is from he ;
t h e ir or t h e irs fro m t h ey ;

an d t hat th e c ase i s us ua l l y ca l l ed p o ssess i v e b ec ause i t

is p ec iall y used i n c o n n ec t io n w i th an o ther n oun
es , ,
to p oin t
ou t t he p o ssessor o f w h atev er that n o un s ig n i fi es ,
th e per
so n o r t h i n g to w h i c h i t b el o n g s .

Fo r e x am pl e ,
if a b o o k has J o h n fo r i ts o w n er , we ca ll it
John s ’
bo o k ; a c ro w n b el o n g i n g t o the k i n g is th e ki n g s c ro w n ; ’

an d , in a m o re fi gura tiv e w a y, th e d o i n gs th at b el o n g to a
ce rta in d ay ll ed that d ay If has d ebts
’
a re ca s d o in g s . a m an ,
1 72 T H E S M P LE SE NTE NCE I .
[ 334

we ll t hem h is d ebts ; t he a c t p erfor m ed b y him

ca i s his ac t ;
th e faul ts h e h as c o m m i tted are h is f a ul ts a n d so o n .

38 5 . T h e p o s s e s s i v e us e of t h is c as e, i t s use g en t as a i iv e of p os s i on o r se s

u
a pp r ten a n c e (t ak i n g t h ese w o rd s i n a so m h
ew at w d e an d i l o se sen se) i s b y
o ,

far t h e
ca ll fo r
m o st c o m m o n o f all

n o t ce i .
i n En g li sh b ut t h ere
“ e t wo o r t h ree o th e s w h i c h r

a . If th e q ual i fi ed no un sig n ifi es s om e act o n i or c on d i t i on of w h i ch ,

i f it
w ere x
e pr essed b y a v erb ,
th e no un i n th e g en i t iv e l
w o ud b e t h e s ubj ect, th e
c ase is ca ll ed a S U B J ECTIVE g en t i iv e .

h
T us, i n
a m o t h e r ’s l vo e, T ro y ’s fa ll ,
t he b ug l e
’
s so un d ,
C ’
ae s a r s pass a g e of t he Rub i c on,

i s im p l i ed t h a t
t he m o t he l v r o es , T ro y ha s f a ll en , t he b ug l e so un d s ,
C ae s a r pass e d t he Rub i con .

b . If, on the ot h er h an d ,
t h e g en i t iv e w o ul d b e the o bjec t of t he ac t i on

e xp essed
r b y th e ot h er n oun in v e b fo m w e c all i t a
r - r ,
n OB J E C TI VE g en t i i ve .

Th us i ,
n

e a rt h ’
s c reato r, s i n ’s re b uke , his m urd er,
it -
is i m pl i ed t h at so m e o n e

c r e at ed e ar th ,
r eb uke d s i n m urd e red him
T he o b ec t j
iv e g i t iv e i s m uc h l ess c om m on i n En g li sh th a t he subj ect iv e
en n .

0 On c e m o e if t h e rel at i o
. rf th t w
,
o u s i s l og i c all y t h at o f apposi ti n
n o e o n n o ,

an d m i g h t al so b e so ex p essed t h se i s c all ed an A P P OS IT I VE g e i t iv e
r ,
t hus e ca n ,

B it i il ; r Nu i d ia n
’
sp i u ki g d
s e m a
’
s s ac o s n om .

T h e appo s i t iv e g en i t iv e i s n o w al m o st o b so l ete b ut i t o c u s so m et i m es i n ,
c r

po et y r .

38 6 In t hi s w ay, a n oun i n i ts p o ssessi v e c ase

.
-
fo rm b ec o m es

a q ual ify i n g , o r d escri p t i v e, or l im i t i n g a dd i ti on t o an o th er n o un ,

m uc h as if i t w ere an att ri b ut iv e a dj ec tiv e . Often w e c an put

an a dj ec tiv e in p l ac e o f t he p o ssessi ve , w i th l i t tl e or n o d ifferen c e
o f m ean n i g th us ,

t he d ay
’ ’ ’
the ki n g s c ro w n , s d o in g s , m an s i m perfe c tio n s ,

m a y a so l be d esc rib ed as

t he y
ro al c ro w n , the d ai l y d o i n g s , h um an i m perfec tio n s .

An d w e s aw ab o ve ( 1 6 5 , 2 0 5 ) t h at t h e p ossessi v e cases o f
t he p erson al p ro n oun s , es
p ec i a ll y ,
are n o t to b e sharp l y d i stin

g uish ed fro m adj ec t iv es .

1 74 T HE S I M P LE SE NTE NCE .
[ 39 0

ty i n g a no un i t i s
,
a so so m eti m es
l used w i thout ,
an y s p eci al
f
c ase- o rm ,
i n t he m an n er o f an a d v erb : t hat i s t o say, to

q ua l i fy a v erb ,
o r an a dj ect i v e ,
o r e v en a n a d v erb .

E x am p l es ar e as fo ll o w s . W i th v erb s
t hey wa lked a m il e; he sat a n h o ur ;
o ur f rie n d d ied l ast n ig ht; it f e l l a lo n g d i s t a n c e ;
it fac es b o t h w a y s .

W ith adj ec tiv es

t he v
ri er is a m il e b ro ad h ere ;
a ser m o n two h o ur s lo n g ;
a fi e ld t h ree ac res la rg e r t ha n a n o ther .

W ith a dv erb s
he l iv es a l o ng d i s t a n c e o ff ;
h is h o use is a g reat d e a l b etter b u il t ;

yo u s h o uld h av e c o m e a n h o ur s o o n e r ;
it will b e a ll the s am e a h un d re d ye a r s he nc e ;
t h ey watc h e d al l n i g h t l o n g .

39 1 . As w e d o n ot use the pro n o un s i n thi s w ay, an d as o ur

no un s ne v er h av e d i fferen t fo rm s in th e n o m i n ati v e an d o b ec j
ti v e , th ere i s n o t hi n g in o ur l an guage to sh o w t hat the c a se thus
used i s rea ll y the j
o b ec t i ve . B ut th is a pp ears fro m the usage i n
o l d er E n gl i sh l an guages an d w e m igh t al so i n fer
an d in o th e r

i t fro m t h e fac t th at w e o ften use a p rep osi ti o n t o c o n n ect such a

n ou n w ith th e w o r d w hi ch i t q u al ifi es t h us

he s at fo r an h o ur ; it fa c e s i n b o th d irec t io ns ;
l arg er b y t hr e e a c res .

W e m ay b est c al l thi s use o f the n oun therefore an , ,

ADV ER B I AL OB J E CT I VE : t hat i s an o bj ec t i v e c ase used w ith ,

t h e v a l ue o f an a d v erb .

392 . It is p a l in en o ug h th at , fo r x
e am pl e in
,

he w a ke dl a m il e ,

the no un m il e is in no pro per sen s e th e j

o b ec t o f the v erb l
w a ke d , an d t h at the
v erb is i nt ran si ti ve ,
as usua l .
39 5] ADV E RB I AL O B J ECT I V E . 1 75

Y et, i n s uc h sen t en c es,i l bj ect iv e som et i m es so far ssum es th e

t he ad v erb a o a

c h aract r o f an obj c t t h at w e t urn i t i t o t h ubj ec t o f pass iv ph e ( as w e

e e n e s a e ras

al so so m et i m s d o a i d i rec t obj ect s 30 5 ) t h u

e n n ee s,

th il e w w l k d by hi i tw lv i ut
e m as a e m n e e m n es .

W e m ay d i stin g ui sh a w o rd t h us used b y al li g i t n AD VER B I AL OB J E CT c n a .

39 3 The a d v erb i a l o bj e c ti v e i s used esp ec i all y t o ex

.

p ress m ea sur e ; w hether d urat i o n o f t i m e o r e x ten t o f d i s ,

t an ce o r sp ac e o r w eight o r n um b er o r age o r v a l ue an d
, , , , ,

t he lik e B ut i t al so e xp resses th e ti m e at w hi c h an y
.

t hi n g h app en ed an d m u c h m o r e rarel y m a n n er as i n
, , ,

hav e it yo ur o wn way; he c am e f ul l s pee d .

No w an d th en,su h c an j
o b ec t iv e is ad d ed to a no un , w i t h . j
ad ec t iv e v a l ue
h
t us
m y d ream l ast n i ght ; his ad v ent ures th i s d ay .

394 . We h av e t hen t h e rul e

, ,

XI V . A n o un ex p r e ss i n g m ea s ur e or tim e is so m e t i m e s use d
in th e o b j e ct i ve c a se W i th an a d ver bi a l v al ue , or t o q ua li f y a

v er b , o r a d j ec t i v e , o r a d v er b .

N OU N U SE D AB SOL U T E L Y .

39 5 . There i s yet an o th er w ay i n w hi c h a n o un (o r pr o
no un ) i s som et im es m ad e t o d esc rib e o r qual i fy som eth i n g
in a sen t en ce, w i th o ut h av i n g i t s r e at i o n
l t o w h at i t qua l i
fi es d en ot e d ei th er b y a c ase- o rm f or by a c o n n ec t i n
g w or d .

Thus w e , s ay

he lay d o wn , h is h e a rt h eavy with s o r ro w ;

he fl ie s , w il d t e rro r in h is l o o k ;

t h ey c h a rg e d , s wo rd in ha n d an d viso r d o wn ;
t h ey s it s id e b y s id e ;
t he m o un ta i n ro se , he ig ht abo ve he ig ht .

A w o rd th us us ed
l w ays h as t o i t a n app o s iti v e adj oe
a a dd e d

ti v e o r a w o rd o r p h ra s e o f so m e k in d
(a n a d v erb a p rep ,

o s it i o n al p h ras e et c
) ha v i n g t he sa m e v al ue An d t he t w o
, . .

t og eth er a ns w e r th e p urp os e o f an acc o m p a n y i n g t ra i t o r c irc um

stan ce add ed to the sen te n ce (g e n e rall y in th e m an n er o f a n
 1 76 T HE S M P LE I SE N T E N C E .
[ 39 5

a d v erb i al pred i cate : see It i s as if wit h or h av in g o r a ,

c o n j un c t i o n a n d t h e v erb b e o r so m et hi n
g , of the k i n d w hi c h
,

m i h t h av e b een used w ere o m i tt ed : t h u s

g , ,

he lay d o w n , hav i n g a h e art h eavy etc ; .

he lay d o wn , wh il e h is h eart was h eavy eta ;

‘

he fl ie s wit h wi l d te rro r i n h is lo o k ;

h e fl ie s , an d wi l d t erro r is i n h is lo o k .

396 . S uc h a w or d i s sai d to be used AB S OLU TE LY, o r t o

b e in AB S OLU TE c o n struc ti o n , b ecause i t a pp ears to st a n d as

cu
’
if ‘
l oose from the sen t en c e t o w hi c h i t b el on gs the
t ,

usua l si gn o f rel ati on t o the w o r d s i t q ualifi es b ei n g w an t

ing .

Th e ab so l ute c on str uct i on is espec a i ll y c om m o

h a pa t i c i pl e qual i fy i n g n w it r

th e m oi m o p on o un ( ee b l o w 4 6 1 )
r r an d t h e c o st u
s e ,
c t i on o f t h e p on u n n r r o ,

wh i h is ve y
c re e x c ept w i t h a part i c i pl e sh o ws t h at the c ase u
r ra sed is reg u ,
l arl y
t h e n o m i at iv e n .

397 . Thus w e h av e th e rul e

XV . A n o un or pr o n o un , al on g w i th an a p p o si t i v e ad jec t i v e
or i ts eq ui v a l e n t , i s so m et i m es us e d in th e n om in ativ e c a se

a b s o l ut e l y, i n th e m a n n er of an a d v erb , to ex p r e ss s o m e ao

com p a n yi n g c ir c um st a n c e o r c o n di t i o n of th e a ction .

[ S ee E x erc i se XI X .
,
at th e en d o f t he c h apter .
]

P R E P O SI T I ON A L P HRA SE S .

39 8 . A p rep os i ti o n w e hav e seen ( 4 14 —6 , 31 9) t o b e a

c on n ec t i n
g w or d b y m ean s of w hi ch a no unp ro n oun i sor

at t ac h e d to an o t her w or d , an d m a de to l im it or qual i fy i t
in so m e w ay w hi ch t h e p rep os iti o n d efi n es .

An d t he no un or pro n o un t hus attac he d t o an o th er w or d b y

t he prep ositi on is call ed t h e o bj ec t o f t h e p rep osi ti o n o r i s sai d ,

to b e g o v e r n ed by or d ep e n d en t o n i t, an d i s put i n th e oh

jec ti ve c as e

39 9 . The l
r e at i o n s e xpressed b y th e p rep o si tio n s ar e m o st

l i ke t h o se e xp ressed b y t h e c ases o f th e no un : t hus , t h e re a l

ti o n of t he d ativ e obj ec ti v e (36 4 - 6 )
-
m ay a l ways be exp ress ed
1 78 THE S I M P L E SE N T E N C E .
[4 0 2

4 02 . O u th e o th er h an d , if t he w o r d t o w hi ch th e no un
or p ron o un i s attach e d b y the p rep o sit i on i s a v erb or

a dj ec t i v e o r a d v erb th e v al ue o f t h e p hra se i s that o f

,
an

a d v erb an d i t i s c all e d an A D V E R B P HR A SE
,
-
.

Here al so ,
we m ay o ft en s ub stit ut e fo r the a d verb phrase -
a

s i m p l e a d v erb . Thus, fo r

it b urn ed to t he g ro un d , it m o unte d i n t he a ir ,

he s po ke wit h a n g er ,
we m ay sa y

it b urn e d d o wn , it m oun t e d a o ft , l
he s po ke a n g r i ly .

Infac t w e m ay read il y sub st it ute fo r al m ost an y ad v erb an

,

a d v erb i al p h rase m ad e u o f p rep o si ti on an d n o un o ft en w i th

p , ,

a n a dj ec ti v e
qual ifyi n g th e n o un t h us ,

t h e re is i n t h at pl a c e ; n ow is at t h is t i m e ;
hast ily is w it h h aste , or in a hasty m an n er ;
an d so o n .

M an y prepos i t i o n a l ad v erb ph ases h av e assum ed suc h a stereot yped form

- r

th at th e w o rd s are h ar d l y t b e t k en pa t an d parsed separat el y : t h us for

o a a r
,

e x m pl e
a ,

on b o a rd , on fi re , at h d ut f d
an , o o o o rs , on t he w h l
o e, fo r t he prese n t ;

an d we saw ab o v e ( 31 5 ) t h at s uc h ph ases r i
a re so m et m es m ad e o f a prepo s t i i on
an d ad ec t j iv e as ,
in v i a n, fo r l o n g, at pre s e n t ;

an d a so l (31 3 t h at m a y ad v e b s
n r ar e fo rm ed b y fusi n g t og et h er th e w o rd s o f

s uc h ph rases as,

a b r e as t , afi re , a n ew , a b r o ad , b e s d es , i be l ow , outd o o rs , b efo re h an d , to -d a y
o v e r b o a rd .

4 03 . v e a l read y see (32 2 ) t h

We ha n at an ad ve b r -
ph r ase, l i ke an ad v erb ,

so m e t i m es t k es th e pl ac e o f n o un a o bj
a a s ec t o f a pr epo s t i i on fo r ex am pl e ,

h we t f e h n h ro m e re , e c am e f ro m be y ond t he s ea .

4 04 . We h av e t h en t h e
, ,
fo ll ow i n g rul es as t o th e use o f
p rep osi t i on s
XV I . A p r e po s i t i o n f o r m s w i th i ts ob j ect e i th e r a n a d je c t i ve

phra se, q ua l i f yi n g a n o un , or an a d r er b-
p h ra s e, q ua l i f yi n g
a v erb or ad j e c t i ve or ad v er b .
406 ] S U MM ARY o r SY NTACT I CAL COMB NAT I ONS I . 1 79

XV I ] . Th e ob j ec t of a p r e p o si t i o n (if a n o un or pr o n o un ) is
in th e ob j ec t i v e c a se .

[ S ee E xerc i se XX , . at t h e en d of t h e c h apt er .
]

4 05 . We hav e n ow
g o ne t hro ugh w i th t he p arts of

s p ee ch w h i ch com b i n e w i th on e a n o t h er to fo rm si m ple
s en t en c es, an d h av e n ot i c e d t he w ay s i n w hi ch th ei r c om

hi m at i o n s are m a de .

I n these w ay s th e ,
n ec essar y l
e em en ts of the s en t en c e,

t he b are sub ec tj an d p r e d i c at e , are e x ten d e d an d fill ed up

so as to e xp ress a th o ught i n a m o re c o m p l et e an d d et ai l e d

m an n er .

4 06 . We m ay s um up t he p ro c esses o f co m b i n ati o n as
’
fo ll o w s (i n t hese st at em en ts fo r b rev i t y s s ak e , ,
w e t reat the
p ro n o un as i n c l ud e d a l o n g w i th t he n o un )
a . The ori
g i n al e em en t s o f
l th e sen t en c e are th e sub ec t j
no un an d the v erb .

b . Th e m ean i n g of th e v erb m ay b e fi lled out b y an

o b ec t -n o
j un ; l
a so , by a p red i c at e adj ec ti v e or n o un (qual i
ty i n g either the subj ect or th e o bj ec t) or i t m ay b e m o d i

fi ed by an a d v erb .

c . A no un i n a n y c o n str uc t io n i n the sen t en c e m ay be

q u ali fi ed b y a n a dj e c t i v e ; an ad ec t i v e,
j b y an a d v erb ; an

a d v erb b y an o th er a d v erb
, .

d . A no un m ay be m a de t o qual i fy an o th er n o un ,
a d ec j
t i v ely, b y b ei n g put i n t he p ossessi v e c ase o r b y b ei n g ,

j o in e d t o the o ther n o un b y a p rep os it io n i t m ay b e m a d e

t o qual ify a v erb o r a dj ec t i v e o r a d v erb a d v erb ial l y s o m e , ,

t im es i n the o bj ec t i ve c ase s im p l y b ut usuall y b y m ean s ,

o f a p rep o s it io n .

ab s o l u o n s t u ti n w i th an ppo s i t i v e dj u c t is
“
Th e te (395 ) f
c ou r c on o a n a a n

h ere l ft un ti ed a b i g l s c m
e no c ,
sd p t f m th
e n di
e s ypo o m o n , an a ar ro e or nar r

s s o f se t
c es e m ki g n Al
e n c e- th am p u d i g o f th
n v i u l m t f
. so , e co o n n e ar o s e e en s o

a s n t nc by m a
e e e f j u ti
e ns o b au e th i i
co n ki d f b b nc ons i ec s s s a n o a r ev a

ti on ,an d w il l b e t eated f i l te pl a e ( C h pt XV II
r o n a a r c a er .
1 80 T HE S I M PL E SE NTENCE .
[ 4 0 7 -41 0

4 07 . T he w o r d s an d p h rases thus a dd ed to t he sub e ctj

no un ,
or b are s ubj ect ,
an d to th e v erb , or b are p red i c at e ,

are, in ei th er
ll e d i ts Q UAL I FI ERS or
c ase, c a ,
M O D IFI ER S o r ,

AD J U N CT S o r c o ll ec ti v el y i t s COMP L EMENT
, An d th e b are , .

su bj ec t o r p red i cate a l on g w i th i t s a dj un c ts o r m o d ifi ers i s

c al l e d th e COMP LETE su bj ect o r p re d i c at e .

Som prefer t o
e s peak o f th e s ubj ec t as e x ten d ed or l
en arg ed , an d of

th e i
pred cat e as c om l
p et ed , b y t h e
”
ad d iti o n s m ad e to eac h respect iv l y e an d

h en c e, to l l t he h l
ca w o e sub ect t h ej l
en arg ed or e x t en d ed s ubj ec t , an d to
ca ll on l y th e p ed i c at e
r
“
c om l
p et ed or com l
p et e
”
; b ut t h e di sti n ct ion is
n ot o f c o n seq uen c e en o ug h t o b e w ort h m ak i n g .

4 08 . A S I M P LE S ENTEN CE is on e w hi ch i s d e up of o n e
m a

s ubj ec t an d of o n e p red i c ate h o w ev er ,

m an y w or d s ei th er

of th em m ay c o n tai n .

4 09 . I n t he w ay s
d escrib ed ab o v e th e si m p l e sen t en ce ,

i s i n th eory c a p ab l e o f b ei n g d raw n o ut an d fi lled up t o

, ,

a n y e x t en t m ad e a w h o l e p a e l on
g g fo r i n st an ce B u t ,
.
,

i n p rac ti c e t he l en gth o f a sen t en c e i s k ep t w i thin l i m i ts

,

b y t he fear o f b ec om i n g aw k w ar d an d l um b eri n g or ev en ,

un i n t ell igi b l e \Ve put w hat w e h a v e t o say b y p referen c e

.
, ,

i n t o a seri es o f b ri efer sen t en ces sep arate st at em en t s An d ,

.

t h e rel at i o n o f these sep arat e st at em en t s t o o n e an oth er w e

o ft en d et erm i n e b y m ean s o f c o n n ec ti n w o rd s
g .

41 0 . The c o n n ec t i n g w or d s w h i ch d et erm i n e t h e l
r e a ti o n of

s en t en c es to j un ct io n s an d t he rel ativ e o r
o n e an o th er are t he c on

c on j un c ti v e p ro n o un s an d p ro n o m i n a l adj ec ti v es T hese b i n d .

t o g eth er si m p l e s en ten c es m ore o r l es s co m p l et el y i n to a w h o l e .

C om b in a ti o n s o f si m p l e sen ten c es m ad e i n t hi s w ay are c all ed

‘

c o m p ou n d an d c o m p l e x sen t en c es an d w e hav e n ex t to tak e u p

an d e xp l a i n suc h s e n t en c e s .
1 82 T HE S I M PL E S ENTE NCE .
[ C H AR

T h at L o ui s w h o w a s st y l ed t h e fa t h er of h i s peo pl e .

How r em a r k a b l y h ea v y i t i s ! i t feel s h ea v i er t h an us ual .

S om e b o r n g r ea t
are .

A F r en c h k i n g w a s b r o ug h t pr i s on er t o L o n d o n .

N o w I h a v e fo un d h i m ; a n d t h o u a rt h e .

N o w i s t h e w i n t er of o ur d i s c o n t en t
M a d e g l o ri o us s um m er b y t h i s s un o f Yo r k .

Th e w o r k o f ea c h im m or t a l b ar d a ppear s

Th e sin gl e w o n d er of a t h o us an d y ear s .

S h e w o uld m ak e a h er o i n e t h an Cl el i a
b ett er .

Th e fi en d l i es s tr et c h e d o ut h ug e i n l en g t h ,
.

She s t o o d s i l en t a s th e h era l d s pr es s e d her h a n d

,
.

The fo g c a m e po ur i n g i n a t ev er y C h in k a n d k e y h ol e .

Hi s s il en c e w i ll si t d r o o pi n g .

My w ed d i n g -b ell r i n g s m err y in m y ea r .

XV . O b je c t s of t h e V e r b ; O b j e c t i ve P re d i c a t e : 35 8 -71 .

Th e j
o b ec t i ve p redi cat e w o rd m ay b e d escrib ed qual i fyi n g (or, as

if a no un , as l
re at i n g to an d d escri b i n g) suc h an d such a n o u n or

p un , as obj ec ti v e pr edi cat e, b ei n g b ro ugh t i n t o

ro n o c o n n ect i o n wi th i t
b ys uch an d such a v erb , o f W hi c h i t (t h e n o un or pron o un ) i s the
d ir ec t j
o b ec t .

y v i r t uo us d eed s b e h i n d
’
I l l l ea v e m y son m .

Now c a ll m e the c h i ef o f t h e h a r em -g ua rd .

H e w r o ug h t t h e c a st l e m uc h an n o y .

I m ean yo u n o h a r m .

He g i v es h i s pa r en t s n o t r em ul o us a n x i et y.

An i n a us pi c i o us o th e e is en j o i n ed t h ee .

We ul d ra i s e yo u fi v e h un d r ed s o l d i ers
“

co .

A sk m e no q ue s t on , a n d
i s I l l t ell yo u n o fi b s
’
.

G ra n t m e s til l a fr i en d i n m y r et rea t ,
W h om I h i s per
m ay w ,
S o l i t ud e i s s w e et !

M err y el v e s t h ei r , m o rr i c e pa c i n g ,
T r i p i t d eft an d m err i l y .

She s w eeps i t t h r o ug h t h e co ur t w it h t r o o ps of l a d i es .

We c an w al k i t per fec t l y w el l ; w e w an t no c o a ch to c a rr y us
n ow

T h e g a l e h a d s i g h ed i t s el f t o r es t .

H e s i g h ed a s i g h , a n d pr a y e d a pra y er .
K II I J E XER C I S E S .
1 83

D ea t h g r i n n e d h orr i b l e a g h a st l y sm ile .

W e w i l l k i s s s w eet k i s s es .

Fr o m t h em I
g o t hi s un c o ut h err an d s ol e .

C r ad l e s r o c k us n ear er t o t h e t o m b .

P er s ev er a n c e k ee ps hon or b ri g h t .

A ll m en t h in k a ll m en m o rta l b ut t h em s el v es .

He h i d es hi s o wn o ffen c e s , a n d s t r i ps ot h er s ’
b ar e .

O n e t o uc h o f n at ur e m ak es t h e w h o l e w o r l d k in .

Y o u t h in k h im h um b l e ; G o d a c c o un ts h i m pr o ud .

Th e h o w er h as l eft t h e m yrt l es a n d t h e v i o l et
s b an k
-
fr esh .

S o o n er s h a ll t h e y d r in k t h e o c ean d r y .

I w arr an t h i m a w arr i o r t r i ed .

I m ust n o t s ee t h ee O sm a n s b rid e’
.

H ea v en s b l es t b ea m t urn s v i n eg ar m or e s our
’
.

T h e y fo un d t h e l an g ua g e a b ar b a r o us j a rg on .

E v en s i l en t n i g h t pr o c l a i m s m y ko ul i m m o rt al .

A t t en t i on h eld t h em m ut e
.
.

At t ri b ut i ve
'

XVI . an d A ppo s i t i ve Ad j e c t i v e an d No un
37 2 - 9 .

We m ay d escrib e t he a ppo si ti v e no un as in appo si t i o n w i th such

an d s uch a no un (o r pro n o un ) , b ei n g ad d ed to it i n o rd er furth er t o
d esign at e t he sam e t hi n g an d the ap osi t i
p ve a d ect i j ve i n a si m il ar
m an n er .

H i s t o r y i s ph i l o soph y t ea c h i n g b y ex a m pl es .

W i t h o ut t h e a ss i s t an c e o f t h es e w o r k s , i n d eed , a . r ev o l ut i on
c ould h a v e t a k en pl a c e — a r ev o l ut i o n pr o d uc t i v e o f m uc h g o o d
an d uc h ev i l ; t rem
m en d o us b ut s h o rt l i v ed
- ev i l ; d ea r l y pur c h ased
b ut d urab l e g o o d .

L ea rn in g , t h a t c o b w eb of t h e b ra i n .

A r d en t an d i n t r epi d on t h e fi el d of b a tt l e , M on m o ut h w as e ver y
w h er e e l s e efl em i n a t e a n d i rr eso l ut e .

I fo un d th e ur c h i n C upi d s l eepi n g .

O u h i m t h ei r s ec on d P ro v i d en c e t h e y h un g
, , .

S i s t er L i v y i s m a rr i ed t o far m er W i l l i a m s .

T h e y san g D ar i us g o o d a n d gr ea t , ,

B y t o o s e v er e a fa t e
Fa l l en fr o m h i s h i g h e s ta t e ,

A n d w e l t er i n g i n h i s b l oo d .

Tr ut h c rus h e d t o ea r t h s h a l l r i s e a g a i n ;
, ,

B ut E rr o r w o u n d ed,
w r i t h es w i t h pa i n a n d
, ,
d i es .
1 84 T HE S I M PL E SE N T E N C E .
[cam

Am a z ed , c o n fus ed , h e fo un d h i s po w er ex pi r ed .

N ow th e h era l d l ark l eft h i s g ro un d n es t .

T h e d aug h t er of a h un d r ed earl s ,

Y ou are n ot on e t o b e d es ir e d .

N ow t h e b r ig ht m o r n in g s t ar , day ’
s h arbi n g er ,
C om es d an c i n g fr o m t h e E a s t .

T h ey a ll , h o n e c on s en t b eg an t o m ak e ex c use
w it , .

E n t h us i a s t i c a l l y a tt a c h ed t o t h e n a m e o f lib er t y t h es e h i s t or i an s ,

t r o ub l ed t h em sel v es l i t t l e a b o ut i t s d efi n i t i o n .

S uper fi uo us l a g s t h e v et eran on t h e s t ag e .

V o l um ed an d v as t a n d r o l l i n g far
, , ,

ud S c o tl a n d
’
Th e cl o en v el o ped s w ar .

R aw 1 11 fi el d s , t h e r ud e m ili t i a s w ar m s ;
M out h s h o ut h a n d s m a i n t a i n ed a t v a s t ex pen s e
w it , ,

I n pea c e a c h a r g e i n w ar a w ea k d e fen c e ;
,

S t out on c e a m o n t h t h e y m a r c h a b l us t er i n g b an d
, , ,

An d ev er b ut i n t i m es o f n eed a t h an d
, , .

X VI I . Ad ve rb s : 38 0 - 3 .

The ord n ariy c on st uc t i on s o f r t he ad v erb h av e b een ab un d an t l y ex em pl ifi ed

in th e ex e c i ses a l read y g iv en
r .

B ut c l o s e ar o un d t h e b o d y n o c ri es w ere h ear d .

Th e m i g h t y w r e c k l a y r i g h t a t h w a rt t h e s t r eam .

H er e w a s t h e c h a i r o f s t at e, h a v i n g d i r e c t l y o v er it a ric h
c an op y .

Th e pr i c e o f a v ir t uo us w om an i s fa r a b ov e r ub i es .

He i s ab ov e , sir, c h an gin g h i s d re s s .

T h e fea s t w a s o v er i n B r an k s o m e t o w er .

H i s fa t h er l eft h i m w ell o ff .

My s on is ei t h er m ar r i e d , or g o in g t o b e so .

I h av e fo rg o t m y par t , an d I am o ut .

His rig ht ar m i s b ar e ;
So i s the b l a d e o f h i s s c i m i t ar .

Out s t e ps , w it h ca ut i o us fo o t an d sl ow ,

An d qui c k , k e en g l a n c es t o
'

an d fr o ,
Th e o ut l a w .

I pra y t h ee b y t h e g o d s a b o v e .

O n m y w a y h i t h er, I s a w h er c o m e fo r t h .

T arr y t i l l h i s r et urn h om e .

I t i s th e s i gn a l of o ur fr i en d s w it in h .
1 86 T HE S I M PL E S E NTE N CE .
[ C H AR

C o w ar d s d i e m an y tim es b efo r e t h ei r d eat h s .

Th e d uk e W ill n ot d raw b a c k a si n g l e i n ch .

His h o ar y h ea d c o n s pi c uo us m an y a l ea g ue .

I yo u o g l e h er a ll d a y
’
11 m ak e .

T h us h a v e I b e en t w en t y y ear s i n t h y h o us e .

T h e b i r d o f d aw n i n g s i n g et h a ll n i g h t l o n g .

T en d erl y h er b l ue e y es g l i s t en e d l o n g ti m e ag o .

T h i s d a y w i ll I b eg i n t o m a g n if y t h ee .

Fi v e t i m es ev er y year h e w as t o b e ex po sed i n t h e pi l l o ry .

S om et h i n g w i c k e d t h i s w ay c o m es .

S ea m en ,
wi t h the s el f-sa m e g al e,
W i ll s ev era l d iffer en t c our s es sa i l .

I w a s b o rn
N o t t h r ee h our s ’
tra v el fr o m t h i s v er y pl a c e .

On e m or n , a P er i at th e g at e
Of E d en stoo d , d i s c o n s o l at e .

F r om m or n
'

T ill n oon h e fell , fr o m n o on t o d ew y ev e ,

’
A s um m er s d ay .

Th e l a s t i m po s s i b l e, h e f ear s t h e fi rs t .

Th e r es t m us t per i s h , t h eir g r eat l ead er s l ai n .

H e l eft m y si d e ,

A s um m er b l o om on h i s fa ir c h eek s ,
a sm i le
P a rt i n g hi s i n n o c en t li ps .

Th er e s h e s t an d s,
An em pt y ur n w i t h i n h er w i t h er ed h an d s .

Eac h in his n arr o w c ell fo r ev er l a i d ,

Th e r ud e fo r efa t h er s of t h e h a m l et s l eep .

’
Th e fo e an d the s t ra n g er w i ll t rea d o er h i s h ead ,
A n d w e far aw a y o n t h e b ill ow .

F a st as s h a ft c an fl y,
B l o o d -s h o t h i s e ye, his n o stri s l s pr ea d ,

Th e l o ose r ei n d a n g l i n g fr o m his h ea d ,

H o us i n g an d sa d d l e blood y r ed ,

L or d M arm i on ’
s s t e ed r us h ed b y .

Al l l o o s e h er n eg l i g en t a tt i r e ,

A ll l o o s e h er g o l d en h air ,

H un g M a r g ar et o er
’
h er sl a ug h t er ed s i r e.

Fi r e i n ea c h e ye , an d pa per s i n e a c h h a n d ,
T h ey ra v e, r ec i t e , a n d m a d d en r oun d t h e l an d .
m u). E XE R C I SES .
1 87

Th e r uffi an w h o , w it h g h o st l y g l i d e ,

D agg er i n h an d ,
s t ea l s c l o s e t o y o ur b ed s id e .

XX . P re po s i t i o n a l P h ra s e s : 39 8 - 404 .

H ow t o parse t he prepo si ti o n an d i ts j
o b ec t
parat e w o rd s h as
a s se

b een al r ead y ab un d an t l y ill ustrat ed i n pre v i o us exer ci ses T h e d efi .

n i t i on o f t h e t w o t og et h er as a phrase h as n o w t o b e add ed ; an d
t he c on str uc t i o n o f t h e phras e i s t o b e st at ed , i n t h e sam e m an n er as

t hat l
o f t he s i m
p p e ar t o f s eech t o w hi c h t h e
p phr ase i s eq ui v al en t .
“

A few ad d i ti o n al exam pl es for prac ti ce are gi v en h er e .

An d ev er y s h eph er d t el l s hi s t al e
U n d er t h e h a wt h o rn i n t h e d al e .

Fr o m peak t o pea k , t h e r at t l i n g c ra g s a m o n g ,

L ea ps t h e l i v e t h un d er .

H an d s of i n v i s ib l e s pi r i t s t o uc h t h e s trin gs
O f t h at m y s t er i o us i n s t rum en t, t h e so ul .

T h ere w as h ed d i n g o f b l o o d
s an d r en d in g of h ai r .

W hy to fren z y fl y fo r r e fug e fr o m t h e b l es s i n g s w e po ss es s ?

T h es e ar e s ugg es t i o n s of a m i n d a t ea s e .

Th a t i s a ll t h e d i fferen c e b et w een t h em .

Al l t h e t r i um ph s of t r ut h an d g en i us o v er pr ej ud i c e an d po w er ,
in ev er y co un t r y an d in ev er y a g e, h av e b e en t h e t r i um ph s o f
A t h en s .

By an ex c l us i v e a t t en t i on to on e cl a ss of ph en o m en a , b y an
us i v e t as t e fo r
ex c l o n e s pec i es of ex c ell en c e, th e h um an i n t el l ec t
w as s t un t ed .

We tak e no n ote o f tim e, b ut fro m i t s l oss .

We ’
n e er c an r ea c h t h e in w ar d m an ,

Or i n w a r d w o m an , fr o m w it h o ut .

’
Th e t i m e t wi x t six an d n ow

M us t b y us b o t h b e s pen t m o st pr ec i o us l y .

S h r i l l er
h r i ek s n o w m i n g li n g c om e
s

Fro m w i t h i n t h e pl un d er e d d o m e .

T il l t h en i n b l o o d b y n o b l e P er c y l i e
,
.

O t h er w a y s ex i s t b es i d es t h r o ug h m e .

I c h an c ed upo n t h e pr et t i es t o d d es t fan t a st i c al t hin g of a

d r ea m t h e o t h er n i g h t .

S h e s h a l l b e o ur m es s en g er t o t h i s pa l tr y k n i g h t .

T h e ga l e h a d s ig h ed i t s e l f t o r e s t [
1 88 COM P OU ND AND C OM P LE X S ENTE NCE S .
[ 41 1

C H A P T E R XIV .

C OM P OU N D AND C O M P L E X S E N T E N CE S .

41 1 . We saw i n t he l ast ch a p t er h ow a s en t en c e, w hi l e
st i ll rem ai n i n
g sim ple , co ul d b e fill ed up
.
an d m a de m o re

c om p l et el y ex p ressi v e of a th o ugh t b y ex p an d i n g i t s s ub
o r i t s p re di c at e o r b ot h hat i s by a ddi n g t o t h em a
jec t ,
t ,

v ari et y o f m o d i fy i n g w o r d s or p hrases ac co rdi n g t o c ert ain ,

re u l ar m eth o d s o f c o m b i n at i o n
g .

41 2 . B ut th ere are a so l w a y s b y w hi c h w e put to g eth er

sim ple s en t en c es, ea c h h av i n g i t s o w n sub ec t an d j p redi cat e ,

an d m ak e of t h em a ki n d of w h o l e, a l o n ger an d m ore

i n tr i c at e sen ten c e . If w e sav fo r e x am p l e ,

t h ey s po ke a n d l isten ed ;
we t h ey s po ke but w e l iste n e d ;
t hey s po ke wh il e we l iste n e d ; we l iste n e d w hil e t h ey s po ke ;
we l ist e n e d to wh at t h ey s po ke ;

th er e ar e in each c as e tw o sub ec t — r o n o
j p un s t hey ,
an d we ,
an d eac h of th ese h as i t s ow n p re d i c at e—v erb ,
s po ke an d
l i s te n e d . The assert i o n s o r s t at em en t s are t h erefore t w o .

B ut w e h a v e used b etw een t hem c ert ai n co n n ec ti n

g w o r d s,

w hi ch so un i t e th em th at t h ey m ay be l ook e d up o n as

a ft er all form i n g on ly o n e sen t en c e .

A se n t en ce th us c om p ose d is no l o n ger si m p le ; it i s
ei th er com p o un d or com p l ex (or b oth t ogether) An d .

w e h av e i n t hi s cha p ter to s ee w hat such s en t en c es ar e,

an d h o w th e y are m ad e .

41 3 . As ( 4 0 9) w e do n ot l i ke to m ak e a s im p l e sen tence
too l on g an d i n tri c at e ,
so , o n t he o t her h an d w e d o n ot l ik e
,
1 90 C OM P OU ND AND C OM P LE X SENTEN CE S .
[4 1 4
0

t he g ar d en , wh ere t he g ras s and bus h es we re st i ll wet wit h t he

d e w t h at lay upo n t h e m ,
I s aw a b i rd l y ing on t he g ro un d . It

co ul d n ot fl y, b ec a use so m e o ne ha d w o un d e d it w it h a st o n e .

I pi c ke d t he b i rd up and b ro ug h t it i n to t he h o use put , it i nto a

c ag e , and fe d and te n d ed it un t i l it g o t we l l ; wh e n I l
re ea se d

it , an d it h ew a wa y .

[ S ee E x i
er c se XXL , at th e en d of th e c h apt er .
]

41 5 . T he c o n n ec t i n g w or d s w h i ch b i n d sen t en c es to

g eth er in t o j un ct io n s an d t h e r el at i v e pro
on e ar e th e c on ,

n ou ns
(1 7 4 et c ) an d r el ati v e p ron o m i n a l a dj ec ti v es
.

c o n j un ct i v e u
“ ”
w h i c h are a l s o c all et ( 1 7 5 end
) b ec a s e , ,

th e y th us d o t h e d ut y o f c o n j un c ti on s .

A sen t en ce w hi c h i s o m ed
j w i th o th er sen t en ces to m ak e

a l arger s en t en c e is ca ll e d a C L A U SE .

A c a l use i s l i ke a ph r ase ( 2 80 ) i n bei n g a com b i n at i on of w o rd s t h at often

(4 2 3) per fo rm s the o fli c e o f a s n g e i l w o rd , a part o f speec h but i t d iif ers i n
c on ta i n in g a s ubj e c t an d a pred i c at e, an d so be i n g real l y a sen t en c e b y i tsel f .

l
41 6 . The l uses i n t o sen ten ces i s of
co m b i n at i o n of c a

t w o d egr ees on e c l o ser an d th e o th er l ess c l o se

,
I n the .

l at ter c as e th e c l aus es are put si d e b y si d e an d l o osel y t i e d

,

t o geth er as i t w er e eac h k ee p i n g i t s o w n v al ue as an i n d e
, ,

p en d en t assert i o n i n th e form er c ase o n e c l ause i s m ad e a ,

p art or m em b er o f an o t her or b ec o m es d ep e n d en t o n i t ,
.

A few e x am p l es w il l m ak e th i s d isti n c tio n c l earer .

41 7 . If w e s ay, fo r e x am p l e ,

I awo ke , and I g o t up at o n c e ;
the s un was up b ut it wa s
, h id d e n b y c l o ud s ;
t he b ir d w as s hot , o r so m e o n e ha d str uc k it ;
it was d a rk , f o r t he s un was
h id d en ;
ea c h l it tl e sen ten ce o r c l a use th o ug h j o i n e d o n t o an other , ,
has
th e v al ue o f a s ep arate ass er ti o n i n t h e l arg er sen ten ce .

S uc h cl auses are c a l l ed I ND EP END ENT (o r P R IN CI PA L that

is , of first ran k
42 1 ] C OM P OU ND S E NTE NCE . 1 91

W i th rel ati on to on e an o th er, ag ai n , th ey are c a l l ed CO

’
O R D I N A T E t h at is ,
o f eq ual or d er o r ran k .

41 8 . Th e con j un c t i o n s w h i ch j oi n c l auses i n t hi s w ay ,

l eav i n g t o each i ts own o r ig i n a l c harac t er n o t m aki n

g ,

ei th er d ep en d e n t o n t he o t h er are call e d , ( 2 8 et c ) t h e
3 .

c o -o r d in a ti n g con j un c t i o n s.

41 9 . A se n t en ce w hi ch i s d e up (l ik e t ho sem a ab o v e,

4 1 7) of t wo o r m ore in d ep en d en t c l auses i s c all e d a C OM

P OU N D s en t en c e .

B ut t w o o r m o re i n d epen d e nt c a l us es m ay be so co n n ec t ed in sen se a s to be
reg ard ed a s par ts o f o n e sen t en c e, e en v h
t o ug h t h ey are n o t j o i n ed b y c o n jun c
t ion s t h us ,
I c an n ot go ; m yt i m e is n ot up .

An d , on h er h an d w e o ft e put s i m pl e c o
t he ot ,
t iv e espec i all y
n d or
a n n ec ,
an

b ut at t he b egin n i g o f a sepa a te s t e
, n o ev e of r
p g ph t o po i n t
en n c e, r n a ara ra ,

ou t i n a g en eral w ay i t s rel at i o n t o w h at prec ed e T h us t h ere i s n o ab so l ute s .

di stin c t i o n b et w e t h e sen t en ce an d t h e c l use

en a .

[ S Ex i XX I I t th d f t h h pt ]
ee erc se ,
a e en o e c a er .

42 0 . If ,
on t he o t her h an d w e , say

wh e n I awo ke , I g ot up,

the com b in at i o n i s o f an o th er ki n d . H ere th e on ly rea l

assert i o n i s t hat I g o t up ; th e c l ause w hen I awo ke i s
a d efi n it i o n o f th e t i m e o f m y gett i n g up ; i t m ea n s t he

sam e a s th e a d v erb -p h rase o n w aki n g ; i t i s use d as if i t

w ere an a d v erb o f t im e ual i fy i n g t he v erb g o t up

q .

If ,
agai n ,
we s ay

it c o ud l not fl y b ec a us e it was wo un d ed ,

the s ec o n d l us e has here al so the v al ue o f an

c a a d v erb
qual i fy i n g c oul d n o t fl y l ik e the a d v erb p h rase ,
- on ao

co un t of its wo un d .

421 . Y et ag a i n , if w e sa y

t he b i rd w h ic h I s aw c o ul d n ot fl y,

t he on ly a ssert io n i s t hat the b i rd co ul d not fl y ; t he

c aul
se whi c h I s aw d o es n o thi n m o re than d efi n e or
g
1 92 COM P OU ND AND COM P LEX SE NTENCE S .
[ 42 1

d esc ri b e t he b i rd , j ust a s an a dj ec ti v e w oul d d o It has .

th e v a l ue t herefore o f a n a dj ec t i v e an d c an easi l y b e
, , ,

t urn ed i n t o an a dj ec ti v e fo rm th us ,

the b ird seen by me .

I n d eed h ave seen ( 1 75 ) th t ev e y adj ect iv e q uali fy i g a n o un ( attrib u

,
we a r n

ti v ely o r appo s i t iv e l y ) m ay b e t u ed i t o su c h an adj c t i v e c l au

rn n se t h us e
,

a g d w h i pp d d g
oo m an , a e o ,
are the sam e as

a m an w ho i s g o o d , a dog t h at h as b e e n w h i pp d
e ,
an d so o u .

422 . On c e m o re, if w e say

wh at lay t h e re was a b i rd ,

th e asserti o n i s si m p l y t hat a c ert ai n thi n g w as a bird , an d

th e thi n g i s d e fi n ed or n am ed as b ei n g what lay there .

The p re d i c at e—v erb was h as no o ther su bj ec t than w hat

lay t here . An d these w ord s are eq ui v al en t to the thi n g
lyi n g there a no un w i th an a dj ecti v e d escribi n g i t .

S o in
I s aw t hat it was a b i rd ;
I d id n ot k n o w wh et h e r it wa s a b ir d ;

t he l uses that it
c a was a b i rd an d w hethe r it was a b i rd
d efi n e o r n am e th e t hi n g seen an d th e t h i n g n ot kn ow n ;

th e y ar e j ust as m uc h t he obj ec t s o f s aw an d d id n ot kn ow
as t he b i rd an d an yt hi n g are i n the s en t en c es

I s aw the b i rd ; I d id n ot kn o w a n yt hi n g .

An d i n
I we n t up t o w he re it lay,

th e l use
c a w he re it lay i s j ust as m uch th e o b ect o f
j th e
p rep o si ti o n to as the ho us e i s i n
I wen t up t o the h o use .

N ow al l thesc — b ei n g sub ec t o r j ob ec t j of a v erb ,

or

obj ec t p rep o si ti o n — are c o n s truc t ion s b el o n gi n g t o

of a

n o un s ; a n d c l aus es th u s us ed h av e th e v al u e of n ou ns

i n th e sen t en c es o f w h i c h th ey fo rm a p art .
1 94 C OM P OU ND AND COM P LEX SE NTE NCES .
[4 2 5

Or, t w o or m o re d ep en d en t c l auses of the sam e kin d m ay

h av e t h e s am e c o n st r uc ti on i n a s en t en c e, b ei n g j o i n ed to geth er
by co -
or d in at in g c on j un c ti o n s th us,

a b i rd t hat lay on t he g ro un d and t h at co ul d not fl y;

it co ul d n ot fl y b e c a us e it had b e e n s h ot or it had b ee n hit

w it h a st o n e

I s aw t h at t he b ird was wo un d ed an d t hat it co ul d not fly .

D ep en d en t l uses
c a ,
as w ell as i n d ep en d en t o n es are

ca ll ed co -o r di n ate w h en th us j o i n ed ,
an d h av i n g a l ike o thee,

si n c e —
c o or d i n a te sim pl y m ean s h av i n g t he sam e ran k w i th on e
’
an o th er .

42 6 . A c om p oun d s en t en ce, m oreo v er, m ay be m a d e by

j o in i n g t og eth er i n stea d o f sim p l e sen ten c es co m p l e x o n es
, , ,

o r si m p l e a n d co m p l e x o n es S uch a sen t en ce i s c a ll ed .

C O M P OU N D C O M P L EX -
.

427 . I n th ese w a y s , sen ten c es of v ery great l en gth an d

com p l e x it y are so m et i m es m a de . I n th eor y t her e i s n o ,

l im it x t en t t o w hi ch a sen t en c e m ayb e c om p o un d e d
t o t he e ,

an d m a d e c o m p l e x by the c o m b in at i o n o f c l aus es B ut .

i n p rac t i c e (j ust as i n th e c ase o f t h e e x t en si o n o f t he sim

p l e s en t en ce : 4 0 9
) a l i m i t i s set b y th e fe ar o f b ec o m i n
g
b urd en so m e or un i n t ell ig ib l e .

In d ifferen t yl es o f
st an d
practi ce o f d ifferen t
w riti n g , i n the
a uth o rs, t h e v ari et y as regar d s t he g en eral si m p l i c i ty or c o m

structure o f s en ten c es i s v er y great

plex i t y o f th e .

[S Ex
ee i XX IV t th d f th h pt ]
er c s e ,
a e en o e c a er .

42 8 . We m ay s um up W h at h as b een sa i d o f sen t en c es

o t h erw i se th a n sim pl e in th e fo ll ow i n g d efi n i t i on s an d

r ul es
XV I I I . A s en t en ce w h i ch f o rm s a pa r t of a m ore com pr e
h e n si v e sen ten ce is c a l l ed a c l a us e .

XI X . A cla us e is eit h er in d e pe n d en t or d e pe n d en t : in d e

p en d e n t, if it fo rm s an a s ser t i o n b y i t sel f ; d ep e n d en t , if
4 30 ] D E P E ND ENT C LA U SES .
1 95

it en t er s i n t o s o m e ot h er cla us e w i t h th e val ue of a p a r t; o f
s pe e c h : n a m e l y, of a n o un , an ad j ec tiv e , or an a d v erb .

XX . C l a us e s are ao -o w l i n a t e i f t h ey are of th e sa m e r a n k
W i th on e a n o th er : ei t h er as b ei n g a l ik e in d e pe n d en t, or as

b ei n g a li k e d e pe n d en t, w i th th e sam e c o n st r uc t i o n .

XX I . A s en ten ce is co m p o un d , if m ad e up of in d e pe n d en t

c l a us e s ; com p l ex , if i t con tain s a d epen d en t c l a us e , or m ore

th an on e ; c o m p o un d -c o m p l e ac , if on e or m o re of i ts in d e

pen d en t cla us e s i s com pl e x .

XXI I . C o -o r d i n a te c l a us e s , w h et h er in d e pe n d en t or d e pen

d en t, are us ua ll y j o i n ed t o g et h er by c o -o r d in a ti n g con j un c t i o n s .

XX I I I . A d e pe n d en t cla us e i s j o i n ed to th e c l a us e (i n d e
pe n d en t or d e pe n d en t) on w hich it d e pe n d s, or of w h ic h it
f o rm s a pa r t , by a s ub o r d i n a t i n g con j un c t i o n , or by a r el a

t i v e pr o n o un or ad j ec t i v e .

XX I V . A d e pe n d e n t c l a us e is n am ed f ro m i ts o ff i c e in th e
s en t en ce of W h ich i t fo rm s a pa r t : it is a s ub s t a n t i v e, or an

ad j ec tiv e , or an a d v er b cl a us e .

XXV . A s ub s t a n t i v e -c l a us e is on e w hich perf o r m s th e

o th e e of a n o un : b ei n g th e s ub j e c t or ob j ec t of a v er b , th e

ob j ec t of a pr e po si t i o n , an d so on .

XXV I . An a dj ec t i ve -c l a us e is ,
on e w hich pe r f o r m s th e

ofi i ce of an ad j ec t i v e , by d e sc r i b in g or q ua lif yi n g a n o un .

XXV I I . An a d ve r b -c l a us e i s on e t h at pe r f o r m s th e o ffi c e
.

of an ad v er b , b y q ua i f yi n g l a v e rb , or a d j ec t i ve , or a d ve rb .

A fe w m o re d eta il ed s ta t em en ts a s to t h e th ree d fferen t ki n d s i of d epen d en t

c a l us e s n eed to b e ad d ed h ere .

A D J E C T I V E -C L A U S E S .

429 . Of the d ep en d en t c a l uses , j t he l use i s a d ec t i v c -c a

s im p l est i n i t s c o n str uc ti o n . I t i s a l w a y s th e equi v al en t

o f an attrib uti v e pp o si t i v e
or a a dj ec t i v e an d re u
g l arl y a n d
,

us uall y fo ll o w s the n o un o r p ro n o un w hi c h i t q ual ifi es .

4 30 dj ec t i v e-c l a use i s i n tro d uc e d either b y a rel a

. The a

t i v e p ro n o un or el se b y s uc h a c o n j un c t io n as m ay al so b e
,

c al l e d a rel at i v e a d v e rb (31 3 e 331 n a m el y

) , ,

where wh e n c e wh ith er w h e n why , , , , .

1 96 C OM P OU ND AND C OM P LE X S E NT E N CE S . 4 30

h
E ac of t h ese l ast is eq ui v a l en t t o a r e atl iv e pron o un w i t h a preposit i on
go ve irn n g it .

wh o m t h o u I o ve st i s s ic k ;
h o rse t h a t b o re hi m is b l ac k ;
c ity w h e r e
( i n w hi c h
) hz
e l iv e d ;

cou n t ry w h e n c e
( fro m w hi c h
) eh :
c am e ;
r eas o n w hy ( z for w hi c h ) he is he re ;
tim e w h e n
(: at w hi c h ) Ro m e was f o un d ed .

[ S ee E x i
er c se XXV .
, at th e en d o f th e c h apt er .
]

AD V E R B -C L A U S E S .

4 31 . An d v erb —c l ause usuall y qual ifi es a v erb m uch

a

an a dj ecti v e ; an d as i s al s o th e c ase w i t h si m p l e
l ess o ft en , (
a d v erb s : 30 9) an a d v erb r ar el y e x c ep t i n t he w ay o f d e ,

fi n i n g a d egree .

4 32 . Th e a d v erb c l ause-
i s i n tro d uc e d b y a great v ari et y
of c o nj un c ti o n s ,
an d i t h as t he s am e v ari et y o f m ean i n g s

w hi ch b el o n g t o si m p l e a d v erb s

Thus, w e h av e a d v erb —c l auses

a . Of p l a c e x am pl e
fo r e ,

he lay w h e re he fe l l ;
'
w h i t h e r I g o ye c a n n o t c o m e
, .

b . Of t i m e : for ex am p l e ,

w h en I awo ke it was s ix o c l o c k ;
’
,

m a ke hay wh i l e t he s u n s h i n es .

c . Of m a n n e r an d d eg r e e : fo r ex am p l e ,

he d o es as h e l ike s ;
t h ey are b ette r t h a n we had ex pec te d ;

I a m as t i re d as ever a m a n was
'

(1 . Of c a us e : fo r ex am p l e ,

h e r e t i re d b e c a us e he c o ul d n o t he l p it ;
cu rse d b e I t h at I d i d s o ;
,

s i n c e yo u say it w e b e l i ev e it ,
.
1 98 C OM P OU ND AND C OM P LEX SENTENCES .
[ 434

Th us, th e sub stan ti v e-c l ause i s us ed

a . As s ubj ec t of a v erb for e x am pl e .

what t h ey s ay is n o t t o t he po i nt ;

wh eth e r yo u g o o r s ta y is of l ittl e ac c o unt ;

t hat he is l
a re ad y g o n e d is a ppo i n ts us .

Th e frequen t s ub st i tut i o n of it , as g ra m m at c ai l s ubj ec t, fo r a s ub sta n t iv e

l
c a use, h a s b een i
n o t c ed ab o ve s ee 163 a .

b . As j
o b ec t o f a v erbx am p l e for e ,

I kn o w n o t what I s h a l l d o ; t h ey s aw t hat s he was

we c o n s i d ere d w h et h e r it wo ul d a n swe r ;
he s ho we d m e where he ha d put it .

c . As p redi cate n o un
x am pl e fo r e ,

he is pre c is e ly w h at he s eem s ;
m y ho m e is W h erev e r I e m h a ppy .

(1 . I n app o si ti o n fo r ex am pl e ,

t he fac t t h at it was d o n e b y h i m is a pparent ;

his l ett e r is t o t he pu r po rt t h at he wi l l s o o n arriv e .

e . As j prep osi ti o n for ex am p l e

o b ec t o f a ,

h e t rad e d wit h wh at c a pital he had ;

yo u err i n t h at yo u t h i n k s o ;
s he i s d o i n g w e l l ex c e pt t h at s he c an n o t s l eep
, .

f A sub stan t i v e—
. c l ause i n tr o d uce d b
y t h ( )
at or rarel y le st i s , ,

al so o ft en a dd ed d i rec t l y t o a V e rb o r a dj ec ti v e o r n o u w h ere
'

n ,

a n ou n w ou l d require a p rep o sitio n to b e used as c o n n ect ive for

e x am p l e ,

t h ey i n s iste d t hat we s h o ul d stay ;

we c h eri s h the ho pe t h at he w il l ret urn ;
t he re is n o n ee d t h at s he b e prese n t ;

we a re q uite s o rry t hat it is s o ;

he was af ra id l est he s ho u l d fa l l .

w h il e w e sh o ul d say

i n s isted o n his stay i n g ; h0 pe o f h is return ;

n e ed o f h er presen c e
; s o rry f o r i ts b ei n g s o ;

an d so w i th t h e rest .
4 35] S U B S TANT I V E—CLAU S ES .
1 99

This c o n st r u
c t i on i s m os t an a o g ol us w i th t hat of the a d
v er bi a l ob j ec ti ve (39 0 or n o un m a d e adj un ct to som e

o th er w o r d w i t ho ut an y s ig n of th e re ati on l b et w een t h em
b ein g xp ressed
e .

An o t h er s i m il ar c a se, o f a s ub stan t iv e-c l ause used ad v erb i all y wi th out a p epo r

si t i o n , is seen in s uc h sen t en c es as

w h v o e e r m a y s ay it, I s h lla n ot beli v e e it ;

i n w hate v e r s t at e I em ,
I em a lw y a s c o n t en t .

Th e c om l
p et e xp e i
res s o n , n am e ly ,
is

wh t v lw y
a e e r s t at e t e t w i th ; I em in , I am a a s con n

or an al y zi n g t he i n d efi i t e c om po u
,
n d r l at iv e i t na tec ed en t an d re l ati v e e n o n
,

t t w i th y st t i w h i h I e
c o n en a n a e n c m .

Th en putt i n g a pro n o u
,
n cor r ela ti ve t o th e d epen d en t c l use in th e i n d e en d en t
p a

c l ause w e h av e ,

i w h t ev s tate I
n m I a
a al w y er t t w i th it; a , m a s c o n en

an d t h e o m i ss i on o f th e ad v e b ph rase w i th it gi v es th e form as fi rst st ated

r -
.

In lik e m an n er,

h v
o w e er he m ay s t r ugg l e , he c an n o t esc ape,

w he v re e r he m ay b e , he w ill be h a pp y,

are eq ui v al en t to

he c a n n o t e s c a pe by an y w ay i n w hi h h
c e m ay st r ug gl e ;
ill b h ppy i
he w y pl e i a yb ; n an ac e n whi h h
c e m a e

wi th th e c on n ecti v es b y an d i i u ex pres sed i n .

Outh e o th er h an d n o t a few w ord s w h i c h w ere form erl y prepo s i ti on s g o v ern

.

i n g sub st an t iv e c l auses i t ro d uc ed b y t h t h a v e n o w c m e t o b e used gen erall y

n a o
,

o r l w ay s d i rec t l y as con j u
a ,
n c t i o n s ( c o m pare b y th e o m i ss i o n o f t h t fo a : r

e x am pl e ,

ft e h h d g
a r; e a u t i l he h ll a iv ;
on e n s a rr e

ex c e pt he c o n fess it ;
h
w il e w e m ay a so say, l
aft e r t hat h e h ad g o n e ,
a n d so o u .

4 35 . The w o rd s w hi ch i n tro d uce a s ub stan ti v e l u

c a se are

es pec iall y th es e

a . Th e co m p o un d re ati lv e ( 1 8 1 ) p ro n o un s an d p ro n om i n al
a dj ec ti v es , w i th t hei r c orresp on d i n
g ad v erb s : n am el y,
who (wh o se who m ) wh at whic h ; , , ,

wh e n wh e re w h e n c e wh it h e r w hy
, , , , , ho w ;

who ev e r wh o s o ev e r wh e n eve r etc

, , , .
 2 00 C OMP OU ND AND C OM P LEX S ENTENCE S .
[ 4 35 - 437

Wh en used h
l iv e m ean i g all th ese w ord s in trod uc e adjec
wi t a si m p le r e at n ,

t iv e o a d v b l aus es b ut b y i c l ud i g a l s t h e
r er -c an t ec ed en t
, of th in la n o e r re

t i v e part t h ey b ec om e equiv al e t t o
,
n

th p wh e t h t hi g w h i h
e rs o n o, e n c ,

t h pl i or f er t whi h
ac e n ro m o o c ,

th ti t whi h e th m e a f w hi h c , e reaso n or c ,

an d so c uz t h at i s t h e y i m pl y a su b st an ti v e w o d a l o g wi t h an adj ec t iv e r
,
r n o

ad v e b i l adj u
r n ct a Fo e x a m pl e . r

I h d w h t he id ;
ea r I k w w hy h
a i d it ;
sa no e sa

are th e sam e as
l he a rd t h e t hi n g w hi h c he sa id ;
I kn o w t h e re as o n fo r w hi h c he sa id it .

b . Th e c on j un c t io n w het h e r , e xpressin g a d o ub t o r al tern a

tiv e . If i s s o m eti m es, b ut l ess pro p erl y used i n stead o f i t ,
'

thus,
I kn o w n ot i f it b e so .

0 . The con j un c ti on t hat is (as th e e x am p l es g i v en ab o v e

ab un d an t l y sh o w ) v ery c o m m o n i n d ee d as i n tro d uc i n g s ub
st an t i ve-c a l uses ,
i n m an y d ifferen t c o n struc ti on s . Lest , w hi c h
h as n earl y t h e v al ue o f i ts n egati v e t h at n ot i s , , m uc h l ess tre
quen t .

[ S ee E x erc i se XXV II .
, at th e en d o f t h e c h apter ] .

4 36 . In c a l uses of all ki n d s, the c on n ec ti v e t h at ,

w h eth er
l
re at i v e pron o un or c o n j un ctio n ,
i s v ery o ften om i tted th us,

it is s t ran g e t h ey d o not c o m e ; we saw he was t h e re ;

t hat is the rea s o n I do n ot l ike him ; I em s ure it is so ;
here is t he b o o k yo u were l o o kin g fo r ;
he c am e h eard it the m o m ent he .

W e h a v e seen ab o v e (4 34 en d ) t h at b y t he o m i ss i o f th t w ord s form e l y

, ,
on a ,
r

p epo i t i o n s h a v e t k en o th e h a
r s t er o f c o n j un c t i o s ; t h e s am e t h i n g i s
a n c rac n

so m et i m s t ru e o f o th er part s o f speec h
e fo r ex am pl e ,

n o w he h
is th e re , e r es t w i ll s o o n fo ll ow ;
o n c e a b gi i g i
e nn n s m ad e , t he w o rk i s h lfa d on e ;
yo u s ha ll h v it pa e , ro vid e d it p l eas es yo u;
i n c as e we are b e at e n , w e s ha ll r et r e.i
4 37 . A l
re ati ve w ord i s n ot se l d o m used as a m ean s o f attac h

in g so m ethi n g a dd itio n al to a sen ten c e, h av i n g n ear ly t he v al ue

2 02 COM P OU ND AND COM PLEX S ENTENCES .
[cam

S ep arat e stat em en t

A fr o g h a d s e en an ox . Sh e w a n t ed t o m ak e h erself as b ig as

he . Sh e a t t em pt ed i t . S h e b ur s t as un d er .

C o m b i n ed stat em en t

1 A frog h a d s een an o x , a n d w an t ed t o m ak e h er self a s b i g

.

as h e b ut w h en s h e a tt em pt e d i t , s h e b ur s t a s un d er .

2 A fr o g t h a t h a d s een a n o x , an d w a n t ed t o m ak e h er self
.

a s b ig a s h e , b ur s t a sun d er w h e n s h e a tt em
pt ed i t .

3 W h en t h i s fr o g b ur s t a sun d er, s h e w a s w i s h i n g an d a t t em pt
.

in g t o m ak e h er s el f as b ig as an cx w h i ch sh e h ad s een .

4 . B ec a us e a fr o g , w h en sh e h ad s een an cx , w an t e d t o m ak e

h er s elf as big as h e, an d a tt em pt ed i t , sh e b ur s t as un d er .

5 . It i s s a id t h at a fr o g , h a v i n g s een an cx , w a n t ed t o m ak e
h er s el f as b ig as he, an d b ur s t as un d er i n t h e a tt em pt .

S ep arate statem en t , fo r v ari o us com b i n ati on

A c r ow st o l e a pi ec e of c h eese I t
. h a d l ai n i n a c o tt ag e -w i n

d ow . S h e h a d d i sc o v er ed i t t h er e . S h e fl ew i n t o a t r ee . The
c h ee s e w a s i n h er b ea k . A fo x o b s er v e d t his . He c a m e n ear .

He un d er t h e t ree H e b eg an t o pra i s e t h e c r o w
s at . H e s ai d .

“
t his Yo ur fea t h er s ar e o f a l o v el y c o l or I n ev er s aw an y s o
. .

b ea ut iful T h i s i s t r ue
. Y o u h av e a fi n e s h a pe . Your a i r i s .

qui t e el eg a n t I n ev er h ear d y o ur v o i c e I t m ust b e s w eet I

. . .

am sure o f i t A m el o d i o us v o i c e a l w a y s g o es a l o n g w i t h s uc h
.

b ea ut y I n t h a t c a s e n o o t h e r b i r d c an c o m par e w i t h
. Th e
c r o w w a s d e li g h t e d S h e w r i gg l ed a b o ut o n t h e b ran c h
. S he .

put o n g ra c eful a i r s S h e t h o ug h t : .My v oi ce i s as fi n e as m y

fea t h er s I w il l s h o w t h i s t o t h e fo x
.
”
Sh e o pen ed h er m o ut h . .

Sh e w a s g o in g to sin g . Th e c h ees e d r o pped . The fo x w a s

w atc h i n g fo r t h i s H e c aug h t t h e c h ees e It h a d n o t yet
. .

t o uc h ed t h e g r o un d H e r a n o ff w i t h i t t o hi s h o l e H i s fa m i l y
. .

w ere t h er e T h e y all a t e i t t o g et h er
. H e t o l d t h em t h e s t o r y . .

T h e y l aug h ed a t th e cr o w s s il l y v a n i t y
’
.

Com b in ed statem en t , for se p arati on a n d re c o m b i n ati o n

A ft er a s h eph er d b o y, w h o
- k e pt his s h eep upo n a c o m m on

w h er e t h er e w a s a d a n g er o us w o o d h a r d b y a n d w h o w a s a ,

m i s c h i ef l o v i n g fel l o w
- h a d t h r ee o r fo ur t i m e s c r i ed o ut
,
“
W o lf l
w o lf I w h en t h er e w a s n o w o l f c o m i n g a n d s o h a d c h ea t ed t h e
”
,

h usb a n d m en o f t h e n ei g h b o r h o o d w h o w o ul d q ui t t h ei r w ork ,

an d ru n t o h el p hi m th e y a ll g rew s o d i strus tf u
, l of hi m tha t
m .
) E XER C I SES . 2 03

o n c e, w h en a w ol f ua l l y c a m e a n d a t t a c k ed h i m , t h e y w o ul d
a ct

n ot li s t en t o hi s c r i es , b u t s t a y ed q ui e t l y i n t h ei r fi el d s an d
g ar d en s , t i l l t h e fl o c k w a s s c a tt er ed a n d d est r o y ed a n d t h e b o y
w as t orn t o pi ec e s , w h il e h e l a m en t e d hi s o w n fo l l y , a n d ex
c l a i m e d w i t h hi s l as t b r ea t h t h a t h e w h o t ell s l i es i s o n l y j ust l y

t reat ed if h e i s n ot b eli ev ed w h en h e s peak s t h e t r ut h .

X XII . C o m po un d S e n te n c es : In d e pe n d en t C o -o rd i n a t e

C l a us e s : 41 5 - 9 .

Ho w t o arran g e s uc h l
c a h en wri t t en so as b est t o i ll ustrat e th ei r rel a~
uses, w ,

t i on ,
w as sh own in c on n ec ti on w i t h E x erc i se V ( p Fo ex am pl e . . r

K wl dg pufl t h up
‘

no e e e ,

b ut
c h iyar t I e d ifi et h .

A l it t l e w e epin g w o ul d eas e m y h eart ;

B ut in t h eir b ri n y b ed
M y t ea rs m us t s t 0 p, fo r e v er y d ro p
Hi n d er s n eed e a nl d t h r ea d .

Th e m ell o w y ear i s b a s ti n g t o i t s cl o se,

Th e l i tt l e b i r d s h av e alm o st u g t h ei r l a s t ;
s n

T h eir s m a l l n o t es t w i t t er in th e d r ear y b l a s t .

Th e d ew w a s fa ll i n g fa s t ; t h e s t ar s b eg an t o b l i n k ;
I h ear d a v o i c e ; i t cr i ed : D r i n k , pr et t y c rea t ur e , d r i n k !
F ew an d s h o rt w er e t h e pr a y ers we s ai d ,

An d w e s pa k e n o t a w o r d o f s o rr o w ;
B ut w e s i l en tl y
g a z ed o n t h e fa c e o f t h e d ea d ,

An d w e b i t t erl y t h o ug h t o f t h e m or r o w .

N ow sin gs th e w o o d l an d l o ud an d l on g
Th e d i s ta n c e t a k es a l o v el i er h ue ;
A n d , d r o w n ed i n y o n d er l i vi n g b l ue ,

T he l a rk b ec o m es a s i g h t l ess s o n g .

Th e c o ck is c r ow i n g ; t h e s t r ea m i s fl o w i n g ;
Th e sm a ll bird s t w i t t er ; t h e l a k e d o t h g l i t t er ;
Th e g re en fi el d l
s e eps in the sun .

Th e v i n e s ti ll c l in gs to th e m o ul d er i n g wa ll ,

An d at ev er y g us t t h e d ea d l eav es fa l l .

Th e peo pl e a r e l i k e t h e s ea , a n d o r a t o r s a r e l i k e t h e W i n d .

A fo o l s peak s a l l h i s m i n d , b ut a w i s e m a n r e s er ires s o m et h i n g
fo r h erea ft er .

Th e k in g m ust win , or he m us t forfei t hi s crown fo rev er .

2 04 C O M P OU N D AND C O M PL E X S E NTE NCE S .
[ C H AR

This i s y fa ul t ; i t i s
n ot m m y d es t i n y .

Y o u s h a ll n o t d i e ; Fr an c e n ee d s yo u .

Fa it h ful are t h e w o un d s of a fr i en d , b ut t h e k i sses o f an en em y

a re d ec ei tful .

T his c a s k et I n d ia s ’
g l o w i n g g em s un l o c k s ,
An d a ll Ar ab i a b r ea t h es fr o m y on d er b o x .

XX I I I . C o m pl e x S e n t e n c e s ( wi t h on e d epen d en t l
c a use) : 42 0 -4 .

The l u es m ay b e arr g d wh n w ritt en o ut i th e g e e al m a e

c a s an e ,
e ,
n n r nn r

a l r ad y sh o w (E x erc i ses V X pp 22 80
e n B ut a d p d e t c l ause t h at
.
,
.
, .
, ,
e en n

b el o g s t o an d qu l ifi es an i n d ivi d ua l w o d sh o ul d b e t t h ed b y i ts c o n n ec t iv e
n a r a ac

t o t h at w o d A sub st a t iv e l aus e c a o t a l w a y s b c on v en i en t l y t reat ed i n

r . n c nn e

t h i s w ay i t m y b e a g ed i n st ead i n t w o l i es w i t h t h e c o
a arr n ec t iv e b ov e n ,
nn a .

Ex am pl e are s

W e I h a th l k \Ve I h l k
!th t I t ll th h u
e r e c oc th e ar e c oc
a o s e o r. as

it I t ll t h h u o s e o r .

Th t a i t i s c er a n . I Id t k w w h th o no no e er

it I h t ll d
as o e it I h t Il d as o e .

H e h a d a fev er w h en h e w a s i n S pa i n .

Fo o l s r us h i n w h er e a n g el s fea r t o t rea d .

Fr eel y w e s er v e , b ec a us e w e fr eel y l o v e .

A lt h o ug h w e s el d o m fo l l o w ed a d v i c e , w e w ere a l l r ea d y en o ug h
to a sk it .

If I w er e n ot A l ex a n d er , I w o uld b e D i o g en es .

E v en a fo o l , w h en h e h o l d et h h i s pea c e , i s c o un t ed w i s e .

If t h e h ill w ill n ot c om e to M a h o m e t , M a h o m et w ill g o t o t h e

hi ll .

U n ea s y li es t h e h ea d t h a t w ea r s a c r ow n .

T h e D a n ub e t o t h e S ev er n g av e
T h e d ar k en ed h ear t t h a t b ea t n o m o r e.

T h ey par d on w h o h a v e d o n e t h e w r on g
’
n e er .

H e w ho w o ul d s ear c h fo r pea r l s m ust d i v e b el ow .

Th e ev il t hat m en d o l i v es a ft er t h em .

H e j es t s at s c ar s who n ev er fel t a w o un d .

W h at ev er is , is ri g ht .

T h a t yo u h a v e w r o n g ed m e a ppea r s i n t h i s .

A ll t h a t I d r ea d i s l ea v i n g yo u b eh i n d .

Furth er x pl es i g
e am ,
n reat er ab un d an c e an d v ari ety ,
are g iv en i n E x ercises
XXV .
- XXV I I b el o w . .
,
2 06 C OMP O U ND AND C O M PL E X S ENTE NCE S .
[ c um

k n o wn t o h im ,
a re r el a t e d w it h t h e gr ea t est m i n ut en es s of de
tail .

We per c ei v e t h a t t h e s t ud y o f g r a m m ar m ak es t h e
c an n ot

sm a l l e s t d iffer en c e i n th e s pee c h o f pe o pl e w h o h av e a l w a y s l i v ed

i n g o od s o c i et y .

W h en th e fi t w a s on him ,
I d id m ark h o w h e d id s h ak e .

We t h o ug h t , as we h o l l o w ed h is n a rr o w b ed
An d s m o o t h e d d o wn h i s l o n el y pil l o w ,
H o w t h e fo e an d t h e s t ra n g er w o ul d t r ea d ’
o er hi s h ea d .

An d w h a t d el i g h t s can eq ua l t h o se
T h at
’
st i r the S pi r i t s i n w ar d d eeps ,
W h en on e t h a t l o v e s , b ut k n o w s n ot , r ea ps

A t r ut h fr o m on e th a t l ov es an d kn ow s .

W h il e h e b en eat h t h e s un
w e b r ea t ,

Th e w o r l d w h i c h c red i t s w h a t i s d o n e
, ,

I s c o l d t o a ll t h a t m i g h t h a v e b een .

Y ou al l d i d s ee t h at o n t h e L uper c a l , ,

I t h r i c e pr es en t ed h i m a k i n g l y c r o w n ,

W h i c h h e d i d t h r i c e r e fus e .

M uc h pl ea s e d w a s h e t o fi n d
'

T h a t t h o ug h o n pl ea sur e s h e w a s b en t
, ,

Sh e h ad a fr ug a l m in d .

XXV . Ad j e c t i v e -c a l us e s : 42 9 —30 .

He t h a t h a t h w i fe a n d c h i l d ren h a t h g i v en h o s ta g es t o fo r tun e .

I t el l yo u t h a t w h i c h ye y o ur sel v es d o k n o w .

T h a t l i fe i s l o n g w h i c h a n s w er s l i fe s g r ea t en d ’
.

H e i s t h e fr eem an w h o m th e t r ut h m a k es fr ee
,
.

T h o s e t h a t t h i n k m us t g o v er n t h o s e t h a t t o i l .

I k n o w a b a n k w h er e o n t h e w i l d t h y m e b l o w s .

I t i s t h e h o ur w h en l ov er s v o w s
’

S eem s w eet i n e v er y W h i s per ed w o r d .

I a m n ear t o t h e pl a c e W h er e t h e y s h o uld m eet .

I h a v e s h o o k o ff t h e r eg a l t h o ug h t s w h er ew i t h I r ei g n e d .

W e c a m e un t o t h e l an d w h i t h er t h o u s en t es t us .

T h e r ea s on w h y t h e s ev en s t ar s a r e n o m o r e t h a n s ev en i s a
pr ett y r ea s o n .

T h a t fea r ful m o m en t w h en h e l eft t h e c a v e t h y h ear t gr ew ,

c h i ll .

T he y n ev er fai l w h o d i e i n a j us t ca us e ,
x1v .
] E XER C I SE S . 2 07

A h i st o r y i n w h i c h ev er y part i c ul ar i n c i d en t m ay

on t h e w h o l e b e fa l s e .

H i s pr a i s e i s l o s t w ho s t a ys t ill a ll c o m m en d .

F o r t h o se t h at fl y m a y fi g h t ag a i n ,

W h i c h h e c a n n ev er d o t h a t ’
s s lai n .

Th a t w a s h e w i t h o ut w h o s e l i fe I h a d
'

n ot b een .

T h ou s h i n y t ea r t h a t I d o w eep
’
st in e v er .

H e h ad d o n e t h a t w h i c h c o ul d n e v er b e fo r g i v en .

H e m ay t h a n k yo u fo r a ll t h at h a t h h a ppen ed .

I w o ul d h ear t h e v o i c e w h i c h w a s m y m us i c .

A peo pl e w h o m I h a v e n o t k n o wn s h al l s er v e m e .

XX VI . Ad ve r b -c l a us e s : 4 31 - 3 .

M am m on w in h i s w a y w h er e s era ph s m i g h t d es pa i r
s .

W hi t h er t h o u g o es t I w i ll g o ; an d w h er e t h ou l o d g es t I w ill
l od g e .

W h er eso ev er the c a rc ass i s , t h er e w i ll t h e eag l es b e g at h er ed

t o g et h er .

T h eb l o o d w i ll fo ll o w w h er e t h e k n ife i s d r i v en ;
Th e fl es h w i l l q ui v er w h er e t h e pin c er s t ea r .

H ell t r em b l ed a s h e s tr o d e .

I m us t pa us e t i ll i t com e back to m e .

An i d l er i s a w a t c h t h a t w a n t s b ot h h an d s ,
A s usel es s i f i t g o es a s w h en i t st a n d s .

W h en I w as y o un g ,
I t h o ug h t o f n ot h in g el s e b ut pl ea sur e .

P rid e m ay b e pa m per ed , w h il e t h e fl es h g r o w s l ean .

T i s f ul l t en m o n t h s s i n c e I d i d s ee h i m l a s t
’
.

I fe l t t h a t h e w a s pr es en t , er e m y eye to l d it m e.

N o w t h a t t h ei r d i s t res s w a s o v er , t h ey forg o t t h at h e ha d
r et urn ed t o t h em .

In B r i t a i n , t h e con q uer e d rac e b ec a m e as b a rb a r o us as the con

q uer o rs w er e .

D ea t h i t s e l f i s n ot so
pa i n ful as i s t his s ud d en h orror an d s ur
pri s e .

So m uc h h as pa s sed b et w e en us as m us t m ak e m e b o l d , h er

H is m i s er y w a s s uc h t h a t n on e o f t h e b y s t a n d er s co ul d r efr a i n

fro m w e e pi n g .

S in c e m y c o un t r y c a l l s m e , I o b e y .

Freel y w e ser v e, becaus e w e fr eel y l o v e .

2 08 C O M P OU N D AND C OM PL E X S ENTE NCE S .
[ca m

Y e k n ow t h e h ea r t of a s t ra n g er , s eei n g ye w er e s t r an g er s in
t h e l an d of E g y pt .

T h at i s st r a n g e , g h e i s y o ur n ex t n ei g h b o r
c o n s i d er i n .

H e g a z ed s o l o n g t h a t b o t h h i s e y e s w er e d a z z l e d .

T h e pa in s ar e n o s o o n er o v er t h an t h e y a r e fo r g o t t en .

S ca r c e h a d h e m o un t ed , er e t h e P a ppen h ei m er s b r o k e t h r o ug h
t h e li n es .

If yo u h a v e t ea rs , pr epare t o s h e d t h em n o w .

S o M a h o m et a n d t h e m oun t a i n m eet , i t i s no m a tt er w h ic h
m o v es t o the ot h er .

W h at ’
s a t all m an un l es s h e fi g h t
A l t h o ug h t h e w oun d s o on h eal ed ag ai n ,

Y et , as he r an , h e yel l ed for pa in .

I c a m e, t h at M arc o m ig h t n ot c om e .

Ye h all n o t ea t o f i t l es t ye
s , d ie .

W h er e y o ur t r ea sur e i s t h er e , w ill y o ur h ea rt be a l so .

I w ill r un as far y g r o un d
as God has an
‘
.

A s h er o es t h i n k , s o t h o ug h t t h e B r uc e .

Th e ear li er yo u r i s e , t h e b ett er y o ur n er v es w i l l b ear st ud y .

T ea r s , s uc h a s a n g el s w eep, b ur s t fort h .

Al l h a s t t h o u s po k en a s m y t h oug h t s are .

O t h e h a r v es t h ere t h an t h a t w h i c h pea s an t s s c y t h e d em an d s
r
’

w a s g a t h er ed i n .

Al l t h e m o r e i t s eek s t o h i d e i t s el f t h e b i gg er b ul k i t s h o w s ,
.

T h o u k n o w e s t h o w h er i m a g e h aun t ed m e
L on g a ft er we r et ur n ed t o A l c al a .

XX V I I . S ub s t a n t i v e -c i a us e s : 4 34 - 5 .

W h a t r ea s on w ea v es b y pa ss i o n i s un d o n e .

W h o c h ea pen s l ife ab a t es t h e fear o f d ea t h .

Th e t r i um ph o f m y s o ul i s t h a t I a m .

W h a t fo l l o w ed w a s i n per fec t h a rm o n y w it h
t h e b eg i n n i n g .

How h e ca n i s d o ub t ful ; t h a t h e n e v er w i l l i s s ur e .

W ho b ui ld s a c h ur c h t o God , an d n ot t o fa m e,

W il l n ev er m a r k the m ar b l e w it h his n a m e.

T h e y w il l ad m it t hat h e w as a g r ea t po et , b ut t h e y w i ll d en y
t h at h e w as a g r ea t m an .

T h a t t h er e s h ou ld h av e b een s uc h a l i k en es s i s n ot s t r an ge .

He h at h h ea r d t h a t m en o f few w o r d s ar e t h e b es t m en .

Y o u h a v e h ear d i f I fo ug h t b r a v el y .

W hy m e th e s t er n us urper s
par ed , I k n ew n ot .
21 0 C O M P O UN D AND C OM PL E X S ENTENCE S .
[ ca m x xv .

T a k e t h e g o o d t h e g o d s pr o v i d e t h ee .

H er e fi n d t h a t c a l m t h o u g av s t s o o ft b efor e
’
.

T h ere b e s o m e s po r t s are pa i n ful .

A n d yo u m a y g at h er g ar l an d s t h ere
W o ul d g r a c e a s um m er q ueen .

I c arr i e d h er t o t h e b e d , w h er e I l a i d h er d o w n .

A gl a s s w a s o ff er e d t o M an n er i n g , w h o d r an k i t t o th e h eal t h
of th e g pr i n c e
r ei g n i n .

W it h ful l a s s en t t h e y v ote ; w h er ea t h i s s peec h h e t h us r en ew s .

Th e sc h o o l m a s t er had h ar d l y utt ere d t h es e w or d s , w h en t h e

s tr a n g er en t er ed .

W h en t hou ’
fa l l s t m us t E d w a r d fa l l : w hic h per i l H ea v en for
fen d !
Th e ri c h w it h us h av e tw o so urc es of w eal t h ,
w h er ea s t h e po or
h av e b ut o n e.

I t h r i c e pr esen t ed h im a k i n gly cro w n ,

h
w i ch he d i d t h ri c e
r efuse .

They c h a rg ed t h e j a i l er t o k eep t h em s afel y ; w h o h av i n g ,

r ec ei v e d su c h a c h arg e t h r u s t t h em
, i n t o t h e i nn er pr i s o n .
4 38 , 4 39] INFIN I T I V E AND P A R T I C IPL E . 211

C H AP T E R XV .

I N F I N IT I V E A ND P A R T I C IP L E C O N S TR U O
TIO N S .

4 38 . T he i n fi n itiv es p art i c ip l es are as w e hav e

an d ,

seen v erb a l n o un s an d a dj ec ti v es : th at i s t o say ,

w o r d s w h i c h w h i l e k eep i n g i n g en era l th ei r ch ara c ter an d

,

use i n th e sen ten c e as n o un s a n d a dj ec ti v es tak e at th e ,

sam e t i m e th e a dj u n c t s o r m o d ifi ers w hi c h ar e t ak en b
y
the v erb t o w hi ch th ey b el o n g su c h as o bj e c ts p re d i c at e ,

n ou n s an d adj ec t i v es an d a d v erb s ,
.

T hus, for e x am pl e ,
i n t he p ro gressi v e p resen t t en se

I em rea d i n g ,

th e parti cipl e re ad i n g t akes all th e m o d ifi ers w hich go W ith th e

si m p l e v erb al fo rm r ea d i n I rea d ; a n d t h er efo re I a m rea d i n g

can b e t reat ed as i f i t w ere al s o a s i m p l e t en se An d t he sam e .

i s true o f th e i n fi n iti ve re ad i n th e fut ure t en se

I s hah rea d .

On ac c oun t o f t his d o ub l e c h arac t er th e i n fi n iti v es an d ,

p arti c ip l es hav e so m e p ecul i ar c on struc ti on s t o w hi ch i t i s ,

n ecessary t o
g i v e a l i t t l e s p e c i al a tt e n t i o n .

IN F I N I T I VE S .

4 39 . There are, as h as b een l

a rea dy p o in ted o ut tw o
si m pl e i n fi n i ti ves to e v ery v erb thus,

g ive , g iv i n g ; l ov i n g ; b e b e i n g ; h av e hav in g
lo v e , , , .

On e o f these w h i h h a s al w ays t h e s a m e fo r m w i t h t he ro o t
,
c

o f t h e v e rb i s c a ll e d s i m p l y t h e i n fi n i t i v e o r fo r d is ti n c t io n
, , ,

t he r o o t -i n fi n i ti vc '

Th e o t he r w hic h al w ay s e n d s i n i n g
. , ,

hav in g t he sam e fo rm w it h t he p res en t p art ic i pl e i s c all ed t h e ,

i n fi n i ti v e i n i n g , or t he p ( u t i c i p i a l i
'
n fi n i t ive .
21 2 I N FINI TI V E AND P A R T I C IPLE .
[ 4 39

In dd i ti o n t o these ev ery v erb fo rm s b y add in g i ts p resen t

a , ,

an d p ast p arti cip l e t o th e i n fi n itiv es o f the aux i l iari es h ave an d

certai n i t i ve -p h r a s es , w h i c h, t he
'

be, infi n w i th n am es by
w h i c h th ey are c a ll ed ,
m ay be re p eated h ere from Ch ap t er VIII .

( 2 94 ,

Th us, t o t h e ro o t-i n fi n i ti v e

l S i m p e P g
. iv P iv ro r ess e . ass e .

P r esen t to ) G I V E
( ( )
t o b e g iv i
,n g ( )
t o b e g iv en ; ,

P erfec
( )
t to h av e g iv e n
( t o ) h av e b ee n g iv i n g ( o ) h ave b ee n g iven ;
t , ,

an d t o th e p art i cip i al i n fi n i t i v e

P resen t GIVING , [ b e i n g g iv i n g , ] b e i n g g iv e n ;

P er fec t hav i n g g ive n , hav i n g b e e n g iv i n g , h av i n g b e e n g ive n .

The pr o g res s iv e fo rm be i ng g ivi n g,h o ugh

t n ot fo rb i d d en i s so un c om m on
,

h
t at i t c an ard h l y b e sa i d to b e in p ac t i c al use
r .

440 —i n fi n it iv e usual l y has b efore i t the p rep o

. Th e ro o t

si ti o n to , w h i ch i s c a l l e d i t s S I GN an d i s t o b e con si d ere d ,

an d d esc ri b e d as a p art o f i t .

In t he ol i sh t h i s p epo s i ti on w as o n l y used w i th the i n fi n itive

l d est En g ,
r

w h en i t had a eal prep s i ti on l v a l ue fo r ex am pl e i s uc h ph ases a s

r o a
,
n r

it i g d t t; th s i uh t
oo y o ea e re s m c o sa
'

th t i s g o o d u t o eat i g o r f r e t i g ; m u h fo s y i n g B ut w e add i t
‘ ’ ‘ ’
a n n o a n c r a .
,

a m ec h a i c a l w a
n o w t o t h e i fi it i e i n n
y as i f i t w er e a m e e gram m at i cal
v n n
,
r

d e vi c e fo po i n t i g o ut t h at t h e f ll o w in g w o d i s an i fi it i e
r n o r n n v .

44 1 . B ut t he to i s a sol in a g reat m an y c ases o m itted .

T hug

a .Aft er th e v erb s g en erall y used as aux il i ari es b o th

in t h e for m ati o n o f v erb -p hrases, an d i n th ei r m ore i n d ep en d en t
use .

Th ese a ux i l iari es are d o , w il l , s ha ll , m ay, c a n , a n d m ust . O ug h t

re u
q i res the t o .

b . After a few o th er v erb s ,

eith er usuall y or o pti o n all y . S uch
h el p ( ) d pl eas e an d g o in
’
are d are , ,
n ee d , g in fo r b eg i n an cer

t ai n uses fo r e x am p l e ,
214 I NFI N IT I V E AND P A RT I C I PLE .
[44 3

s ee i n g is b e l iev i n g ;

g iv i n g
’
o ne s m o ne y y l ib e ra l ly
awa is far b etter t h a n kee pi n g
v
e e ryt h in g to o n e s s el f ;
’

his hav i n g b een a b s e nt is a g reat pity .

We h av e l
a r ea dy frequen t an ti cipation
n oti ce d (1 6 3 a ) th e
o f a su bj ec t i n fi n i tiv e (as o f a s ub stan ti v e c l ause 4 34 a) b y ,

an it s tan d i n as g r a m m a t i c a l s ubj e c t b efo re t he v erb w h i l e

g
th e in fi n i ti ve th e l o g i c a l s ubj e c t fo ll o w s t he v erb : t hus for
, , ,

e x am p l e ,

it is g o o d to b e he re ; it wil l n o t s uit u s to g o wit h yo u .

444 . The i n fi n i tiv es are use d as o b ec t

j of a v erb .

Th ere are m an y c ases un d er t hi s h ead i n w hi ch ei ther

t ive m ay b e used thus,

he l ike s to jo urn ey ra pid ly ,

he l ikes jo urn eyi n g ra pid ly ;

I i n te n d t o sta rt to -m or ro w ,

I i n te n d start i n g to -m o rrow .

B ut t h ere a re o t h ers i n w h i ch usag e a ll o w s on l y th e o n e or t he

o th er o f t h em th us ,

we used to l ive here ;

t h ey rese n t e d hav i n g b een i n s ulte d .

As w as po i n ted o ut ab o ve t h e us e of i n fi i t iv e w ith aux il i i es i

th e n ar n

v e b ph rases reall y b el on gs u d e
r -
n r th i s h ead T h us I d l v i s I pe form th e
.
, o o e
‘
r

ac t o f l o vi g nI w ill l v i s
’
I o e
‘
c h o o se o r reso l v e on l o vi n g ; I l ve i s I
’
c an o

c apab l e o f l o vi g
’
am an d so o n
n .

44 5 . Th e i n fi n i t i v es ar e us ed a s o b ec t o f a
j p rep osit io n .

i ut th e ro o t -i n fi n i t i v e i s t h us used n o wa d ays on ly wi t h th e
p rep o siti o n ab o ut: th us,

he was ab o ut to d e pa rt ( or ab o ut d eparti n g ) ,

i n t hep ecul iar sen se o f c o n c ern ed w i th b usy ab o ut an d s o ‘

, ,
’

’
‘
o n the p o i n t o f d eparti n g I n o l d er E n gl ish i t w as also
, .
,

m u ch used i n th e s am e w ay a fter f o r : t h us ,

what we n t ye o ut fo r t o see ?
44 7] I NF IN ITIVE CONST RU CT I ONS . 21 5

an d i t w as ll y m ade th e obj ec t of o th er p rep ositi o n s

o ccasi on a

b ut all thi s i s n o w n o l o n g er p rop er .

Ou t he o th er h an d th e i n fi n i t iv e i n i n g is v ery co m m on after
,

a g reat v ari et y o f p rep os it i o n s t h us ,

.

he is ti re d of was t i n g h is t i m e on t rifl es ;

I kn o w not h in g ab o ut her h av i n g d o n e it ;

the h o rse is wo rn w it h hav i n g b een rid d en so h ard .

44 6 . T h ese are a ll t he c o n st r uc t i o n s of t h e i n fi n it i ve i n ing .

T hey a re es p ec iall y p ec uliar in t hi s : t hat th e i n fi n i t i v e v ery

o ften h as b efore i t a n o un or p ro n o un
p ossessi v e sign i fy i n th e ,

i n g t he p ers on o r thi n g t o w hi c h t h e ac ti o n exp ressed b y th e

i n fi n i ti ve b el o n gs t h e o n e m ost c o n c ern ed w ith i t
,
An d thi s .

p o ssessiv e has al m ost al w ay s th e v al ue o f a s ubj e c ti v e g en i ti v e

o r o n e W hi c h p o i n t s o u
( 38 5 a
) , t t h e su bj ect o f t h e v erb a l ac t i on

—o n e w hi c h if th e i n fin i ti v e p h rase w ere turn ed i n to a sub

,

st an t i v e— c l au as i t al w ay s m a ou l e t h e su b ec t o f
se
( y b e
) w d b j ,

th at c l au se T hus.
,

T o m s b e i n g he re was a l u c ky t h i n g ;
’

t h ey i n s ist e d o n h i s fo l l o wi n g t h e m ;

h e kn ew o f m y h av i n g b een l eft o u t;

are equ i v al en t t o
it was a l u c ky t h i n g t h at T o m was h ere ;

t h ey i n s iste d t hat h e s h o ul d fo l l o w t h e m ;
he k n ew th at I had b e e n l ef t o u t .

B ut th e po ss s iv m ay l o h v e th e v al ue o f an bj
e s e a s ti ag i ti (385 b ) o ec ve en ve
,

po i t in g o ut t h o bj c t
n re i pi
e t o f t h v e b al a t i o n
e or c th us
en e r c ,

ti t ki g tt ;
‘

th d p d f hi
e ee am n a on o s a n o

w h e e t he eq uiv l
r t ex p e s i o n w i th s ubj e t iv
a en g i t iv w o ul d b e
r s f th i c e en e o e r

t ki g hi w i th t he o bj t t urn d i t a pa s iv s ubj c t f hi be i g
‘

a n fi ; o
m o r, ec e n o s e e ,
o s n

t a ke n o ff .

44 7 . T h e uses of the i n fi n i t i ve i n in g sh a de o ff i n t o th o s e
o f an d i n a ry ab strac t n o un
or ,
an d i t is n ot p ossib l e to d ra w a

l in e s harp l y b e t w e e n i ts v a l ues as the on e t hi n g an d as t he o t her .

Th us , i n
we rea d o f Caes a r s pas s i n g t he Rub ic o n ,
 21 6 INFI N ITI V E AND P AR I I CI P LE
' ‘
.
[ 44 7 _

pass i n g i s un m i stak ab l y an in fi n i ti ve, b ecaus e i t tak es a d irec t

o b ec t,
j Rub ic o n . B ut i n
t he Rub ic o n ,
’
C aesa r s pass i n g of

an d in
yet m ore

t he pass i n g of t he Rub ic o n b y Caes ar,

pass i n g h as so en t i re ly th e c on st r uc ti on of a n o un , as i f i t w ere
the pass ag e of the Rub ic o n , th at w e c an h ard l y ca ll t h e w or d
an ythi n g b ut a n o un .

Out o f t h i s d o ub l e v a l ue g ro w c as es o f d i sput ed pro p i et y o f usage r .

44 8 . The roo t -i n fi n i t i v e, a c c o m p an ie d b y i ts sig n to , i s

use d a fter m an y v erb s an d a dj ec ti v es u
a n d n o n s, an d e v en

a d v erb s ,
to p o in t out i n t en t ,
p urp o se , j
o b ec t, c on sequen ce,

an d th e l i k e .

Th us ,
he c am e to v is it us ;
we a re h e re to h ear wh at yo u s hal l s ay;

h e fe l l , ne v er to r is e a g ai n ;
t h ey a re rea d y to fi n d fa ul t , hard to pl eas e ;
and

I h av e a wo rk to d o , an d c o ura g e t o perfo rm it
;
it was a pat h to g uid e t h e i r f e et .

T he c om m on use o f an i n fi n i t i ve after b e, t o e x press som eth i n g expect ed or

r eq ui red , i s o f t h i s c h ara c t er . h
T us,

hi i t b d
t s ts ; o he i t d i
e on e at u i o nc e s o e a s n r se

th t is thi i
a th i g f
s b i g d
s a an d so o n ( com
n or e n o n e,
,
pare
A n y adj ect i v e o r a d v erb qualifi ed b to o o r eno u h be
y g m ay

fo ll o w ed b y suc h an i n fi n i ti ve thus ,

t hey a re t o o m any to b e sac rifi c ed b u t n o t stro n g , eno ug h

to c o nq uer ;
I lo ve yo u too m uc h to let yo u g o .

T hi s v ery c om m o n c o n st r uc t io n i s th e on e i n w hi c h th e sig n
of t he i n fi n i ti v e, th e p rep o sitio n to , retai n s m o st o f i t s o rigi n a l

an d p p ro er v l ue,
a as m ean i n
g
‘
n n to, in or d er t o , fo r th e p urp ose
’
o f, an d t he l ike . B ut t he co n st r uc tio n has qui te outg ro w n i ts
n at ural l im i ts an d t he i n fi n it i v e w i th to l ub stan tiv e
,
( ike the s

l use
c a ,
4 34 f is n ow used i n n um ero us c ases w h ere w i th t h e
21 8 I NFIN ITI V E AND P ART I C I P LE .

'

B ut h ere ( ag ain as p rec ed i n

in gthe c ase d escrib ed i n the
p aragraph ) t h e c o n struct i on h as
, m u c h b ey on d it s b een c arri ed
n at u ral l i m i ts as t h e o bj ec t o f t h e v erb h a s c o m e t o seem a k i n d
,

o f S U BJ E CT T O T H E I N F I N I T I V E ; si n ce fo r ex am p l e , ,

I o rd ered t he b o y to b e o fl ; ’

he b e l iev e d his f r i en d to h av e b e e n wron g e d ;

are e u
q i v al en t t o
I o rd ered t h at the b o y s h o ul d b e o ff ;
he b e l iev e d t h at his f ri e n d had b e en wro n g ed .

I n an y suc h case th e o bj ec t can b e t urn e d i n to t h e s ubj ec t o f

,

a p assi v e v erb p hrase th e i n fi n i ti v e (w i th t o ) r em ai n in g as an

-
,

a d v erb i a l a d j un c t -
t o t he l atter th us ,

s he was se e n to d e pa rt ; t he b o y was o rd ered t o b e o ff ;

his f r ien d was b e l iev ed b y h im to h av e b ee n wro n g e d .

4 50 . The ro o t-i n fi n i ti v e is s o m eti m es used i n o th er m ore

an o m a o l us c a s es , of w hi c h th e c o m m on est are th e fo ll o wi n g
a . Aft er s eem an d th e l i k e : thus ,

th y e d t t
s eem e o rem b l e .

T his is m o st l i ke th e pass iv st u ct i o
e con r n (n o t i ced j ust ab o v e) , t h ey w e re
seen t o t re m b l e.

b . Aft er as ,
pr eced ed b y so , s uc h, an d th e l i k e : t h us ,

it w as so us e d as t o b e w o rn o ut ;
h e is s uc h a fo o l as t o be li v e e t he s to r y.

T hi s is m o st li ke th e use o f an i n fi n itive a ft er an j
ad ec ti v e o r ad v erb wi t h
to o or en ough ( 44 8 : com pare
0 . After a r e at l iv e w o rd , in s uc h ph r ases as

h e kn o w s n ot w h t g en o o, or w h e re to s ta y .

T h i s m ay b e ex pl a i ed as an n wh h i t g el li ps i s for
an d s o ou en e s o o, . An d
a s i m il ar ll i p i s i s t o b e ee i n
e s s n

t h w th t e ;ra o g ti
c om e yt t b b ; a e n e ra on e o e o rn

for t h w th w h i h i t
e ra can d so o n
s o c o m e, .

d Aft er h v i n t h e se se o f b e ob li g ed b e c all ed upon

. a e n t h us ‘
, ,

w h v t l v i h u e a e o ea e n an o r.

Th i s i s d o ub t l es b y an x t i o of such t ra i t iv c on structi on s as
s e en s n [ ns e

w hv t p f d uty ; e a e o e r o rm a

an d t h i s i s i t sel f o n l y a t a s f m a t i on o f r n or

w h v d uty t pe f m e a e a o r or

t h at i s a d uty f
, p f i g or e r o rm n
4 53] P ART C I P LE S ANDI P A R T I C I PL E—
I H R AS ES ’
.
219

e . Af t er ha d fo l l ow ed b y a w o rd of c om par i so n, espec a i ll y as li ef, r at he r ,

b ett e r, i n s uc h ph rases as

I ha d h t y;
r at h er y u h d b tt
90 t anb s a f ul o a e er e c a re .

H ere t h i fi i ti e i n nl l y t h d ir c t obj ec t f h d wh i h i p ete i t sub

ve s re a e e o a , c s r r

j u ct iv e d th e c o m par t iv i n o bj t iv e pred i at qual i fy i n g i t th e m e

n ,
an a e s a ec c e an

i g i s 1 sh o ul d h o l d o
n eg a d g i g a b et te t h i g t h an st ay i g
r r r a d
o n r n n n so o n .

4 51 A w o d (pro n oun ) i n t h pred i c at aft e a i n fi i t i e h a v in g a ubj t

. r e e r n n v s ec

(44 9 ) wh i c h i s t he o bj c t o f an o th e v erb i s put i n t h e o bj ec t iv e c ase t o g

e r , ,
a r ee

w i t h t he w o d t o w h i c h i t rel t es ( c o m pare 37 1 ) t h us
r a ,

w e kn ew i t to b e h i m

[ S ee Ex erc i se XX I X at th e en d of th e c h apter .
]

P AR T I CI P L E S .

4 52 . T h ere are, as w e h av e seen a real dy two si m pl e

p artic ip l es b el o n g i n g t o an E n gl i sh v erb t hus,

g iv i n g , g iv en ;l ovi n g loved ; b e in g b e en ; h av in g had , , , .

On e o f these en d i n g al w ay s i n i n g w e c all ed t he P R E S E N T
, ,

partic ip l e th e oth er fo rm ed i n a v ari ety o f w ays w e call e d th e

, ,

P AS T or th e P A S S I V E p arti c ip l e .

T ese are am es o n l y o f c o v e i n ce a d b y n o m ean s ac u

h n n r at el y d esc ri pt iv e
n e ,
n c .

The p ese t part i c i pl e reall y d o t es a t i on c on tin ui g o r i p og ess equa ll y

r n en c n n r r ,

i n t i m e p t o r p es t or fut u e t h u
as r en r s,

I w i tti g ; I i tt i g ; I h ll b i tt i g
as s n am s n s a e s n .

An d th e o th e d e o tes s m et i m e ( i n i t a i t i v e v e b ) c o m pl t ed a t ion o r c o
r n o s n r ns r s e c ,
n

d i t i o n as t he resul t o f uc h a d so m t i m es (i n t ra s i t iv e v e b s ) act i o n en d u d
s ,
n e n r re ,

eq u a ll y w i th o ut efe e to t i
r th u
ren c m e s
,

h w g ; h ei g as; h w ill bon e

g ; e s o ne e e one

h w t; h i e t ; h w ill b
as s e n t e s s en e e sen .

P a rtic ip l e p hra s es hav i n g c o n st ruc ti o n s ak i n w i th th ose o f the

-
, :
r

si m p l e p a rt ic ip l es a re fo r t h e p res en t p artic ip l e a p e rf e c t
, , ,

a n d p r o g r e s s i ve
p e r f e c t : a s fo r ex a m pl e , ,

hav i n g g ive n h av i n g b ee n g iv in g ;
an d

an d , fo r t he pas t p a rt ic ipl e i n i ts p ass i v e use a p r o g r es s i v e ,

p a s s i ve an d a p e rf e c t p a s s i v e a s fo r e x am p l e , ,

b e i n g g ive n an d h av i n g b een g iv en .

4 53 . The c o n str uc t io n s of t he p a rt ic i pl es d i ffe r l ess fro m

t h o se o f or d i n ary ad ec t i
j v es t h a n t he c o n s tr uc tio n s o f th e i n fi n i
22 0 I NFI N I T I V E AND P ART I C I P LE .
[ 4 53

t i v es fro m d i n ary n o un s si n ce ad v erbial m o d i fi ers are

th o s e of or ,

tak en i n g en eral b y a dj ec ti v es a s w ell as b y v erb s a n d o n l y t h e ,

p resen t p arti c ip l e (w ith i ts p hrases) t ak es an o bj ect or i s fo l ,

l o w e d b y a p red i cate n o un o r adj ec ti v e (ex c ep t in v erb— p hrases

w i th t he aux i l i ar y hav e ) .

4 54 I n t he p r o g r es s i v e
. an d p a s s i v e v erb p hrases, w i t h -

th e aux i l iar y b e , t h e p resen t an d p assi v e p arti c ip l es h av e t he

s am e m o d ifi ers w hi c h t hey tak e i n t h ei r m o re i n d ep en d en t uses

b ut i n v erb -p hrases w i th t h e aux i l iary
th e p e rf ec t ,
have , th e
passi v e partic ip l e l o ses i ts p ec ul iar c harac ter, an d b eco m es l i ke t h e
pres en t, hav i n g th e sam e c o n structi o n s w it h i t .

h
T us, w e say
s eem i ng h app y; g ivi ng a bo o k ;
J us t as we say
he w as s ee m i ng h a pp y; I am g ivi ng a bo o k ;
b ut t h oug h w e say
he has s eem e d h a pp y; h e h ad g i v e n
‘
a bo o k ;
we c an n o t say
h ppy
s eem e d g iv e
a b k n a oo .

T h i i s b ec ause ( s x pl a i ed ab o v e 2 89 ) th e part i c i pl e w i th h ve w as o r i gi
s a e n ,
a

n all y an o bj ec t iv e p ed i at e qu l i fy i g t h e d i ec t o bj ec t o f th e a u
r c ,
a x ili ary w h il
n r e

th e c o m b i t i o n h a s n o w b ec o m e a m
na el y m ch i l o n e a d evi ce for si gn i fy
er e an ca ,
~

i g c e ta i v ar i et i es o f past t i m e an d i t c an
n r n l ge b e tak en apa t a d p sed
, no on r r n ar

w o rd b y w o d T h us I h v l v d a d I h d t u k sh w v i et i es o f t h e t i m e
r . a e o e n a s r c o ar

o f l vi g an d
o n t i ki g an d
s r o t ac e o f t h e i
n , o r i g i a l pa
n riv m e i g i s l eft t o r n ss e an n

th e part i i pl es l v d an d t u k ; t h eir us s are p

c o e s r c ll l w i th th ose of l vi g a d e ara e o n n

t i ki g i n I
s r n I i g I w
am ov n t i ki g ,
as s r n

4 55 B o th th e si m p l e p arti c i p l es (n o t th e p art i c i p l e
.

ph rases al so) are freel y used as attri but i v e adj ec ti v es w i th ,

o n l y su ch m o d i fi ers as m ay b e t ak en by all a dj ec ti v es .

Fo r ex am p l e
a c ha r m i n g f ac e ; a v ery lov i n g heart ;
his b ri g htly s hi n i n g arm s ; s in g in g b ird s ;
a c ha r m e d s n a ke ; a war m ly l o ved f r ie n d ;
b rig htly po l is h e d ar m s ; we l l s un g so n g s .

A past part i c i pl e, w h en t h us used at t r i b ut iv el y , o r i n t h e m an n er o f an o rd i

n ary a dj ec t iv e, s o m et i m es h a s a f ull er fo rm th an i n its m ore proper part i c i pi al
use h
t us, i n
a l ea r n ed m an , a b l ess e d i g ht
s ,

we reg u ar l l y pron oun e th e w c o rd s i h t w o sy ll ab l es

w t w h il e i n

h l ed hi l
earn e s esso n , t he y b l ess e d t h e d ay,
2 22 I NFI NI T I VE AND P ART I C I P LE .
[4 56

t h at i s, pro c ess o f b u d n g
‘
in a n d so w t il i
th e r est T he c o ih . ll o qui al
il i li h
is a —b u d n g an d t h e k e s o w a re c o f t h e o st prepo s t on li l ii .

v i
It i s i n o rd er t o a o d th e a m b g ut o f s uc e press o n s as t ese t i iy h x i h h at o ur
r
p g o r es s e p iv
ass e p iv
ra ses ( 2 99 ) h
a e b een fo rm ed i n r ecen t t m es h v i .

4 57 p arti c i p l es an d p arti c i p l e-p hrases are use d

. The
w i th t he utm o st free d o m a p p o s i ti v e l y o r w i th th e

c o n st ruc t i o n o f an a dj ec ti v e m ore l oosel y a ttach e d t o th e

no un qualifi ed b y i t .

For e x am p l e
s he , d yi n g , g ave it to m e ;

hav i n g m ad e h is b est b o w, J o hn r e t i re d ;
t he enem y , b eat e n , fl e d , a b a n d o n in g his c am p;
hav i n g b ee n s en t o n a n e rra n d , he i s n ot here .

Often , i n stea d of usin g

p ast p artic ip l e b y
an a dj ec ti v e or a

i tself as d i rec t l y app o siti v e w e i n sert th e p arti c ip l e b e i n g o r its

, ,

c orr esp o n d i n g p h rase h av i n g b ee n as a ki n d o f sig n o r a u x i l iary ,

o f app o si ti v e c on stru c ti o n t he adj ec ti v e o r p ast p arti c ip l e (v ery

,

)
'
rarel y a p res en t p ar ti c ip l e th en c om i n
, g t o b e p red i c ati v e after
it . Th us,
J o hn , b e i n g we ary, has ret i re d ;
t he e n em y, havi n g b e e n b eate n , fl e d .

4 58W e h av e s een (37 6 ) that the app ositiv e adj ecti v e

.

esp eci all y i m p l i es t he s ugg es ti o n o f an a dj ecti v e c l ause o f w hi c h

i t i s i tself th e p red ic a te An d th e p arti c ip l es an d p art i c ip l e
.

p hrases used app ositi v el y h av e v ery o ften th e v al ue o f such

, ,

c l au ses b ei n g i n a m an n er a su
, ,
b sti tut e fo r th em ,
.

T hus i n p l ac e o f so m e o f th e ex am p l es gi v en in th e p rec ed in g
,

p aragraph w e m i ght hav e sai d

,
.

s he g ave it to m e wh e n s he d ie d ;

Joh n re tired af t e r h e ha d m ad e his h o w ;

he is n ot h ere , b ec a us e he has b een s e n t a way .

4 59 . In n ot a fe w cases, th e c on str uc ti on w ith a parti cip l e

q ual i fy i n g an o b ec t-n o u
j n
(w heth er as j
o b ec ti v e p red ic ate o r as

a pp ositi ve) is eq ui v al en t t o t hat of an i n fi n i ti v e w i th i ts ob

461 ] I NFI N I T I V E AND P ART I C I P LE C ON S TR U CT I ONS . 2 23

j ec t i ve s ubj ec t or o f an i n fi n i ti v e i n i n g w i th i t s s ub
j ec t i v e po ssessi v e T h us,

I s aw h im g et d o wn f ro m his h o rs e ;
I s aw h is g ett i n g d o wn f ro m h is h o rse ;
I saw him g e tt i n g d o w n f ro m his h o rse .

In h e e t h n ea l y equiv a l t expr i s t h pr o u hi m d hi a e
all t s ree r en es s o n ,
e on ns an s r

l ogi cal ly (th t i s a adi n g t th re l se

, ) ubj c t o f t he c t i
cc o r o xp
e d a n se s e a on e res s e

b y t h e i n fi n i t iv e r p t i i pl : t h e m i g i s th t h e g o t d w f om hi ‘
o ar c e ean n a o n r s

h orse a d I saw i t Th ey e t h ee di ffe e t b ut el t ed w y i w h i c h t h es

,
n .
’
ar r r n r a a s n e

v e b l n o u s a d adj tiv es a e m ad e t o pl y p rt l ik e th at o f re l ve b s i
r a n n ec r a a a a r n

d ep d e t c l u es
en n a s .

The pas s iv e part i c i pl i n l ik e m an n er pl y s t h p t o f a p ss iv e v erb t h us

e a e ar a ,

I w hi t uk d w by th
sa im s r c o n e ass ass n

is equ i v al en t to

I s aw ho w h e w as st ruck down et c .

o r, in acti v e ph rase,

I s aw t he as s ass n i st r ik e ( 0 1 st r
‘

i ki n
g ) hi m d ow n .

460 . Hen c e (b o th after v erb a n d aft er a prep o siti on ) th e

a

tw o c o n st r ucti o n s, o f an o bj ec t i v e case q u al ifi e d b
y a p resen t
p artic ipl e an d o f a p o ssessiv e qual ify i n g an i n fi n iti ve i n i n g are ,

to a c ertai n e x t en t i n t erc han g eab l e d th e questi on s o m eti m es

an

a ri ses as to w hi ch sh o ul d b e preferred Th ere are cases w h ere

.

b oth p roper ; b ut ev en am o n g go o d w r it ers (an d yet

ar e e q uall y
m o re a m o n g c arel ess o n es ) t h e o n e i s o c c as i o n all y fo un d w h ere
,

m o re a pp ro v ed usag e w o u l d fav or t he o th er : thus ,

pard o n m e b lus h i n g ;
t he c ert a i n t y of t he o ld m a n i n te rrupt i n g hi m ;

t he ho pe o f s o c iet y is i n m e n c ari n g fo r b ett er t h i n g s ;

w here m y b l us h i n g , t he i n te r r u an d m e n
’ ’
o ld m a n s pti n g him , s

c ar i n g w o ul d d o ub tl ess b e b etter .

46 1 . The p arti c ip l es an d p art i c i p l e p hrases are used -

,

m uc h m o re freel y a n d o ften th an an y o ther k i n d o f app o

s i t i o n al a dj un c t in m akin g an a b s o l ut e c o n st r uctio n ,

w i th either no un or p ro n o un .
 22 4 I NF I N I T I V E AND P ART I C I P LE .
[4 6 1

Th us,
t he t eac h e r a b s en t i n g h i m se l f t h ere was n o s c h o o l
, ;
o n e of t h em h av i n g fa l l e n t he res t ra n away ;
,

it b e i n g v e ry c o l d we , m ad e a fi re ;

o r, w ith the p assi v e p arti c ip l e ,

t h is sa i d , he s at d o wn ;
t he s ig n a l b e i n g g ive n , t h ey s tart ed ;
t he c er e m o n y h av i n g b een com pl et e d , we d is persed .

In stea d pl e p assi v e p arti c ip l e o r an adj ecti ve or oth er

o f a s im ,

w o r d o r p hrase b ein g t ak en d i rec tl y w i th t h e n o un o r pr on o un

,

i n ab s o l ut e c o n struc ti o n an aux i l i ary b e i n g o r hav i n g b ee n i s

,

v er y o ften i n tro d uc ed th e o th er t hen b eco m i n g a pr ed i cat e after

,

i t (j ust a s i n th e o rd i n ary app os iti v e c on struc ti on for ,

ex am p l e ,

t h is h av i n g b een s a id he sat d o wn ; ,

his h eart b e i n g h eavy w it h s o rro w ;

an d so i n o the r l i ke c as es .

S uc h ph rases as
w ei tt i g
i d th s k w l u
n d ;
, as I sa , e c oc c re o

I h vi g h l d
f b th th y w h i l
a n ud o
; o o , e r as n er

h w w b h ppy t h u b i g b
o c an t? e e a , o e n a s en

sh o w t h at i th e ab so l ut e c on st u t i o t h e o un o p on ou i s reg ul arl y i n th e
n r c n n r r n

n om i t iv
na as e c B ut i st n ces of t he bj c t iv e are a l so so m et im
e . n a fo u d i n o e es n

g o d E g l i sh w i t i g esp i ll y f a ea li er t i m e t h us
o n r n ,
ec a o n r ,

th i i
s i bl h i gh t gt h u d i p
n ac c ess e d h t ut d t h v
s ren , i d s s o s s e ss e ,
e r s e o a e se z e .

4 62 . It m ay b e a dd ed fi n ally th at th e sim p l e p arti ci p l es

, ,

are, i n t he sam e m an n er a s or d i n ar y a dj ec ti v es use d s ub ,

st a n ti v el y, o r as n o uns .

T hus,
the Iivln g and t he d e ad ; the po o r an d s ufferi n g ;
t he l o st , b uri e d , and fo r g o tte n .
 2 26 I NFI N I T I VE AND P ART I C I P LE .
[ cam
g
N on e k n ew h er b ut t o l ov e h er ;
N on e n a m e d h er b ut t o pr a i se .

per s i s t i n g i n s uc h d es i g n s w a s t h e h eig h t fo ll y
’
Th e K in g s of .

l earn d i s h a ppy N a t ur e t o ex pl o r e
’
Th e .

Fr eed o m h as a t h o us an d c h arm s to how s .

H e li es w it h n ot a fr i en d t o clo se h i s e y es .

T h e y g av e h i m k n o w l ed g e b ei n g t h ere
’
of hi s w i fe s .

H e a l t er ed m uch upon t h e h ear i n g it .

Th e l o ud et h er eal t rum pet fr o m on h ig h ’

g an bl o w .

Our c ra d l e i s th e s t ar t i n
g pl a c e ;
L ife i s t h e run n i n g o f t h e r ac e
'

M an n ev er i s , b ut alw a ys t o b e , b l es t .

T h us h a st t h o u s een on e w o r l d b egi n an d en d .

We o ft en h ad t h e t r a v ell er or s t r a n g er v isi t us t o t as t e o ur
g o o s eb err y wi n e .

I h o pe s h e t ak es m e t o b e fl es h an d bl o o d .

I m i g ht d yo u t o b e s l ai n fo r t hi s
c o m m an .

Th e L o r d G o d h a d n o t c a us ed i t t o r a in on t h e ea rt h .

In o ur i sl a n d t h e L a t in a ppear s n ev er to h av e s uper s ed ed t h e
ol d G a l li c s peec h .

Th e st o ry w a s b y t r a d i t i on a ffi rm ed t o b e t rut h .

T h er e l ux ur y i n t h an
’
s no g r eat er t h e w orl d b ei n g r ead to
s l eep .

XXX . P a rt i c i pl e Con str uc t i o n s : 4 55 - 6 2 .

Th e n ei g h b o r s h eari n g
, w h at w a s g oin g fo r wa r d , c am e fl o cki n g
ab o ut us .

Th e m el t in g P h oeb e s t o o d w r in g i n g h er h an d s .

Th us I fo un d h er s t r a yi n g i n t h e
par k .

In o t h er h a n d s I h a v e k n o w n i t t ri um ph e d i n an d b o as t ed of

w it h r ea s o n .

I ’
11 h a v e t h e e h a n g e d t o feed t h e c r o w .

Th e y s et h i m fr ee w i t h o ut h i s r a n s o m pa i d .

W i t h m y m i n s t r el b r et h r en h ed m y j ea l o us y o f s o n g i s d e ad ,
.

N o l o n g er r eli ev i n g t h e m i s er a b l e h e s o ug h t o n l y t o en r i c h ,

h i m s e l f b y t h ei r m i s er y .

Fi n d in g m y s e l f s ud d en l y d e pr i v ed o f t h e c o m pa n y a n d pl eas ur es
o f t h e t o wn I g r ew m e l a n c h o l y
, .

T o w h o m b ei n g g o i n g a l m o s t s pen t w i t h h un g er I a m fa l l en
, ,

i n t h i s o ff en c e .

H er v o i c e i s t r ut h t o l d b y m us i c ; t h ei r s ar e n
, li n g i n s tr u
m e n t s o f fa l s e h o o d .
xv .
) E XER C I SE S . 22 7

Th i s h a ppy n i g h t t h e F r en c h m en ar e s e c ur e ,

Hav i n g a ll d ay c ar o used an d b a n quet ed .

T hin gs ar e l os t i n t h e gla re of d ay
W hic h I c an m a k e t h e s l eepi n g s ee .

The y oun g er ,
w h o w a s yet a b o y, h a d n ot h in g s trik i n g i n hi s
a ppea ran c e .

T h o u k n o w es t w h a t a t hin g is po v er t y am on g t h e fall en on

ev i l d ays .

T h e Fr en c h , h av in g b een d i s per s ed in g al e, h a d put b a c k t o

’

T o ul on .

T h at ar o s e fr o m t h e fea r of m y co us i n h eari n g of t h es e m a tt er s .

I can n o t a c c ept th e n o t i on of sc h o ol -
life a ffec t i n g t h e po et t o
t h is e x t en t .

I g r an t t h a t , m en c on t i n ui n g w h a t t h e y ar e, t h er e m us t b e w ar .

C o n sc i en c e, h er fi r st l a w b ro k en , w o un d ed l i es .

S h e b ei n g d ow n , I hav e t h e pl a c i n g of th e B ri ti s h c r o wn .

h o ur c o n c ea l ed an d so r em ot e t h e fear
Th e , ,

D eat h s t ill d r a w s n ear er n ev er s eem i n g n ea r ,

.

Th es e i n j ur i es h a v i n g b een c o m fo r t ed ex t ern a l l y M r P ec k sn i fi
'

.
,

h a vi n g b een c om f o rt e d i n t ern al l y t h e y sa t d o w n ,
.

S h am e t h ou l o o k i n g o n w o ul d ut m o s t v i g o r ra i s e
, ,
.

S i x fr o z en w i n t ers s pen t ,

R et ur n w i t h w el c om e h om e fr o m b a n i shm en t .

M i s s J erv o i s
. l ov es t o sit up l a t e, ei t h er r ea d i n g or b ei n g r ea d

T h ere w a s a g o o d fi r e i n t h e n ex t par l or , w h i c h t h e c om pan y

w er e ab o ut t o l ea v e, b ei n g t h en pa yi n g t h ei r r ec k on in g .
22 8 I NTERROGAT I V E AND I M P E RAT I VE S ENT ENCES .
[4 6 3

C H AP TE R XV I .

IN T E R R O G A T I V E AND IM P E R A T IVE S EN
T E N CE S .

4 63 . The on l y k in d o f sen t en c e o f w h i ch w e h a v e thus

far treat e d i s that by w hi ch so m ethi n g i s assert e d or d e
c l ar ed an d w hi c h i s t h erefore c all ed the AS S E RT I V E o r
,

D E CL ARAT I VE s en t en ce .

B ut ( as has b een
dy m o re t h an o n c e p o i n t e d o u
l
a r ea t
2 2 338 ) t hi s i s n o t the o n l y ki n d o f sen t en c e t hat w e use
, .

I n s t ea d o f m akin g a m att er t he subj ec t o f assert i o n w e ,

so m et i m es m ak e i t t h e subj ec t o f i n qui ry I f w e w an t t o .

k n o w ab out an y thi n g w e d o n ot n ee d t o (th o ugh w e a l w ay s

,

m ay m ak e a st at em en t o f o u
) r w an t : sa y i n
g for e x am p l e , ,

I d es ire to k n o w f ro m yo u wh et h e r J o hn is he re ;

we say i n st ea d ,

is J o hn he re ?

Ag ai n w e , e xp ress a c o m m an d o r req uest w i th out put

t i n g i t i n th e form o f an asser ti o n . In st ea d of sa yin g
I wis h (or c o m m an d ) t h at yo u c o m e he re ,
we m a say si m pl y
y
com e h ere '
T h ese are fu d am en tal l y d i ff e t fo rm s o f sen te ce b ec ause th ey l ack th e
n er n n ,

ass rt i on o r pred i c t i o
e w h i c h i s t h e essen t i a l l m en t o f an o d i
a n y s n t e ce e e r n ar e n .

I n fo m t i o i qui ry c o m m an d t h e a e th e th ree estab l ish ed uses o f c o m

r a n, n , es r

m u n i cat i o b tw een m
n e a d m an ea h h vi g i ts o w
an n fo m o f ex pressi on
,
c a n n r .

THE I N T E R R O G A T I VE SE NT E N CE .

4 64 . I NTERROG AT I VE sen te n c e
The ,
t hat by w hi ch i n

quir y i s m a d e d i ffers l east fro m th e

, asserti v e, has l east
t hat i s p ec ul iar t o i tse lf .
2 30 I NT ERRO GAT I VE AND I M P E RAT I V E S ENTE NCE S .
[4 6 8

4 68 . S ec o n di f t h e questi o n i s as t o th e subj ect o f a

:

i v
g en p re d i c at i on o r as t o i ts o bj ec t or an y o th er o f t he
, ,

ad
jun cts di fi er s ei th er o f t h e subj ec t —
n o m i n at i v e or of
'
or m o

th e p re d i cat e v erb th en th e i n qui ry i s m a d e b y m ean s o f

,

so m e fo rm o f t h e i n t erro at i v e p r o n o un ( 1 6 9 o r o f t he
g
i n t errog at i v e adj ect i v e o r b y a n i n t errogati v e a d

v erb ( 31 3 e ) .

Th e i n t erro gati v e w ord s di n gl y

ar e, ac co r , who (wh o se who m ) , ,

wh at , w h ic h ( an d, in ;o ld st y l e whet h e r )
,
w h e re (w h e refo re ,

w h erewit h w h er e by , ,
whith e r w h e n c e
whe n why ho w , , , , .

T b us fo r ex am p l e
,

w ho is h ere ? w he n d i d he arrive ?
w h ere is he g o i n g to -m o rro w ? at w h at i n n wi l l he pu t up ?
w h at d o es h e wa n t ?

4 6 9 T h e n atural an sw er t o s uch q uesti on s is a corresp on d in g

.

ass erti o n w i th t h e d esi re d s ubj ec t or o b j ec t or o t h er a dj un ct put

,

i n p l ace o f t h e i n t erro gati v e w ord th us ,

J o h n is here ; he a rrived yesterd ay ;

he wi l l put up at t he b es t i n n
an d so o n .

470 . As t he e x am p l es sho w ,
t he re
g ul ar p l ace o f t h e i n

t errog ati v e w o r d , d i s at the b eg in n i n g o f

of w h at e v er ki n ,

th e s en t en c e o r as h ear i t a s p o ssib l e
,
An d t hen as i n th e .
,

o th er k i n d o f i n t errog at i v e s en t en c e th e subj ec t un l ess i t , ,

b e i tself t he i n t err og at i v e w or d i s put aft er t he v erb ,

.

4 71 . Thi s or d er o f arran
gem en t, as i t i n ver ts t h e usual p o si
tio n of t he t w o ess en t i a l l
e e m en t s o f th e sen t en c e, the subj ect
n om i n at i v e an d th e v erb , i s call ed th e I N VE RTED or d er ; or t h e
s en t en c e is sai d to b e an i n v erte d o n e Its sp eci al use i s i n
.

i n terro gat io n , b ut i t i s l
a so fo un d el sew h ere .

Thus (b y a usag e w h i ch h a s g ro w n o ut of t h e i n terrogativ e

o n e , i t i s so m et i m es e m p l o y e d i n st a ti n g
) a con d i ti o n , or in

g i v i n g th a t m ean i n g w hi ch w e usuall y e xp ress b y if . Fo r ex

am pl e
4 74 ] I NV ERTED O RDE R o r T HE S EN T E N C E . 2 31

had st t h o u b een h ere , he had n ot d i ed ;

were t he ki n g d ead , h is so n wo ul d s uc c ee d ;
no ne w i ll l is ten , c ri e st t h o u n ev e r s o lo u d;
i n stead of

if t ho u h ad st b e e n h e re ; if t he ki n g were d ead ;

( if or t h o ug h) t h o u c r ie s t n eve r s o lo ud .

Th i s i s call e d a c ase o f c o n d i t i o n a l i n v e r s i o n o r th e sen ,

t en c e i s sai d t o b e an i n v e r t e d c o n d i ti o n a l sen t en ce .

4 7 2 The regul ar an d usual o rd er o f th e i n t errogati v e sen t en c e

.

i s so m eti m es c h an g ed g en erall y w i th s o m e c h an g e o f m ean i n g

‘

.
,

Thus a s en t en ce i n t he asserti v e o rd er i s o ft en m ad e i n terroga

,

ti v e s i m p l y b y t h e t o n e of v oi c e i n w h i ch i t i s ut t ere d for ex
am p l e ,

he is n o t g o n e yet ? he wil l pu t up where ?

w hi ch m ay exp res s surpr ise as i f ,

i s it po ss i b l e t h at he is n ot yet g o n e ?
or m ay r eques t t he rep etiti on of a s tat em en t n ot un d erstoo d,
as if
where d l d yo u s ay t hat he put up ?

o r so m et hi n g o f t he ki n d .

4 73 . T he i n terrogativ e l ik e th e assertiv e m ay b e
sen t en ce, ,

com p o un d or c o m p l ex
,
or c om p o u n d -co m p l ex
,
i n t errogati v e ,

c l auses b ei n g u sed i n st ea d o f t h e i n d ep en d en t ass ert i v e c l aus es

o f su ch sen ten ces B ut an i n t errogati v e c l ause c an n o t b e d e

.

p en d en t — ex c ep t i n d eed i n t he case (a v ery rare o n e) of a

, ,

d ep en d en t c l ause o f add iti on (4 37 ) th us ,

P aris ; where is it po ss ib l e t h at yo u h ave

.

he l iv es at v
n e er b een ?

THE I M P E R A T I VE S E N T E N CE .

4 74 . The I MP ERAT I VE sen t en ce,

p ressi n g a c om m an d o r ex

re u i rem en t h as fo r i ts c harac t er i st i c a s p ec i al fo rm or
q ,

m o d e o f t h e v erb n am el y the I MP ERAT I V E M O D E

,

w h i ch t ak es the sam e adj un cts o r m o d i fi ers as an y o f the

o t he r v erb a l fo rm s .
 2 32 I NTERROGAI IVE AND
’‘
I MP ERATI V E S ENTE NCES .
[ 4 74
'

The i m p erativ e is n ot in o ur presen t E n gli sh m ark ed b y a d is

t in c t i n fl e c t i on or o t h er si g n 3 it is a l w ays th e sam e w i th t h e
si m pl e i n fi n i ti v e, or th e r o o t of th e v erb t hus,

g iv e , l o v e , b e , g o , d o , h ave .

Fo r th e i m p erati v e , as for t he o t her m o d es ,

are m a de em

p h a ti c , p r o g r es s i v e , an d p as s i v e v erb —
phrases th us,

lov e : d o lo v e , b e l ov in g , b e l ov e d ;
go z d o g o , b e g o ing , b e g o n e ;

An em ph at i c i m pe rat iv e ph rase I S m ad e e v en fr o m b e t h us
-
,

do b t ill ;
e s do n ot b e go n e l ong .

B ut the i m p erati v e h as no d ifferen t t en se—form s o r t en se

ph rases 5 an d i t i s th e sa m e in th e si n gul ar as i n th e p l ural .

4 75 . As a l y i m p l i es that the p erson

c o m m an d stri c t

c o m m an d i n g sp eak s d i rec t l y to th e p erso n or p erso n s c om

m an d ed t h e rea l i m p erat i v e i s o n l y o f t h e seco n d p erso n
,
.

An d as i n such d i rec t ad d ress a p ro n o un d esign at i n g

, ,

th e p erson s a dd resse d i s rath er un n ec essar y t he i m p erati v e ,

i s gen erall y use d w i th o ut an y s ubj ec t I f a subj ect i s .

e xp ress ed (c o m p are i t i s put after t he v erb Thus .

,

b rin g ro s e s , bo ur ye wi n e ; re pi n e t h o un o t at t hy lo t ;

c om e h ere an d b e was he d ; do not l e av e us so so o n .

476 . The i m p erati v e s en t en c e (l i k e th e i n t erro g ati v e, 4 7 3)

m ay h av e t he sam e v ari et y o f co n str uc ti o n as the asserti ve
b ei n g c om p oun d c o m p l ex an d
, ,
so o n . B ut an im p erativ e c l ause
can be d ep en d en t o n l y w h en i t p l y add iti v e (4 37 ) thus
i s si m

he will b e he re to -m o rro w w h e n pl eas e c a l l ag ai n ;

,

it is at t he t e n t h pag e w h ic h s ee ,
.

4 77 . An o th er xp ressi o n m ad e w i th a k i n d o f i m
m o de of e ,

era t i v e au x i l i a ry l e t i s m uch u se d i n o r d er t o i n ti m at e a w i sh
p , ,

o r d irect i o n i n t h e t hi r d p ers o n an d e v en i n th e fi rst th us

, ,

l et me g ive , le t us g ive ;

let h i m g iv e , let t h e m g ive ;

2 34 I NTE RRO GAT I VE AND I M P E RAT IV E S E NTE NCE S [ 4 8 0 -4 8 1 .

4 80 . y speech i st ead o f th e optat iv e subj un ct iv e w e g en erall y

In i
ord n ar ,
n

use t he v e b y a s o pt at iv e ux i l i a y a l w ay s putt i g th e s ubj e t aft e i t

r m a a r ,
n c r .

Th us for ex am pl e
, ,

yI
m a t i y u f i
re a n d hi p ; o r r eny we p t i p
s ; m a ar n eac e

m y a h v l y p w g ui d u h
so m e ea e n ; y t h th ught p i h ;
o er e s en ce m a e o er s

y t h b i II-w i II b tw
m a u e re e no e ee n s .

W i th suc h ph rases th e i m perat iv e v erb phrase w i th l t (4 7 7 ) i s g en eral l y

,
- e

equiv a l e t i m ean i g an d i n t e c h an g eab l e

n n n r .

THE E XC L A M A T O R Y I N T ER R O G A T I V E SE N T E N CE .

4 81 . T h e i n t errogati v e pro n o un s an d a dj ectiv e who an d w hat

(n ot whic h, n or wh et h e r) , an d th e i n t errogati v e a d v erb s (esp e

c i ally ho w) , ften used in an E X CL AMAT OR Y sen se — that i s
a re o ,

to m ak e an ex cla m a ti o n exp ressi n g so m e str o n g feel i n g s u

,
c h as ,

s urp ris e, a d m i rat i o n d i sap prob ati o n Thus for e x am p l e

,
.
, ,

what a sa d s i g ht was t h is ! ho w are t he m ig h ty fal len l

who wo ul d e v er hav e b e l iev e d it !

S uc h are to b e ca ll e d e x c l am ato ry s en ten c es i n the i n terro ga

ti v e form .

T he fo rm m ay a so l b e th at of a d epen d en t l
c a use t hus ,

w h at a s a d s i ght th i s w as ] ho w t he m i g hty a re fa ll en !

B ut t h i s i s an i n stan c e of i n c o m p ete l e x pression as if i t w ere

s ee w hat a s ad s g ht t h i i w ! sit i t as
g h w th i ghty s s r an e, o e m a re fa lle n i

It b el on gs, t h en , l ik e th e optat i v e preteri t i n t he n ext ch apt er ,

E X ER C I SE S T O C HAP TE R XVI .

ON I N T E RR OG AT I VE AN D I M P E R AT I V E S E N TE NC E S .

T hus far w e h a v e h ad (ex c ept in h er e an d t h er e an e xc epti on al in

stan c e ) on ly asserti ve sen t en c es t o d escr ib e, an d h a v e h ad n o n e ed to
d efi n e th em as b ei n g suc h b ut a ft er t hi s, i n t aki n g up an y sen t en c e,
w e h ave t o t el l fi rst o f al l w he ther i t i s an assert i ve ,
an i n terro gati v e,
or an i m perati v e sen ten ce (
or, i f t h e i n structo r prefers, o nl y on e of the
cm p . x vr .
] E XER C I SES . 235

l as t t w o ki n d s i s t o b e d efin ed as s uch , i t b ei n g un d erst o o d o th erw i se

'

t hat t h e sen ten c e i s of t h e fi rs t k i n d , asserti v e) . Then w e m ay

pro
c e ed to an a l yze it an d parse i t s m em b ers ac cor d i n
g t o th e m eth o d s

w h i c h ha v e b een fo ll o w ed hi ther to . An i n t err o g at i v e sen t en ce m ay

be r e-arran ged in t h e a sser ti ve or d er ,

an d d i v id ed i n t o s ubj ec t an d

predi c ate . B ut ani m pera ti v e sen t en c e w i t h o ut an express ed s ubj ec t

ca n n o t b e so treat ed I f w e h a v e, fo r e x a m pl e, th e sen t en c e
.

g ive me t h at b o o k ,

we m ust sa y t hat i t i s im pera t i v e sen ten c e, co m po sed o f th e i m

an

perati v e v erb g iv e (with i ts adj un cts) , used w i th o ut a subj ect, for t he

pur po se o f iv i n
g g a c o m m an d t o th e pe r son or
per s o n s ad d ressed .

l cl au l
An i n v er ted c o n d i ti o n a se (4 7 1
) sh o u d b e d efi n ed as s uc h ;
an d a so an l i n v erted o ptati v e cl a use o t h er c ases of in v erted
o rd er
(as in s a id he , v
ne er wil l I c o n s e nt , g reat is Dia n a) d o n o t
ca for par ti cul ar n o ti c e, u
ll n l ess t h e g en era l su bj ec t o f t h e o rd er of
w ord s i n t h e sen t en ce i s tak en up — w hi c h i s n o t a tt em
pt ed i n t hi s
w ork .

XXXI . M i s c e l l a n e o us e xa m pl e s .

S o H ea v en d ec r ees ; w i t h H ea v en w h o can c o n t est ?

P eac e ! w h a t can t ear s a v a i l 7
‘

L i v es t h er e w h o l o v es h i s pa i n ?
W h at n eed a m a n fo r es t a l l h i s d a t e g r i ef ? of

W h o i s h er e s o rud e t h a t w o uld n o t b e a R o m an ?
W h a t pro o f al as ! h a v e I n o t g i v en
,
of lo v e ?
Wh a t fear w e t h en ? w h a t d o ub t w e t o i n c en s e h i s ut m o st i re ?
I yo u : a r e yo u i n n o c en t o r g ui l t y ?
as k

H ad I n o t fo ur or fi v e w o m en o n c e t h a t t en d ed m e ?
W h a t c a us e wi t h h o l d s yo u t h en t o m o urn fo r h i m ?
W h e t h er o f t h em t w a i n d i d t h e w i l l o f h i s fa t h er ?
W h er ew i t h s h a l l a y o un g m a n c l ea n s e h i s w a y ?
W i l l yo u perm i t t h a t I s h a ll s t a n d c o n d e m n ed ?
F eel es t t h o u n o t , 0 w o r l d , t h e e ar t h qua k e of his c h ari o t t h un
d er in g up O l y m p us ?
F o r w h a t i n t en t h av e ye s en t fo r m e h i t h er ?
S h a l l t h e t h i n g fo rm ed s a y t o h im t h a t fo r m ed it : w hy h ast
t h ou m a d e m e t h us ?
H ea r k en l h e pea k e t h yet ;
s

0 fr i en d , w i l t t h o u fo r g et

Fr i en d m o re t h an b ro t h er
2 36 I NTERROGAT I V E AND I M P ERAT I V E SENTE NCES .
[ c um m

H o w h a n d in h a n d w e V e g o n e , ’

H ear t w i t h h ea r t l i n k ed i n cin e ,
A ll t o ea c h ot h er ?
T h ey l ea v e us t h e d an g ers , t h e r ep ul s es — h
w i ch h ow l o n g w i l l

yo u b ea r
A w ak e ! a ri se I or b e fo rev et fa ll en .

An d s e e, he c ri e d , t h e w el c o m e,

Fa i r g ues t s , t h a t w ai t s yo u h er e .

Cur s e n ot t h y fo em an n ow ;
M ar k on h i s pa l li d b r o w
W h o se s ea l i s s et .

L oc h i el ! L o c h i el ! b e w ar e o f t h e d ay
W h en t h e L o w l an d s s h all m eet t h ee i n b at tl e arr a y .

’ ’
Be a ye s t i c k i n g in a t re e, J a ck ; i t 11 b e g r o w i n g w h il e ye r e
s l ee pi n g .

E a t t h ou n o t t h e b r ea d of h im t h at h at h an ev il eye .

0 m ak e h er gra v e w h ere t h e s un b ea m s
a r es t ,

W h en t h ey pr o m i se a g l o ri o us m o rrow .

R ea p w e n ot the r i pen e d w h eat ,

Ti ll y o n d er h o s t s ar e fl yi n g .

L et m e n ot for g et w h a t I h a v e g a i n ed fr o m t h ei r own uth s

”

m o .

L et us g o r o un d , an d l et t h e sa il b e s l a ck , th e c o urs e b e s l o w
’

L et t h e w at er s un d er t h e h eav en b e g a t h er ed t og et h er, an d l et
t h e d ry l an d a ppear .

T h e b r i d eg r o o m c o m et h ; g o ye o ut t o m eet h i m .

To a s o l em n fea s t I w il l i n v i t e youn g S i m on Ca l ym at h — w h ere

b e t h o u pr esen t .

V ex n ot t h o u t h e po et s m i n d ’
.

Th e L o r d j ud g e b et w een t h ee an d m e .

G reen b e t h e t ur f ab ov e t h ee .

Ma y ’
st t h o u fi n d w it h H ea v en t h e sa m e forg i v en ess as wi t h th y
fa t h er h er e I
H o w w on d er ful i s D ea th , D ea t h an d h i s b r o t h er S l eep I
H ow s l eep t h e b r a v e, t h a t s in k to r es t

By a ll t h ei r co un t r y ’
s h
w i s es b l e s t !

Ha d I a d a ug h t er w o r t h y of s uc h a h usb a n d , h e sh o uld h av e
s uc h a w ife .

W a st t h ou a m on a r c h , m e w o ul d st t h o u m ak e t h y queen ?
Is m y y oun g m a s t er a l i tt l e o ut o f o r d er, th e questi on i s W h at
”
w i ll m y d ear ea t ?
2 38 AB B RE V I ATE D AND I NCOM P LETE E XP RESS I O N .

[4 8 5

485 . Th e si m
p l est an d c om m on est ki n d o f abbrev i ati on ,

w hi c h i s used i n al m ost e v er y s en t en c e w e m ak e i s t hat b y ,

w hi c h w h en t w o o r m o re c o —
,
o r di n at e c l a uses fo ll o w i n
g on e
an o th er w o ul d b e m ad e u p i n p ar t b
y r ep eat i n
g t h e sam e

w or d s t h ese w or d s ar e o m i tt e d i n all b ut o n e an d l eft

, ,

t o b e un d er stood o r supp li e d fro m th e c o n n ecti on in t he

, ,

o th ers .

Th us, for e x am p l e ,
m t h e foll o w i n g sen t en ces we sh o ul d
usuall y l eav e o ut t h e w ord s w hi c h ar e put i n b rac kets

h e is pre s e nt , s he
[ ]
i s a b s en t ;
he is presen t , s he
[ ]
i s not
[ p ]
resen t ;

I a m w e l l [ I am ] n o t s i c k ;
,

I h av e s o m et h i n g to s in g [ I hav e som ethi n g to ] say; ,

t h ese a re d ar k [ w o o d s t h ese are] g loo m y [ w oo ds thes e

, ,

are
] un f req ue n te d wo o d s .

486 . T h en , as we l uses t ogether b y

m or e o ften c on n ect the c a

m ean s o f c on j un c ti o n s w h en t h ey are fu ll y e xpressed so w e also ,

m ak e gr ea t use o f c o n j un c ti o n s i n c on n ect i n g t h e fragm en t s o f

th em t h at rem ai n w h e n t h e un n ecessary r ep etit i o n s are o m i tted :

thus fo r ex am p l e
, ,

I am n o t s ic k , b ut we l l ;

he i s g o o d , a n d h an d so m e , a n d c l e erv ;
he is g o o d , h an d so m e , an d c le e r v ;
I hav e s o m et hi n g to s i ng o r s ay .

B y t hi s j un c t i o n s w hi ch are origi n all y con

m ean s , co n ,

n ec t i v es o f c l a uses on l y h av e c o m e t o b e o n a v er y l arge
, ,

s c al e c o n n ec t i v es o f w or d s o r p hras es w h i c h are c o or d i n at e -
,

— th at i s t o s ay w hi ch h a v e the s am e o ffi c e o r c on struct i on
,

W i th o n e an o th er in a si n
g e c a l l use .

An d w e h a v e se ( 32 7 ) th t w
en a o rd s t h e par ts
o f all o f s peec h an d in c on
,

st u
r c t i on s o f e v ery k i d ubj t n s ec s , i
pred c at e erb s, o b v j t s qual i fyi n g w d
ec ,
or s,

p epos i t i o n s a d so o
r ,
n e th us n ar b o un d t og et h er b y c o n j un c ti o n s w i th i n t he
l i m it of
s c l au
on e se .
48 8 ] C O M P O U N D MEM B E RS OF A S E NTE NCE . 239

4 87 . As w e c all a s en t en c e c o m p o un d
d w h en i t i s m a e

up o f tw o o r m o re c c -o r d i n ate c l auses usuall y c o n n ec te d ,

t ogeth er b y c o n j un c t i o n s (4 1 8 so w e ca l l a n y m em b er

o f a sen t en ce o r c l au se a CO M P OU ND MEM B ER o r el em en t

w h en i t i s m a d e up o f tw o o r m o re c c -ordi n at e w or d s
u ua ll y bo un d to ether b y c o n j u n c ti o n s
( s g ) .

Thus, w e h av e a co m p o un d subj ect in

f ri e n d s a n d fo es r us hed t hro ug h to g et her ;

a c om p o un d pred i cate adj ectiv e in

t h ey were l ovely an d pl e a s an t i n t he ir l ives ;

a c om p o un d p rep o sitio n al con n ec t i ve i n
he was see n both b e fo re an d a f t e r the b att l e ;

a co m p o un d ad v erb —p hrase in
he was s ee n b e fo re t h e b a tt l e b ut n o t afte r it ;

an d so o n .

W e sh o ul d v th i k f c all g t he e t e i t s l f c o m po u d b ec use a y f
n e er n o in s n nce e n a n o

i t s l ss
e t i l m em b
es s en a y dj u t m d i fi er i th e o f t h e s ubj t o
e rs , a n a nc f or o e r ec r o

t he p d i t v erb i s c m po u d ;
re ca e ,
r i g o al i f t h e s u
n bj ec t i t sel f i c o m
no ,
n en e r ,
s

po un d ; n o r ev i f t h e p ed i c at e v e b i s c o m po u d p o vi d d th e sen t ce i
en r - r n ,
r e en s

bri ef an d n o t c o m pli c at d as i e ,
n

he [ w en t ] an d I w en t ; I w en t an d [ I] c am e ;

he [ w en t ] an d I w e n t, an d [he c am e an d I] c a m e,

'
[ h ere th e w o rd s i n b rac k ets sh o w w h at w o ud b e l add ed to m ak e t he e x p ess i on
r

co m l
p et e ) . B ut i n
I a ro s e , afte r a l ong an d r ef r es h n g i l
s e e p, at s i x o c o c k
’
l t hi s m o rn n g , i w h il e

hi i g
t he d e w w a s th g s d h vi gn n d y t il t
on d d e r as s , an ,
a n m a e m o e an e

p t h d
s a ch ty b kf t w t ut i t y h d t
e a as re a as wh t d, g en o n o m o rc ar o s ee a am a e

y t d y g l i g ht h v d
es e r a
’
s a et y f ui t-t
m a e on e o m r r ees ,

i t w o ul d d ub tl ess b p o t i c ll y b t t er t ereg d t h o m i tted

rac aubj c t I as e o ar e s e

u d n t
er s d b foo w t a d t o d s ri b t h s
e o re en te e a,
om p u d
n T he v e be c e e en nc s c o n . r ,

t he w d f or s ti
o i t h ess t i l l m e t b v e ll o t h
as er on, s e f a s t
en e ;
a e e n ,
a o a e rs , o en en c

an d i t is p f t l y p p r t h l d t h t t h e a
er ec ro as m a y s n t
e o c
o ( r c l au es ) a er re n e en es o s

as th r a e e v rb s ire y th i g w s y
e n an n e a .

4 8 8 The c o o rd in at in g c o n j un c t i o n a n d i s use d far o ften er

.

t ha n a ll t he o t he r c o n j un c tio n s t o g et h e r i n th us c o m p o un d in g
the el em en ts o f sen ten ces An d so d is ti n c t l y d o w e feel that i t
.
 ABB REV I AT E D AND I NC O M P L E T E E XP RESS I O N .
[4 8 8

bi n d s t og eth er i n to o n e th e w o rd s c o m p osin g a co m p o un d el e
m en t that , a s h a s b een seen ab o v e 34 8 c ) , t h e v erb b el o n gin g
(
to a s ubj ec t so c om p oun d ed is m a d e p l ural ,
as i f i t h ad a p l ural
s ubj ect .

h e e are al o o t h er w ay s i n wh i c h w e m ak e b y m an s of d c o m b i n t i on s
T r s e an a

w h i h c an n o t b e t ak en apart i n t o s i n g l e c l auses
c fo r ex am pl e ,

w th ug ht T d Di k
e o d H y omiyti ; an c an a rr a no s r o

th d i gh t ree k an - d tw ety e en m a e o n e an - en .

S uc h c om b i ati o n s w i t h a y o th er c o j un c ti on a e on l y rare an d irregul ar

n n n r .

4 8 9 B ut ev en t h e s ub ord i n ati n g con j un c ti on s are so m eti m es

.

us ed t o j o i n a m ere w o r d o r p h rase w hi c h rep resen ts an abb rev i

‘

at ed d ep en d en t c l au se t o t hat o n w h i ch th e c l au se w o ul d d ep en d
th us,
It is im po rta n t | f tr ue ;

a re yo u m ad ? i f n ot, s pea k to me ;
t h o ug h o f ten fo rb id d en he ke pt c o m in g ; ,

he f e l l w h i l e b rave ly d efe n d i n g t he fl ag ;

l et t h e m w h e n we l l ag a i n ret arn to d u
,
ty ,

t h at i s, if it is t rue ; t ho u gh he was fo rb id d en ; whe n t h ey are

we l l : an d so w i th t h e r es t .

It is l y th e v e b b th e s i m pl e p ul b et ween a subj ect an d p d i c t e

on r e, ca a, re a

w o d ( 353 a )
r l g w i t h a subj e t w h i h i s th sam w i th th at o f t h e th er
,
a on c c e e o

c l ause t h at c a
,
b e l ft o ut t h u to ab b vi at e t h ex pr ss i o
n e A d i
s, ll re e e n . n ,
n a

su c h c ses t h e fac t o f an elli ps i s

a , o an o m i s i o f w h at m i g ht b e an d m o re
,
r s on

o ft en i s e x p ess ed i s m ur ch m e d i s t i c t l y p ese t t o o u
,
r m i d s th a
or wh e we n r n n n n

ab b revi at e b y m ea s o f d o or b u n t an d t h e li k e
an r or .

4 90 . I t i s b y th e sam e si m p l e an d ob vi o us kin d of ab b rev ia

t io n — n am el y , b
y l eav i n g ou t p arts o f th e sen t en c e w hi c h are
so c ear l y un d ersto o d fro m
l t h e c o n n ecti o n th at i t w o ul d b e m ere
w a steful rep eti t i o n t o e xp res s t h em that i n q uesti o n an d an

s w er a w o rd o r t w o o ften s tan d s fo r a w hol e sen ten ce, sh ort o r

lon g .

Thus, if on e ask s

w ho b ro ke i n t hro ug h the w i n d o w , an d d id al l t h is m is s hi ef
i n t he ro o m

i t is quite en o ugh t o re pl y
2 42 ABB RE V I AT E D AND I N C O M P LE T E E XP RES S I O N .
[ 4 92

In eas y c o ll o qui al v
speech , e en a r epeat ed i fi i t iv e i s represen t ed
n n b y i t s si g n
to l
a on e : as,
he w o u d l n ot h
go , t o ug I t o d hi m h l to ;

yo u m ay s t a y , if yo u w a n t t o ;

b ut t h i s i s n ot all ow ed i n c ar e ful st y l e ,
n or i n wr t i i ng .

4 93 . v e th e b urd en so m e rep eti ti o n o f n oun s, w e hav e

To sa

p u b f d u —
used s ub sti t ut es
(33) t h e r o n o n s as ri e an m c h In a .

si m il ar w ay, t he p ro n o m i n al a d v erb s o i s a v ery fr equ en t sub sti

t ut e for a w o rd (o ften est an a dj ec tiv e) o r p h rase o r c l a use used
as co m p l em en t o f a v erb th us, for ex am p l e ,

he is h er m arrie d o r g o i n g to b e s e ;
e it

I th o ug h t t h at he c o ul d b e t r us te d but I t hi n k s o n o lo n g er ; ,

if he is no t a l read y t ire d o f wa it i n g fo r us t h is l ast d e l ay wi l l ,

c erta i n l y m a ke hi m s o .

An d d o i s an la m os t eq uall y frequen t s ub stit ute for a v erb

t hat ds to b e rep eate d t hus,
‘

n ee :

s l ee p s e l d o m v is it s s o rro w ; w he n it d o t h , it is a c o m fo rter ;

em b rac e m e , as I d o th ee ;
I l ov e h er b etter t h a n he d oes .

4 94 . It i s b ecause c omp arall elism

parison n at ura ll y i n v o l v es
o r rep et i ti o n o f exp r essi on t h at t h e c o n j un c t i o n s o f c o m p ari s o n ,

a s an d t h a n an d esp ec i all y as
,
h av e c o m e t o b e fo ll o w ed v ery ,

frequen tl y b y abb rev iat ed an d i n c o m p l ete exp ressi o n (as al ready

p o i n t ed o ut 330 d ) t hus fo r ex am p l e (add in g i n b rack ets t he
, ,

w o rd s w h i c h m ay b e supp l i e d as un d ersto o d ) ,

s he is as go o d as he [ ]
i s ;

s he h a n d s o m e as [ sh e] ev er [ w as] ;
was as

he pu t it o ff a s l o n g as [ p utti n g i t o ff w as] po ss ible ;

lo v e t hy n e i g h b o r as [ th e n Io v est] t hys e lf ;
I t reat hi m as
[ I t r eat
] a f ri e n d ;
I reg a r d it as
[ I regar d a t hi n g] po ss i b le .

S tar t i ngi h suc h ab b evi ated c o struct i o s as th e l as t t w o has c om e t o

w t r n n ,
as

be used a a k i d o f pp s i t iv e co n ec t iv e a d e v en t o t ak o t h e m a i g o f
s n a o n ,
n e n e n n

t h e l i gh t o f i n t h e h a ac te so t h at w e m ak e u c h ph as es as
‘ ’ ’
ia ,
i c r r o s r

h g i d g t f hi f
'

e a ne re a t ; am e as an t w t;
o ra o r
g s am e as o ra o r as rea
4 9 5] C OM P ARATI VE C LA U SES . 2 43

w h ere i t w o ul d b b y n o m s easy t o fi ll out the e llips i s in

e ean suc h a w ay as

sh o ul d g iv e i ts pro p m
as ing er ean .

Often b efo re a c on d i t io n a l c l a use a w h o l e c l ause

, ,
of com p ari
s on i n v o l v i n g a rep etiti o n i s o m i t t ed after as : t hus
, , ,

e wou l o o k]
he lo o ks as
[ h ld if he w e re t i re d ;
I wo ul d t h a n k her as
[ I sh o ul d t han k h er] if s he had d o n e me a

g reat favo r .

Th i s o m i i i s so c om m on th at ii h as c om e t o seem to a s a c om p un d
ss o n ,
as
‘
o

c o j u cti o
n n o n j u t i ph se o f o m pa i s a d w e are qui t u con sc i u
r c on nc on - ra c r on , n e n o s

o f t h e el l i p i al ] y i m pl i d i n i t
s s re A t h ugh i s us d i t h e s m e sen se w h i l e
e . s o e n a ,

if t h e el li ps i s w e fi ll ed o ut th ugh c o ul d h a d l y e v
er b g i t h c on d i t i o a l
,
o r er e n e n

c l au se .

E v en t h e co n di t i o n l c l au s e i tsel f m y b e ab b re vi t ed
a m aki n g for a a ,

ex am pl e ,
h l k a f t d e oo s s i i re .

B y a ki n d red abb revi at io w e c h g e n, an

y u ut o t m s t i so d t wi
ac pp b t i
as o n e ac s n or er o n a ro a on

y u ut t t wio pp b t i
m s ; ac so as o n a ro a on

an d t h i s h as b ec o m e i t s o i g i b i g u th ough t o f b y us o n e o f t h e c o m m on
,
r n e n n ,

c o n stru c t i on s o f t h e i fi n i t i ve (4 50 b ) n .

On c e m o re w e f equ t l y fo m s n te c es l i k e t h ese
,
r en r e n

yf i dm p r en th y s, b v b i g b ught ;
o o r as e a r e, ar e a o e e n o

ll u a d h y b
n a rm e h w ill d i d i t fl y;
as e m a e, e s a n o

wh ere t h e ad j t iv es p ec an d u d e i ppo s i t i v e c o st u
oor ct i o qual ify
n a rm e ar n a n r n,

i g t h e ubj ec ts o f t h i d p d e t l u e f i d a d h —a s i f i t w
n s e n e en n b i g
c a s s, r en s n e e re e n

as p o o r as th y t u ll y
e ac an d s o o n
a B ut s u h a l u
a re , m es t o app r to . c c a se c o ea

us quiv l e t t h w v
e a n
po th y
o o th u
e er g h th y oo r p o ; an d t h e
e by
a r e, r o e a re o r n ,

ana o l g y wi t h t h m w fo m o th e s wh i h i v o lv e m k d abb revi a ti on s : t h us

e , e r r c n ar e
,

fo r ex am pl e ,

p th y y u
o o r as t b uy t h e
; a re , o c an n o em

v li t ly h a
y fi g ht th y w ill b t hi
an as e m a , e ea m

w h ere a ab so l ute c
n st u cti o i s i m pl i d
on th u r n e s,

th y b i g e p e n th y ; h fi g ht i g
as o o r as v li tly em e a re e n as a an .

o r ag in
,
a ,
uh I l v y u I l v h
m c as ; o e o , o e o n o r m o re

wh ere the app i t iv e adj t i v e i o m i tt ed t h us

os ec s ,

I l vi g y u , o uh n I l v y u l v h
o as m c as o e o , o e onor m o re .

4 95 . Not on ly ,
h o w e v e r, w here t he c om p l e t io n o f t h e e x
p res s io n w o ul d i n v o l ve an un n ec essary an d a v o id a b l e r ep et i ti o n

o f so m ethi n
g ac t uall y sa i d c l o se b y, b ut a so l w here t he com m on
 24 4 AB B REVI ATE D AND I NCOM P LET E E XP RESS I O N .
[4 95

usages of s p eech ar e s uch as to sh o w p l ai n l y en o ugh w h at i s

m ean t, we o ft en t ak e t he l ib erty of o m i tti n g s o m eth in
g .

h
T us, w e m ay h av e a sub ord i n at e m em b er of the sen t en c e o m i tted ,
as in

he i fi ft
s [ y ears o ld ]
ee n d t i l f hi g ; ,
an a o s a e

it is a q ua rt e r a fte r s ix

I h ll l v
s a th ea e o n e tw e n t -t y hi rd [ d a y o f th e m on t h] ;
y u o[ y o ur l ett e ]
rs r of ye s te r d a y is rec e iv ed ;
s t o p at t he b ake r’s [ sh o p] o n t he w ay;
vi i t d S t we s e . P et e r’s [ ch urc h] l ast s um m e r .

Or w e m ay h v th e m o re esse t i a l part s t h e subj ec t o r th e v erb or ev en

,
a e n , ,

b oth o m i t t ed
, .

T hus t h e subj ect i s o m i tt ed i n c ert ain c urren t ph rases as

, ,

th k y u! p i th an(th t i s I p y th e) ;
o r ee a ,
ra e

w ul d th t h w eo h ! a bl e y u! re f u d the f ll w l
e re ess o c on o n e o

Al so i n d i ary st y l e as
, ,

w ent t h u h ye t d y ; h d fi e
o c rc s er ; ae t g g i
ea r e t S u d ay
a ne s rm o n m an o o a a n n x n .

In t h secon d perso n s i n g ul a i n po et i c an d a t i que st y l e as

e r, n ,

h t h d? w hy d st t
as e ar ? o s are s e

I n ex p ess i on s li k er

d w h t w w ill w k
o a h d w e ay w y t
e , or as pli h ar th i g ; as m , e e ac c o m s no n

fo r d w (t h t i s l t u d )
o e a n d so o, e s o ,
a n .

I c o m pa at iv e ph ases an i d efi n i te subj ec t aft

n r r , o th ( c o m pare 494 )
n er as r an

t h us ,
I w ill ly i p i bl ; c o m e as ea r as s o ss e

th d y w f i th
e w a u u l t th t s
as a rer an as s a a a easo n .

Ag a i n th e v erb b t h e
, p u l (3 5 3 a ) i
e, s so m e t i m co
es o m i tt ed — ao ften est b e

fo e a p edi c at e n o un o r dj ec ti v e an d i n a quest io n
r r a t h us , ,

w hy ll th i i h e? a
y u s ld i ?n o se er o a so er

f ut il t h fl t; e he e th
‘

t
or en c e es e ears .

E x am pl es o f th e o m i i o n o f b o t h subj ec t an d pred i cat e v e b o nl y a sub ord i

ss r ,
.

n at e m em b er o f t h e se t e c e rem a i i n e n n n ar
g ,

[ I w i sh you ] g d m i g l di ; a oo o rn n , a es

[ I d i k t o] y u h lth i ; r n o r ea , s r

[ I g i v e y u] y t h k f y u ki d s ; o m an an s or o r n n es

w it [h d m ] l a pl t
e r, an e a c e an a e

[ It i s] g d ] [ g iv m e] y u h d up it a r ee e o r an on .

A v erb o f m ot i n i s o ft o m i tt ed i n c o m m
o d s b e i g m ad e un n ec essary b y
en an ,
n

an a d v b o prepo s i t i n
er r t h us o ,

up d w y! f? w i t h y uI
an a a o o
 ABB RE V I A T ED AND IN C O M PLE TE E XP R E S S I O N .
[4 99

4 9 9 Al o n g w i t h an i n t erj ec t i on w e o ft en put a w ord o r ph rase po i n t i n g

.

out m o re d i s t i n c t l y t h e k i n d o f em o t i o n w e feel , o r t h e o c cas i o n o f i t t h us,

0 h o rr ibl e ! an d o h, i
t he d ffe re n c e t o m e !
l
a as , m y un h a pp y co un t r ! y lo , t he po o r I di n an !
a h, t he pi ty of it ! ti e , t he l y f ll w
az e o !

po o h, n o n s en s e ! ps h aw , ho w ab s urd !

B ut q ut e i as o ft en the o c c as o n o f i t h e fe eli ng i
i s tse f l m ad e an e x c l am at i on of ,

i h o ut
w t i j i add d t h e t o e d g stu e sh ow i n g
an y n t er ec t o n e ,
n an e r
pl a i n l y en o ugh
w h t th
a f l i g is
e ee n .

Oc c a i o n a ll y as if t h e i t erj ec t i o w ere n assert i o i n st ead o f a m e e s i gn o f

s ,
n n a n r

t h e feel i g i nt e d ed t b
n i t i m ated a prepo s i t i on i s used t o c om b i n e it wi th
n o e n ,

th e ad d ed e x pl a t i o th u na n s,

0 f l dg i v t w il d
or a ! o e n so m e as e r n ess

ti y u! e on l f T y! o a as or ro

as if i t w ere I l g f l d g I y h e up y u I g i v e f T y
on or a o e, cr s am on o , r e or ro .

50 0 A n um b e o f o u o di
. y w o d s a e so om m on l y used i n i c om pl et
r r r n ar r r c n e

ex c l m t or y ex p ess i o
a a t h at th y h v e a l m ost w o th e c h arac t er of i n t erj ect i o n s
r n e a n .

S u h re the i n t erro g at iv e w o d s
c a r ,

w hy, ho w , w hat ;

i h m an y o th ers
w t h h t h e fo ll o w i g ,
e x am pl es
of w ic n are

w ll i d d h k b h l d h il h l p
e ,
n ee , ar , e o , a , e ,

il q ui k w y s ut b k t
en ce, c , a a , o , ac , o a rm s .

5 01 D ep en d en t c l auses are o ften used i n an ex c l am atory

.

w ay w i th o m i ssi on o f th e m ain c l ause o n w h ic h t h ey s h o ul d

,

d ep en d t hi s b ei n g som eti m es rep l ace d b y an i n t erj ecti o n .

T h us for ex am pl e :
,

0 th t h w h w i th u ! a e e re ere s

h d w b ut k w f it i t i a ! e no n o n m e

if y u h d ly h i h gl y !
o a on s ee n er n er or

ul d b g uil ty f u h
‘

it I as ! co e o s c m ea n n ess

l th t h h ul d h v p v d f l !a as a e s o a e ro e so a se

wh t pl t d y it h b ! a a e as a n a as ee n

h w l d b i g th i i ! o c ea r a n rac n e a r s

as if th e c on stru c t i on w e re

I w ul d t h t h w h ; o a e e re e re

it w w ll ii y u h d h
‘

; e re e o a s ee n er

b v h w l th i i ; o s er e o c ea r e a r s

an d so w i t h th r est e .

S uc h m ay b e ca ll e d ex c l am atory c l auses in t he d ep en d en t form .

50 2 . As t he i m p rat iv e d o pt t i v e m o d s o f ex p essi o n sh ad e i n to o n e
e an a e r

an o t h er so b o t h a ea l y l ted w i th th e ex c l am ato ry a d h e c e the

re n r re a n n
504 ] IN TE RJ E C TI O N A L P HR A SES . 24 7

questi on m ay o ft en h eth er a g iv en se t n c e o p rt of a sen ten ce i s b st

ar se i w n e r a e

v
i ew ed as t h e o n e o as t h e o t h er j ust as i t m ay s m et i m es b e questio n ed
r o

w h et h er a se t e c is m re in t er o g at iv e o r ex c l am t o y
n n e o r a r .

T h e e i s a c ert a i n r l t i o sh i p b etw een t he

r ti
e a or n om in t iv e o f ad voca ve na

d ress i n t he n o u t he i p ti
n o r m o d e o f d i ec t c o m m an d i n t h m er a ve r e

v e b an d the i t j t i
r ,
w o rd o f d i rec t i n t i m at i o n
n er ec on f feel i g
or Th e fi st o n . r

an d l as t st a d equ a ll y o uts i d e t h e s t u t u e o f t h e se t c e an d t h e i m p r t iv e
'

n r c r n en e a
,

us u ll y rej ects a subj ec t an d th e t hree v ari o us l y c co rd i t h eir pra t i al uses

a a n c c .

50 3 For t he sak e o f st i m ul at in g att en t i on or o f g ivi n g forc e an d i m pres

.
,

s i ven ess t o wh at w e sa y o r o f s o ft e in g w h at m i g h t seem t o o po s i t iv e o

,
b l un t n r ,

o r fo r o t h er s uc h pu po s es w e are apt i n f m i l i a c o ll o qu
r i a l st y l e t o t h o w i o r
,
a r r n

i n te j c t i to o ur s n t en c es l i tt l e ph ases w h i h f n n o r al part o f w h at w e
r e n e r c o n e

are sa y in g an d s t an d i n ,
o g m m at i a l c o n n ec t i on w i t h i t an d w h i c h a e al so
n ra c ,
r

l ik e i t j ect i on s i t h t t h i r ch i f purpo se is t o i t i m at o ur states of feeli n g

n er n a e e n e .

S o m et im es t h ese ar o m pl et e i d pe d en t c l au e c
ses as n e n ,

y uk w ; y u see ; o I t ll y u;
no o e o

I d l o f y o r g u o r l ul t ;
ec a re r an c e ss ca c a e

an d som et im es t h ey are i n c o m pl et e o r m e e fr gm en t s o f s t en c es : as ,
r a en ,

to b e s ure ; as it w e re ; so to S pe ak ;

by y o ur l ve ;
ea if I m ay s ay s o .

We m ll th em th en I NTERJ E CTI ONAL P H RAS E S

ay c a , , .

Th e w h o l e c at l og u e o f as sev erat i o n s an d o at h s are o f t hi s c h arac t er

a Th us .
,

fo r ex am pl e ,
by J v o e

st ri c t l y m ea s I sw ear b y J upi ter an d w o ul d b i f used ser i o us l y th e i n v o ca

’
n ,
e, ,

t io o f a d ivi n i t y t o at t st t h e t ruth o f w h at w e are s y i n g

n e An d th e s m i m a . a e

pul e t o m k
s ur e x press i o m o re fo c i b l b y putt i n g i t o i t a stron g w o rd o r
a e o n r e n

t w o s m th i n g t h at
,
o e m s t o i m pl y feel i g o r pas i on
see l ead s oc as i o ll y to th e n s ,
c na

i s ti on o f b urd b i ts o f ph as s wh i c h i t w oul d b e in v ai n t o t ry to b ui l d up
n er a s r e ,

i n t o sen t en c es t h us f r ex am pl e ,
o ,

wh th i hi f hv d o th i ? e m s c e c an a e one s

wh t i th u d e e y uh a f ? n n r ar o e re or

It i s n o t easy t o v i d sl a g an d i l g an c e w i th ev e th e m o st m od at e u e
a o n ne e n er s

o f t he m t i n n o ce t i t j e t i on al ph rases ; a d t h ey sh d e rapi d l y o ff i n t o
os n n er c n a

w h t is o
a o p o fa e
c arse r r n .

5 04 . It is a c om m o n c on s eq uen ce o f ab b revi atio n that w ord s

c ha n
ge th ei r gram m at i c a l c h arac t er, an d com e t o be of a d ifferen t
l
c a ss , o r a d iiTere n t part of s peec h fro m ,
w h at t h ey w ere b efo re .

h
T us, fo r e x am l
p e, i n
he ke pt h i l f q ui t m se e , he g o t h i m se lf i
a ppo n te d,

kee p an d g et h v th i p p v l ue
a e e r ro er a as t ra n s t i iv e v e rb s, w h il e t he j
ad ec t i es v
24 8 AB B R EVI A TED AND I N C O M PLE T E E XP R E SS ION .
[ 50 4

q uet i an d i
iv e predi cates
a ppo n t e d a re o b ec t j
qual i fy i g t h ei r respe t iv e n c

o bj ec t s B ut o w in fam ili ar st y l e w e h a v e sh o rt e d th ex pressi o n s t o

. n ne e

h k pt q ui t ; h g t pp i t d ;
e e e e o a o n e

an d s o h a v e m ad e t h e v erb s i n t ran sit iv e equiv al en t s o f t i u d an d b e ,

c on n e ec a m

— w h i h l as t li k e o t h ers o f o u v e b s o ri gi n a ll y t r n s i t iv e o r efl ex i v h s
c ,
r r a r e, a

u d e g o e a l i k e h a g e o f c on st ruc t i on
n r n c n .

Ag in l g (fo
a ,
l g) i s o ig i a ll y an ad v erb ph ra l i ke hi gh a d
a on r on on r n - se, on n

i v i
n m ad
a n, i n t o an ad v e b — l k e b d d f w h i c h ha ve al ways
e r l a ro a an a ar,

rem i n ed ad v erb s on l y B ut l i k b v a d
a g an d m an y o t h er l i k e
.
,
e a o e n am o n ,

ad v erb s l g c am e ea l y t o b e used as a prepo s i t i o l s an d it w as us ed in

,
a on r n a o

su c h ph rases as l g t h i d f an y th i n g Th en a furt h er abb rev iat i o n an d

a on e s e o .

c h an g e m ad e o v er t h e ad v e b ph rase l g th i d i t o a c om poun d ad v erb r - a on e s e n ,

as in
hi s s hip lay a l o n gs d i e of o urs ;

an d h
t is , fi n al l y, b y om i ssion of t h e fo l o w l in g o f, b ec am e w at w eh h av e t o call
a prepo s t on as i n ii
he l ida his v e ss e l a l o n g s id e t he e n em y’ s .

l i k e m an n e i s fo r —as b i d e by cause — t h at
’
B ec a use, i n is b y easo n ‘
r, ,
r es

i s f r by t h
o i d e W h a v e o t i d eed t urn ed b u l i k e b i d e ( fo r ex
e s . e n ,
n ,
ec a s e, es

am pl i n b e i d h i s l f ) i t o a prepo sit i on b ut a l w ay s use a c on n ec t iv e

e, s e m e ,
n ,

b et ween i t an d a fo ll o w i g ou as i n n n n,

w t y d i be au e f t he t e s a e
; h, c s o s o rm

j ust as w e sh oul d say by e f th t B ut b et ween i t an d a fol l ow in g

r as o n o e s o rm .

cl u a se w e h a v e l ea ed t o l v e ut b y ab b revi at i o th e w ords o f c onn ec tio n

rn ea o ,
n,
,

a d so h a e t u
n rn ed i t i t o a c o j u ct i n
v t h us n n n o ,

w s t y ed l be us it w a t
e
y; a n, c a e s s o rm

w h ere t he co m pl et e ex press i on w o ul d b e

b u o f t h e fact t h at it w t
ec a y se as s o r m .

S o th e c o n j un c t i on f i s o i gi all y t he sam e w ord w i t h f e ; an d the

or r n or

c l aus e fo ex am pl e
,
r ,
fo r it w as s to r m y,

i s b y ab b re i ati on fro m v b efo re ( t h at i s to say, i n fron t or in vi ew o f th e fac t

h
t at it w as sto rm y .

W h v e al e d y n o t i c ed t h i s m o d e o f o n v ers i o f ad v b s a d prepo s i ti o s
e a r a c n o er n n ,

a d ev en o th er part s o f sp
n h i t o c on j u t i on s a d h a v e s en t h at
eec ,
n nc n e

i t i s st ill g o i g o n s i n ce a part o f th e E g l i sh s peak i g pe pl e a e i th

'

n ,
ct o f n - n o r n e a

ch a gi g d i
n t l y fro m a d v erb t o co j u c t i o
n rec b y abb revi at i n g th e c o n struc t io n n n ,
n

i n w h i c h i t i s u ed ( 330 a ) s .

5 05 . These are on ly som e

(i n cl ud i n g t he m o re usua l an d
reg ul ar) of th e w ay s i n w hi c h E n g l ish e xp ressi on i s ab b rev iated ,

w i th t h e res ul t i n p art t o gi v e a n ew c harac ter t o w o rd s , i n part

2 50 A B B RE V I A T ED AND IN C O M PL E TE E XP RE S S I O N .
[ 50 8

es p eciall y a k n o w l e d ge of th e hi sto ry of o ur l an g uag e . Th e

presen t usages o f an y t o n g ue w e c an n o t full y un d erstan d w i th
o ut k n o w i n g so m et h i n g o f i ts p ast usag es, o u t o f w hi ch th ese
hav e grow n an d o ft en a g reat d ea l o f s t udy, an d a c o m p arison
of o th er l an guages, i s requ i re d for settl in g d i ffi c ult p o i n ts .

Th e b ran ch o f st udy w h i ch att em p ts th i s, w hi c h t rac es out

th e hi st or y of w o rd s an d
phrases an d sh o w s ho w they c om e t o ,

b e us ed as t hey are i s call e d E T Y MOL OGY ,

or i n a m or e
gen eral ,

w ay hi st ori cal g ram m ar ; an d w h en carri ed o n up on a w i d e

, ,

scal e CO M P A R A T I V E P H I L O L O G Y
,
.

50 8 H e c e t o e x pec t y o un g sch o l ars w h o h a v e o t studied th e E n gl i sh

. n , ,
n

l a gu g e i n i t s e rl i er form s t o x pl ain the real di ffi c ult i es o f E gl i sh c o n struc

n a a ,
e n

t i on i s i n a h i g h d eg ree un reas o ab l e n o r sh o ul d suc h m t t s b e b ro ugh t

,
n a er

b efo r e t h em at all u t il th ey h a v e g ai n ed a t h oro ugh an d fam ili ar kn o w l ed ge

n

o f th e u su al an d regu l ar con st ruct i o s n .

E X E R CI S E S T O CHAP T E R X VI I .

O N A B B R E V ATE D I AN D I NCOM P LE TE E XP R E S S O N I .

We hav e n o w on e fur th er questi on t o ask , i n t ak i n g up a sen t en ce

n am e ly ,
w h et her i t i s an i n c om pl et e o n e If i t i s, it sh o ul d b e .

d efin ed as s uch, an d t h ose w ord s sh oul d b e add ed w h i c h ar e n ecessar y

in or d er to l
en ab e a s t o parse i t .

XX XI I . M i s c e l l a n e o us e xa m pl e s .

W il d am b i t i on l ov es t o sl i d e, n o t s t an d .

Fav or s t o n on e, to a ll sh e sm i l es ex t en ds
Oft j
s h e r e ec t s , b ut n ev er o n c e o ffen d s .

As n ig h t t o w o e l ust r e g i v es t o m
s t ar s , an .

W e h av e no sl a v es a t h
o m e ; t en w h y h a b ro a d ?
G o d i s t h y l aw , t h o u m i n e .

H i s l i fe w il l b e s a fe, h i s po ss e s s i o n s s a fe, hi s ran k s a fe .

D ea t h b ut en t o m b s t h e b o d y ; l i fe, t h e s o ul .

N ot c o n q ue s t , t r i um ph i s hi s a i m
sim pl e .

P r a y er s a n d t ea r s h av e m o v ed m e, g i ft s c o ul d n ev er .

h av e t oi l ed , i n t h eir c ou n try s c au
’
P a tr i o t s an d se b l ed n ob l y.
C H AP . Ky m ] E XE R C I S E S .
2 51

R uin fr o m m an is m ost c o n c ea l ed w h en n ea r .

If ri c ht h e y g o t o en j o y ; i f po or , t o
,
r et r en c h ; if si c k , to re

c o v er ; if s t ud i o us , t o l ea rn .

T a k e t h e t er m s t h e lad y m ad e

E re c on s c i o us of the ad v a n c i n g aid .

I w i ll n ot fi gh t a ga i n st t h ee un l e s s co m pel l ed .

W h at e er ’
the m o t i v e, pl eas ur e i s t h e m ar k .

T hi s a ppar en t e x c ept i o n , w h en ex a m i n ed , w il l b e fo un d t o c on

fi rm th e r ul e .

T h ou m a d es t m an , he k n ow s n ot w hy ;
H e t h in k s h e w as n ot b o rn t o d i e .

Why am I b ea t en ? —D o st t h ou n o t k n ow — N ot h i n g , sir , b ut
t h at I am b ea t en .
— S h al l I t el l yo u w h y ? — A ye, s i r, an d w h er e
fo r e .

I s t agg er ed a few pa c es , I k n ow n ot w hi t h er .

T o d a ll y m uc h w it h s ubj ec t s m ean an d l ow
P r o v es t h a t t h e m i n d i s w eak , or m a k es it so .

It t o uc h es yo u, y l o r d , a s m uc h a s m e
m .

T h e y l o v ed h i m n o t a s a ki n g , b u t a s a par t y l ea d er .

’
B ea ut y s t ea r s a r e l o v el i er t h a n h er s m i l e .

H e l o o k ed as t h o ug h t h e s pe e d of t h o ug h t w er e i n h i s l i m b s .

K in g s uld gr o an for s uc h a d v a n t a g es ; b ut w e, h um b l ed a s
sh o

w e a re, s h oul d y earn fo r t h em .

G r o v el i n t h e d ust ! c r o uc h ! w i l d b ea s t a s t h o u art !
M uc h a s h e l o v ed h i s w ealt h , h e l o v ed h i s c h ild r en b et t er .

H i s n o s e l a r g e as w er e t h e o t h er s b o r e t h em d o w n i n t o i n s i g
, ,

n i fi ca n c e .

Com e, yo u a t l eas t w er e t w en t y w h en yo u m arr i ed ; t h at m a k es

yo u fo r t y .

A t t h i rt y , m an s us pec t s h i m s elf a. fo o l .

B efo r e t en h i s s en se s w er e g on e .

H ad s een t h ee s o o n er , l a d , b ut h a d t o s ee the h o un d s k en n ell ed

fi rs t .

H o w d o st ? an d h ow h a st b een t h es e ei g h t een m on t hs ?
W ilt t a k e th y c h a n c e w i t h
’

m e

S ur e o f t ha t ? — V er y s ur e .

S h o rt h i s c ar eer , i n d eed , b ut ab l y
A n d w h a t i t s w o rt h , a sk d ea t h -b ed s ; t h e y c a n t el l .

Ho w v ar i o us h i s em pl o y m en t s w h o m t h e w o rl d c a l l s i d Ie I
H is l o rd s ’
c om m a n d s he n e er
’
w it h st o o d ,

T h ough sm a ll h i s pl ea s ur e t o d o g o o d .
 ABB R E V I A TED AND IN C O M PLE T E E XP R E S S I O N .

W hy t hi s s o r ar e B ec a us e for g o t o f al l t h e d a y o f d ea t h .

An d w h a t i f I c all m y s er v an t s an d gi v e , t h ee t o t h ei r c h ar g e
W h a t t h o ugh t h e pl a c es o f t h ei r r est
N o pr i es t ly k n ee h at h ev er pr es s ed ?

M en i n t h ei r l o o s e un g uar d ed h o ur s t h ey t a k e ;
“

N o t t h a t t h em sel v es a r e w i s e b ut o t h ers w eak , .

N o t b ut t h e y t h o ug h t m e w or t h a r an so m b ut t h ey w ere n o t
.
,

sa fe w h en I w as t h er e .

H o w b l es s i n g s b r i g h t en a s t h ey t ak e t h ei r fl i gh t !
G r ea t G o d ! t h a t s uc h a fa t h er s h o ul d b e m i n e i
O fo r t h a t w arn i n g v o i c e w h i c h h e w h o sa w
,

Th e A po c a l y ps e h ea rd c ry i n H ea v en a l o ud !
A l as b ot h for t h e d eed an d fo r t h e c aus e !
P h oeb us ! w h at a n a m e t o fi l l t h e s peak i n g t r um p o f fu t ur e
fa m e !
W h at a. c o ld -bl oo d e d ra sc a l it i s !
0 t h at I h a d h er h er e, t o t ear h er li m b -m eal !
If th e m a l i g n an t eye of h er fat h er h a d s een t h em at t he m o

m en t i
H o w if I t hr us t m y h an d i n t o yo ur b r eas t an d t o re yo ur h ea rt
o ut ?
U p, Guar d s ! an d at t h em !
 2 54 IN D E X .

-
a| , s uffi x , 1 93 (1 . c ar d n a i l n um era s, l 21 2 5 .

l
a o n g , a o n gs l ide ,
504 . c as e, in un an d pron o un 68 - 75 ; i n
no ,

a lt ern a t iv e con j u ti nc on s, 329 . o t h er l an g uag es 69 399 — a n d sceh o m i

, ,

a lt ern a t iv q uest on , 467

e i . n at iv e, po ssess iv e, o b ec t j iv v e, o c at iv e,

an o r a, a rt c e, 21 9 —il
2 21 . da t iv e, g en t e i iv .

v
an c e, s uffi x ,
95 .
ca usal c o n j un c t i o n s 329 , .

a n d , m ak es c om poun d s ubj ec t etc .

,
348 c, c ausat iv e d er iv at iv e v erb s ,
96, 2 25 0 .

4 88 . c h an g e o r g ro wt h o f an guag e 7 ; c h an g e l ,

An g l o -S a x on , o ld es t En g li sh , 8 . ot
‘

g ram m at ic al c h arac ter o f w o rd s, 504,

an t ec ed en t of a r e at l iv e w ord , 1 75, 433 ; 506 .

d em o n s trat iv e as an t ec ed en t , 1 67 . l
c a s e, u d efi n i tion , 41 5 ; d epen d en t an d i n
a ppo s it i on see appo s it iv e . d epen d en t 4 —7 ; c o -o rd n ate, 41 7 - 8,
. i
a pp i t v os i e c o n str uc t i on o f no n u , 375 ; of 4 25 c om b in at o n i of c a l u i ses n to sen

adj t iv ec e, 376 ; o f c l ause ,

4 34 d of par t en oes , 41 6 - 28 ; a djec t iv dv e, a erb , an d

t i c i pl e, 457 - 8 ; so m et m es eq i u iv l a en t t o s ub s tan t iv e c a l uses , 4 29 - 37 eq uiv a

d epen d en t l
c a use , 458 —60 ; b e i n g as ap l en ce of _
in fi n it i v e an d part c p ii l e c on

pos t i iv e a ux ili ary , 4 57 . st r c ti on s w i t h

u c a l uses , 458 9 .

appos t i iv g en t e , 385 0
e i iv . c og n at e o b ec t o f j v erb , 36 2 a .

il
art c es , 52, 1 95, 21 9 - 21 . co ll ect iv e n o n s, u 114 ; p lu l v ra erb i
w th ,
Aryan or I n d o -E uropean fam il y of Ian 348 b .

g uag es 3 , . c o m m an d , e xp r ess on o f, i 22, 55, 468, 474 - 9 .

as , c o n j un c t i on o f com pari s o n , 330 d ah c om m on n o un s ,

113 .

b rev i ated c on st r uc t i o n s w ith , 1 86 ,

4 50 b, c om iv
parat e c on un c t on s, j i 330 d th eir
4 94 5 . c o n st r uc t o n s , 330 d , 494i .

as if, h ugh c nju t i ph

as t o 494 , o nc on - ras es, . c om iv
parat e d eg ree, in ad ec t j iv es an d ad

as k w i th i d i c t b j t 36 5
,
n re o ec ,
.
v erb s, 77 9, 1 97 202, 31 6 .

as se rt i d
on , l y b y v b 28 40 222
m a e on er , , , ,
c om parat iv ph il l gy e o o ,
507 .

340 ; v b f er rt i pul 353

o m ere as se on , co a, a c om parat iv p u e ro n o n s, 1 89 pron o m i l na

asser t iv t 22 338 - 9 4 63 ; u d
e sen en c e, se a dj t iv
ec 21 1 es , .

77 —
, ,

i te g t iv l y 472 i p t iv l y 478
n rro a e m era e c om p i f d j t iv
ar s o n o a ec es , 8, 1 97 -2 02
, ,

a t t i b ut iv
r t u ti f dj t v
e c on s r 373 c on o a ec i e, o f dv b
a 79 31 6
er s, ,
.

4 f ou 377 no f p t i i pl 455
n o ar c e, .
c om pl t f p di
em en o re cat e or sub ec t, j 30,

280 —
,

a x u i li y v b i v b ph
ar er 305 s, n er -
rases , .
4 07 .

com l
p ete d i pl tan te n c om e e sen n c e, 4 82 3 .

c om l ubj t p d i t 26
p et e s ec or re c a e, ,
30, 407 .

ha d g oo d E n g s
an d 10 li h , .
c om pl x et 4 1 2 4 24 8
sen en c e, com po un d
b are sen t en c e, 2 5, 341 —
,

pl x 4 26 8
9 ; b are an d c om c om e -

—
.
,

pl ete pr e d c ate an d s ub ec t , 30 , 405 i

-7 j .
c om p i
ost i f w d 1 02
on o 6 or s, .

b as e of i nfl ec t i on , 87 .
c om poun d m em b er o f a sen te n c e, 487 .

b e, con j ugat i on o f, 230, 234, 237, 273 ; c op com po un d l iv p re at e ro n o un s 1 81 ,

3 pro
ul a b et w een s ubj ec t an d pred i c ate n o un n om i l dj t iv
na a ec es , 2 1 0 us e i n m ak n gi
o r ad ec t j iv e, 40, 353 a a ux ili ary o f pro s ub s t t iv
an l u e c a s es , 435 a .

g ress iv e v erb -ph rases , 2 81 ; of pas s iv e, com po un d s en t en c e, 41 2, 4 1 9, 426 8 c o m

2 98 302 .
po un d c o m p e , 42 6 8
- lx
que s t on o f i
be prefi x , 225 b , 31 3j , 504 . c o m po un d s en t en c e o r c au se an d c o m l
b ec a us e , 504 .
po un d pred c at e, 4 87 i .

b ec o m e, 303, 504 . c o m po u n d w o rd s , fo rm at o n i o f, 1 02 - 6 ;
be i n g or h vi a ng b ee n , as a ux ili ary o f ap com po un d n o un s 1 1 7, 1 1 9 ; t h e r i n flec ,
i
po s i t e iv c o n s tr uc t i o n ,
457 of a b so i
t o n , 1 30 1 37 ; c om po un d pro n o un s , 1 64 ,
,

lute, 4 61 . 1 83 ad ec t ij v es , 1 94 v erb s , 2 26 ad

bot h as c o n j u ctio n n, 506 . v erb s, 31 4 prepo s t o n s , 325 ii .

b ut , e lli pti l ca c o n s t r c t o n s o f, u i 1 87, 496 . con d iti on a li v n ert ed c au s e, 4 71 l .

 I NDEX .
2 55

c on d i ti ona lv erb-p ras es, h 2 87, 2 90 . i v c p u d ou 1 1 9 ;

d esc r pti e om o n n n s, 6 the ir

con j ug t i o a n of v erb , 66 - 7, 22 7 - 307 Old pl u l 1 30 ra ,

.

an d Ne w con j ug t i a o n s, 2 39 75 ; pas di l t f E g li h 9
a ec s o n s , .

s iv e, 297 - 305 d i i ut iv
m n ( u ) 1 16 es no ns

—8
.
, .

c on j u ction n, d efi n i t i o n an d us e , 47 , di t
rec d i di t bj t o f v b
an n rec o ec er s, 1 40,
32 7 un i n flec ted , 79 —80 l i
re a t o n to 363 8 .

ad v erb s an d
prepo s t o n s, 31 0, 331 434 ; ii , d i tly
rec j u t i 330 504
as c o n nc on , a, .

i
c o -o r d n a t n g an d s u i
b o rd n a t n g c on j un c i i d i t i b ut iv i d fi it p
s r u 1 89 p e n e n e ro n o n s, ro

t i on s an d th e i l r c as ses , 328 - 30 s im n omi al dj t iv 2 1 1

n a ec es , .

pl e an d d er iv t iv a e, 331 con j u ct io n n d ux ili y f m ph t i v b ph

o, a ar 279 o e a c er - ras e,

ph ras es , 4 33 ab b re vi t i a on b y a id o f c on 80 474 , ub t i t ute f p ted v b s s or re ea er ,

j u cti n on s, 4 86 - 9, 4 91 po un d c om m em 4 92 3
—
.

b ers o f s en te n c es , 4 7, 327, 486 7 pars -d o m s uffix 96, 1 1 8 a

, .
,

in g of c on j u ti nc o n s, p 1 51 . .

c on j u c t iv e p
n ro n o un s — see re atl iv e .
e ac h th o e r, 1 89, 506 .

c o n n ec t iv es , part s of s peec h vi ser ng as ,

~
ed o r -d , s uffi x , 95, 1 93 a , c, 1 94 c, 240 .

4 3 - 9, 4 1 0, 41 5 .
e i th d
e r an i th ne e r as c o n jun c t io n s , 506 .

co n s t ruc t o n i , m ea n n g o f, i p 62 .
e ll i p i 4 83 t
s s, t rea m e n t i n pars i n g, 505 .

co n t n i uo us or prog res s iv v e erb -ph rases em o ti l p i

on a o r ass o n ate e xp i
res s o n , 484, 498 .

iv ph t i v b ph
em a c er - ras es, 2 79 - 80, 293, 299,
see pro gr ess e .

c o -o rd n ate c a i l uses , 4 1 7, 4 25 ; th e i r ab b re 474 .

v i a t i on , 485 8 .
-e n o r ~n , part c p al su ii i
ffix , 95, 1 93 c, 2 40 .

e o o r d n at e
- i m em b ers of a s en t en c e, 327,
~
en , v erb -m ak in g s ufii x , 95, 2 25 a , b ; ad
485 8 j ec t i ve-m ak n g , i 1 93 a
—i
.
.

c o o rd n at n g i c on j u c ti n o n s, l
c ass es , 329 ; li
E n g s h g ra m m ar, 11 ho w an d w h y to b e

use, 329, 4 1 8, 486 8 .

st ud i ed ,
13 5 —
cop ul a b e , 353 a ; i t s o m i s s i o n 489
, , .
En g li h l
s an g uag e ,
w h en c e d er iv ed an d

c o pu la t iv e co nj un c ti o n s 329 ,
.
w h ere us ed ,
1, 2, 5 i ts re a l ti on s, 3;

c o rr el at iv e c o nj un c t i on s 329 ad v erb ,
an d m x i t ure w th Fren c h i etc .
, 4 ; c h an g es ,

co n j u ti nc on , 4 33 .
6 8; l presen t use, 9
oca l v i ti ar e es o f

cr u
d e-fo rm or b a s e 87 . .
1 0 g o o d an d b ad E n g s h , 1 0 t reat m en t li
i n g ra m m ar, 1 1 ; s t ud o f i ts h s t o r , y i y
d at iv e or d at iv e-o b ec t j iv e c as e, 1 39 - 40,
366 - 8 . -a r
,
s uffi x of d er iv t iv
a e no n u , 95, 1 1 8 d , e;

d ec l en s o n , i of n o n u pron o un , 75
an d of
o f c om parat e d eg ree, 96 , 1 93 b, 2 01 iv .

no un s ,
1 20 - 4 2 o f pro n o un s , 1 54 (50, -ess suffi x , 96 , 1 1 8 b
. .

1 66 , 1 70, 1 89 . -
es t , s uffi x of s uper at l iv e, 96 , 1 93 b , 201 .

d e fi n i te art c e, il 21 9 .
etym o o g l y , 507 .

d egre es o f com pa ri so n see c o m par i so n xl

e c a m ato r yi n te rro g at iv l e c a use , 481 ; d e
d em v p u 1 66 8 p
o n s t ra t i e ro n o n s, ro n o m
pen d e n t , 501 .

i l d j tiv 208 d v b 31 3
na a ec es , a er s, e .
e xl
c am at o r us e y of i n t errog a t iv e an d o th er
d enom i t iv d v t i v b 225 d
na e eri a ve er s, .
w o rd s , 1 73, 335, 500 .

d p d
e t l u 4 1 6 420 8
en en di
c a t se, c o -o r n a e,

—see
.

4 25 b b vi ted 489 491 494

a xl
re a , , , e c am a fac t t i iv e or o b ec t j iv e pred c ate i oh

t y 481 501
or f d d iti
, 437 , o a on , .
je c t i v e .

d iv t i
er f a w d f
on o th 88 one or ro m an o e r, fa c t t i iv e us e o f v erb s , 362 b, 370 .

1 01 1 06 ; b y
,
fii 89 96 ; b y i t sn x, - n er fe m i nin e g e n d c r-n o
un ,
1 1 5, 1 1 8 b pro n o un ,
l h g
na 96 -7 b y t
c an f w i t h ut
e, ra n s er o 1 59 —60 .

h g 98 —9 ; b y p fi 1 00 1
c an e, re x, - . fi rs t pe rs o n , 6 1 1 53 : pro n o un ,
o f, 1 55 - 7 .

d i v t iv
er ua 1 1 7 - 8 : dj
e no t v 1 93 ; n s, a ec i es , l
t o d , s ufli x , 2 1 8 .

v b 225 ; d v b 31 3 ; p p i t i
er s , a er s, re os ons, fo r , con j u ti nc on , 504 .

825 j u ti 381 i t j t
co n nc335 ons , n er ec no n s , . fo re i g n no un s pl ura l o f
, ,
1 26 .
2 56 I NDEX .

fo rm , g ram i l m at c a , p 62 . . i n d efi n i t e pro n o un s, 1 88 9 pro n o m i n al

frac ti l u l
on a n m era s , 21 7 . ad ec t j
es, 21 1 iv .

Fren c h i E g li h
n n s , 4 . i n d efi n i t e l iv
pro n o un s an d ad ec t es,
re at e j iv
u| , s uffix 91 , 1 93 a
-f
, ; sam e as fu ll ,
1 02 . 1 83, 21 0 ; ab b re ated c on s tru c t o n w th vi i i
futu r e v erb -ph rases , 282 —6 . 4 34 .

i n d epen d en t c a l us e , 41 7 .

g en d er in n o n s, u 1 1 5 ; i n pron o un s , 1 59 - 6 2
i n d epen d en t part s o f s peech , 36, 49
.

i iv iv
.

gen t e or po ssess e c as e, 68 et c .
(see po s i d i t iv
n ca e m o o d , 65, 233 4
j iv j iv
.

ses s i ve ) ; s ub ec t e, o b ec t e, an d ap~
i din t bj rec o ec t o f v er b , 1 39 40, 364 8
i iv i
.

po s t e, w th i n fi n i tive i n i n g
385 ; use I d Eu pn o- ro ean fa m il y of l an g uag es En g
j
,

sub ec t, 446, 459

as .
li h s a m em b er o f, 3
i l l li
.

G erm an c an g uag es , re ated t o E n g sh , 3 .

-i n e s uffix 118 b
, , .

G erm an y, d er iv t i a on o f E n g sh fro m , 2 li .

i n fi n i t i v e, v erb al n o un 1 46 , ,
235- 7, 438 —9
g er un d , 2 37 .
i n fi n i t i ve-ph rases , 294, 4 39 ; i t s “
s ig n

g et , 303, 504 .

t o , 2 37 ; w h en us ed or o m i tt ed , 440 - 1
g ood an d b ad E n g s h , 1 0 li .

i n fi n it i v e c o n st ruc t i o n s, 44 2 51 as s ub
v
g o ern m en t , 60 o f erb b y s ub v j ec t , 60, 62,
j ec t i
pred c at e, o b ec t , 443 7 ; j — of i n t en t
j
,

346 ; o f prepo s t o n ,
o b ec t by v er b o r ii or en d , 448 ad erb a o b ec t v il j iv e, 448
74, 32 0, 359, 398 ; o f ad ec t e b y n o un , j iv w th i o b ec t j iv e as s ubj ec t , 44 9 ; w t h i s ub
76 ; o f n o un in possess e c ase b y o th er iv j ec tiv e g en it iv e, 446 .

no un 387 —7 ; v
i n fl ec ti o n , 56 - 7, 66 of erb , 59 - 67 ;
.
,

gram m ar, i ts o ffi ce, 10 2 st ud y 1 3- 5

, .

o f n o n an d u pro n o un , 58, 68 75 ;
- o f ad
gram m at c a i l an d l gi l
o ca s ubj ec t 1 63a , 31 7,
v
,
j ec ti v e an d ad erb , 76 - 80 ; m eth o d s o f
434 a , 443 -6
c h an g e i n i n fl ec t io n , 81 b as e of ih
.

;
gram m at c a i l h c arac ter o f a w ord c h an g ed
fl ec t i on , 87 a n d see the d ifl er en t par ts
b y abb re vi ti a on o r o th erw s e, i 504 6.

f speech
o
h l
.

gr o w t o r ch an g e o f an g uag e 7 507
g , s uffi x 95
-i n
.

1 93 c, 237
, ,
, , .

had rat he r et c 4 41 c, 450 e

i
n s t ru m en tal o r w th i c a s e, 399 .

,
i j i
. .

n t er ec t o n d e fi n i t io n an d use, 50 1 , 332
have , a ux i1iary fo rm i ng
“
perfec t v erb
,

—9
,
3 l
c asses , 334 from o th er pa rts o f
ph ra ses, 288 292, 454
ha v e to , o b lig t iv a
,

e, 450 d
.

speec h , 335, 500 ; c om b i n at on i wi th o t h

~
h uffi x
ead , s 118 a.
.

sr w ord s, 336, 499 ; l i

re at o n to v o cat iv e

-ho o d s uffi x
,

96, 1 1 8 a
an d im p t iv 502 ; p i g p 1 53
era e, ars n ,
. .

i j t i l ph
.
, ,
n t er ec 503
on a rases , .

ho w if, 4 96 .

i n t ern a l h g d iv t i b y 96 7 225
c an e, er a on ,
-
, c ;
-ic
, s uffi x , 1 93 a .
i n fl ec t io n b y, 83- 4, 1 2 5 o , 240, 2 45, 2 57 .

id i o m s, 507 .
i n t erro g at e pron o u iv
n s , 1 69 - 73 ; pron o m i ‘

i p
m erat iv e m o d e, 65, 233- 4, 474 ; ph ras es, n al ad ec t j iv
es , 209 ; ad erb s , 31 3 c ; us e v
474 pers o n , 475 let as m pera t e aux i iv i n q ues t i o n s, 46 8, 470 e xl c a m ato r yu se ,

i li ary, 477 ; re l tia on to i n ter ec j ti on an d 1 73, 4 81 us e as l iv

re at es , 1 74 .

v
iv 502
o c at e, .
i n ter ro g at iv e s en t en c e, 22 , 54, 338 - 9, 463

i p t iv
m t
era e s en en c e, 22, 55, 338 - 9, 463, 73 k i nd an d an s w er, 464 - 9 ; arran g e

474 —
80 .
m en t , 465, 470 - 2 as d epen d en t c a l us e,
i p m l ubj
e r so n a s ec t an d o b ec t j it , 1 63 b ,
4 73 ; e xl c am a t or yu s e, 4 81 .

362 c .
i n t ran s i t iv v pas s e fro m
e erb , 223, 360 1 iv ,

i m perso n a l ve b r s, 307, 348 a 305, 392 ; o b ec t t ak en b y, 362, 370 j .

in prefi x , 1 93 d . i v i l
n ar ab e parts o f s peec h , 79 .

i l
n c o m p e te e press x i on , 482 3 . i v t d d f t
n er e 471 or er o s en en c e, .

i n d ec li n ab e l w o rd s , 79 . i g ul
rr e Ol d j ug t i
ar o r c on a on see O ld .

i n d efi n it e a rt c e, il 2 1 9, 221 . i g ul v b li t f p 1 35
rre ar er s, s o ,
. .

in d efi n i te n um eral s , 21 1 . is b e i g t 299 456 n e c .

, , .
2 58 I NDEX .

p ars i n g gene ral rul es fo r pp 62 3 p a rs

, ,
. 305 ; a dv e rb 31 5 ; p r p siti , e o on , 326 ; p rep
i n g o f nouns pp 6 3 4 ; o f pr onoun s ,
.
, os it ion al ph r s s dj c ti v a e , a e e an d adv e rb
o f a dje c ti v es pp 96 —7 ; o f
,

pp 79 81 4 00
.
- . 4 .
,

v erbs pp 1 31 3 o f a dv e r bs p 1 4 2 o f
,
.
,
.
-
p| e , s uffi x , 2 1 8 .

p rep o sitio n s p 1 46 o f c onjun c tions p , , .

pl upei f ec t tense v rb ph r s 288 , e -
a e, .

1 51 o f i n te rj ec ti o s p 1 53 n , . . p l u l nu be r 58 —60 ; p l u ra l o f n ouns
ra m , ,

p a rti c i p i al in fi iti ve 237 294 439 its c o n n , , , 1 2 1 - 30 ; o f pr onouns 1 54 60 1 66 ; ,

-
,

s t ru c t i on s 4 43 - 5 ; w it h subj ec ti v e gen i
, us s o f w y ou y 1 56 —8 ; p lu al o f
e e, , e, r

ti v e 446 ; p as si ve use 456

, , . v e rb s 59 230 ; w it h c ll c ti v o r
, , o e e c om

p arti c i p l es v e rbal a dje c ti v es 2 35 —6 238

, , , , pou d subje c t 348 488
n , , .

4 38 452 ,
p a rti c i pl e ph ras es 294 452 -
, , p siti v d gr i dj c ti v an d a dv erb
o e e ee n a e e

p arti c i p l e c onst ru c tions 453—62 w ith

,

, 77 9, 1 97 .

a ux il i a r es i n v e rb phr ases
i ,
281 302 -
, , pos s es s w e o r g iti v case i noun an d en e ,
n

4 54 ; a ttributi v e 455 ; p r ed i c ati v e 4 56 ; , , pr onoun 68 70 ; f r ti f i nouns,

- o m a on o ,
n ,

app o siti v e 4 57 equi v al en c e o f t h s w ith

,
i 1 31 - 8 pr onoun p ss ssi v s o r p ss s o e e o e

c ertai n i fin it iv e c onstr u c tions 459 60

n , si v dj c ti v s 1 05 uses 384 9 ; q ui
ea e e , ,
e va

absol ute 461 substanti v e 4 62 , ,

. l t o f dj c ti v i v al ue 386 ; i
en a e e n ,
n c on

part s o f s p ee c h th eir d efi i t i o n an d uses ,

n ,
stru cti 388 p c ul i r use w ith f 388
on ,
e a o ,
.

19 —52 , th ir e c lass ifi c at i on , 36, 43, 49 ; p ss ssi v p r

o e i l dj c ti v s 205—7
e on o m na a e e , .

des c ri p tio n ,
1 08 —336 ; sy t c ti c l
n a a c om p t ti l v rb p h r s s 291
o en a e - a e , .

b i n at io n s, 337 508 . p r d i c t ss t i l p t o f s t c 24 —7
e a e, e en a ar en e n e, ,

p as si o n o r e m otion t en d s to in c o m p l ete ,
342 b r an d c p l t p r d i c t 30
a e om e e e a e, .

e xpr ession 484 498 , , . p r d i c t dj c ti v o r noun 4 0 350 —7 ;

e a e a e e , ,

p assi ve c onjug ation v e rb -phrases 297 , ,

p r d i c te dj c ti v sh d s i t a dv e r b
e a a e e a e n o ,

305 p r o gr essi v e p res en t an d pr eter it 299 , ,

354 i t pp siti v 355 d v rbi l p r d
n o a o e, a e a e

456 5 w h at v e r bs m a d e p assi v e 304 5 i t 355 ; bj c ti v

c a e, o r f c titi v pr d o e e a e e

369 —
.
,

p assi v e o r p ast p arti c i p le see p ast ,

i t ca e, 71 ; p rt i c i p l s i p r d i c t a e n e a e

p assi ve p r o gressi ve tenses 299 456 , ,

.
c onstr u c tions 456 ; d e rbs 382 ; c l auses ,
a v , ,

p ast o r p assi ve p arti c i p l e 238 40 244 , , ,

434 c ; i n fi n iti v es , 44 3 .

259 4 52 ful l e r fo rm s use d a ttributi v el y

, , prefi x , 1 00 1 .

2 75 455 ; us e d as a c ti v e w it h h av e 454
,
and u 44 6 31 9 ,
.
p r ep o siti o n , d efi n it i o n s e, -
,

p ast p erfec t t e s e ee pl u p erfe c t 2 1 ; r l ti

n to a dv e rb 31 0 331 ; to
s .
e a on , ,
c on

p ast ti m e expressi on o i i n v e r b 64 279

,
ju n c tion 327 331 to c s i fi t i 69 , , , , , , a e- n ec on , ,

28 1 2 88 399; not i fl t d 79 80; s im p l e d ri v n ec e , ,

e a

—
.
,

p rf c t tenses v e rb phr ases 288 292 p

e e ti v e an d c o p o
- un d 3 2 4 5 ; p r p siti er ,
m ,
e o on
, , ,

f t i fi it i an d p rti c i pl 294 439

ee n n phrases 326 423 bj c t o f p r p siti
ve a e, , , , ,
o e a e o on ,

452 ; p ssi v p rti c i p l a 294 452 73 32 0 ; d v rb o r d v rb p h r s as h

e a e, . ,
a e a e - a e o

j t 322 403 dj c ti v 31 5 322 cl ause

,

p e rson d isti c ti f i p er sonal pro n on o n ec , ,

a e e, , ,

445 ; p l c o f p r p si
, ,

noun 61 1 51 1 53 60 i c o p oun d
, ,
4 34 i fi i ti
,
- n m e n n v e, a e e o

w ith s e lf 1 64 ; i r l ti v ,
pr onoun tion 3 23 ; l f
a t W th ut p
n r ss d o bje c te a e . ,
e i o ex e e ,

1 77 i v e r b 6 1 3 228 9 34 6
n bs c 323 ; q u li fi d b y a dv e rb 381 ; p r p si a en e a e ,
e o
, , ,

o f d isti c ti i nou 63 1 41 n on ti l ph r s s
n
dj c ti v an d a dv e rb 398
n on a a e ,
a e e ,

—
.
, ,

ers on l pr onouns 6 1 1 51 - 65 ; i fl t i 4 04 ; p r in g o f p r p siti s p 1 46 n ec on , a s e o on

p a
. .
,

s 1 56 p r s t p rti c i p l 238 452 pp r t p

, ,

1 54 5 1 60 l u o f p l u r a l fo
,
va e rm ,
e en a e, ,
a a en as

7 ; u o f t hou y ou an d y 1 58 ; gen d e r
se si v use f 456
, ,
e, e o ,
.

i n th ird p e rson 1 59 1 61 —2 p c u l i r p r s t tense 64 232 ; ph ti c an d pr o e a e en , ,

em a

—
, ,

us s o f ii 1 63; c o p oun d s it se lf
e w h ,
g i 2 7 9 81 m ,
res s ve, .

1 64 ; p ss ssi v cases o r p ss ssi v a p r t rit tense

o e e d s o f fo r in g 239 o e e n e e ,
m o e m ,

j t
ec i 1 65 v es , 4 0
. ; p h ti c an d p r gr ssi v 2 7 9 81 em a o e e, .

p erso n ifi d o bje c ts g en d e r i
e 1 61 p ri c i p l c l us ,
i dp d t h ,
.
n a a e see n e en en .

phr ase d fi it ,
280 v e rb phr ases 279
e n p r i c i p l p rts o f v e rb 2 42
i on , -
,
n a a ,
.
 I NDE X . 2 59

prog ressi v e v erb p h ras es -

,
p as si v e
281 293 ; , ,
r t o f v e rb
oo a ,
87 .

299, 4 56 i n fi n i t i ve an d p arti c i p l e 294 , ,

r o t in fi iti
o - n ve, 237, 439 - a n d see in fi n it i v e .

439, 4 52
—1 1 ;
.

p ro n o m i n al adj ec t i ves s c d p rs 61 1 53 ; p r u f 1 55 ,
1 95, 2 04 po s e on e on , ,
on o n o , ,

i
s es s v e, 2 05 7 ; d t ti 2 08 i 1 58 us s o f t ho u y em o n s i a y ou 1 58 ; v l u ve , h e ,
e, ,
a e

t erro g ti 2 09 ; r l ti v
a ve, 21 0 ; i d fi o f p l ur al 1 56 e a e, n e , .

n it 21 1 e, . s l c ti v use o f in terr g ti v an d r l ti v e e e o a e e a e

pr on o mi l a dv e rbs 31 3na c p u ds p r u s 1 72 1 82 ; adj c ti v s 209 -1 0

,
e om o n on o n , ,
e e , .

w it h p r p siti s 31 4 u as ju
e o s lf c p u d p r u s w ith 1 64
on ,
se c on nc e ,
om o n on o n ,
.

tions 331 ,
. s t c th e u it i l ang uage 20 1 ; ki d s en en e, n n ,
n

pr onoun d fi i ti an d use 33 4 1 49 e n o f s t c 22 53- 5 338 9 ; c ss ry

on ,
-
, en e n e, - ne e a

58 70 —
, , ,

50 ; i fl t i n ec75 1 51 d isti
on , p rts subj c t an d p r d i c t 23- 7 340 no a e e a e, '

ti o f p e rson 61 1 51 1 53—60 ; o f g
, , , ,

on 2 344 347 ; p rts o f s p c h c

, , p s in g
,
en
, ,
a ee om o ,

d e r 1 51 1 59 ; o f p rs s o r t h rw is
, , 28 31 3 0— 1 ; b r s t c 25 341
e on o e e, -
,
4 a e en en e, , ,

1 71 ; c l ss s o f pr onouns 1 52 ; p e r ona l
a e 344 347 s y t o f si pl s t c s .
n ax m e en en e,

str ti v 1 66 —8 ; i t r
,

1 53—
,

65 ; d em o n 337 -4 09 o f c p u d an d c p l
a e, n e om o n om ex sen

r ogat v e 1 69 —73 468 4 70 481 r l ti v

i t s 4 1 0 —37 ; i c p l t s t c s e a e
en o e n om e e en en e

482 —
,

o r c ju c ti v 1 74 —87 ; i d fi it 1 88
, , , ,
,

on n e, 503 n e n e, .

9; t u ti
c on s r fp u u 1 50 qu l i
c h ll
on s o
d w ill u il i ri s f r i g futu
ro o n s, a
s a an a x a e o m n re
,

fi d on l y b y p r d i c te an d
e pp siti v an d c di ti l v rb ph r s s 282 287 ;
e a a o e on on a e - a e , ,

a dj c ti v s 40 1 50 376 ; p rsi g o f p
e e utl i s o f th ir d isti c ti 283 7 a n ro
o ne e n on ,

no un s pp 79 —
, , . .

81 ,
.
sibi l t s u d s 1 23 .
an o n , 0 .

pr p r
o e s o r nouns 1 1 3
n am e sig o f i fi iti t 237 ; its u d is ,
.
n n n ve, o, se an om

q u l ifi
a o f subj c t o r p r d i c t 407
ers
sie
440 - 1
e a e,
on , .

si p l s t c s t c
.

d
qu l i fyi g p rts o f s p ch 38 41 43 49
a n a
408
ee
m e en en e, an see en en e .

si gu l r n be
.
, , ,

r ,

qu tit ti v prono uns 1 89 p r m i l

an a e
u 58 60 1 21
on o na
n a m , , .

dj c ti v s 2 1 1
a e e
substitut fo r r p t d w r d o r ph r s
,

so , e e ea e o a e,

l d et c 4 97
.
.

493
qu sti
e i t rr g ti v
on see n e g o a e
so a .
, .

o
.

qu sti an d ans w e r bbr v i ti

on i 490 f f t 497
a e a on n,
so ar r m e c .
,
.

e
~o
.
,

uffi 1 93 b s m e, s x, a, .

r c i pr c l p r u ph
e o a 1 89 on o st o r base 87
n- m ses , . em , .

red uph ti o r iginal o f Old p r t rits str g o r 0 1d c jug ti

ca on , old e e on on a on see

subj c t ss ti l p rt o f s t c 24 —7
, , .

27 2 e e en a a en en e,

342 3 subj c t— i
.
, ,

re fl i ex vepr onouns 1 64 b , ti v o f v e rb 343 .

- e n om na e ,

re fl i ex ve v rb p h r s s 306 ; bj c t o f i
e - gr t o f v rb w ith 346 8 ; i p r
a e ,
o e h a eem en e ,
- m e

tr siti v v e rb 362 d f c titi v use o f

an e sonal c ll c ti v an d c p u d subj cts
,
a e , o e e, om o n e ,

fl i
re 370 ; c h
ex ve , g o f fl i to i 348 ; m issi W i t h i p r ti v
an e 4 75 ; i r e ex v e h o on, m e a e, n

tr siti v v e rb 504
an e c rt i bbr vi ted c stru c ti s 495
, . e a n a e a on on ,

r gu l r o r N w c njug ti — N w
e a e o bj c ti v subj c t o f i fi i ti 449
a on see e .
-o e e e n n ve ,

r l ti v o r c ju c ti v pr onouns 1 74 87
e a e on nqui v l c w ith th er c o stru c ti s
e , e a en e o n on ,

natur o f r l ti v e t c d t 1 75- 6 ; ea 459 e, an e e en . .

d isti c ti o f p e rson 1 77 ; c p u d subj c ti v c s —

n on i ti v , om o n e e a e see n o m na e .

r l t i v 1 81 3 ; i d fi i te r l ti v 1 83 ; subj c ti v g iti v 385 u e w ith i fi i

e a e, n e n e a e, e e en e, a s n n

bbr v i t d c stru c ti with 434 ;

a e a e t i v i i g 4 46 459
on on
, as e n n , ,
.

an d b ut i qu s i r l ti v use 1 86 - 7 n su bju c ti v m od e 65 233- 4 p tati ve u

a -e a e ,
n e , ,
o se

r l ti v p r
e a i l dj c ti v s 2 1 0
e o no m f 479 na a e e , o , .

r l ti v d v rbs o r c ju c ti s 1 85 sub rd i t cl us — d p d t
e a e a e on n on , o na e a e see e en en
—u o f r l t i v w rd s i
.
,

331 430 , sub rd i t i g c ju c ti s c l ss s 330

sc e a e o n o na n on n on ,
a e , .

c bi i g l u 4 1 0 4 l 5 4 30 435
om n n v a subst t i v 35 1 43 u o f dj c t i v etc
sc s , , , ,
a . an e, , se a e e .
,

r p tit i
e e v id d b y bbr v i t d p r s
on a o 1 43 8 46 2
e a e a e ex e , .

sion 485 94 ,
- subst ti v -cl us 1 47 422 3 434 - 6
. an e a e, , ,
.

res p i 318 466 490

o n s ves , subst ti v c ju c ti t h t 330
, , . an e on n on a ,
c .
2 60 I NDE X .

substituti on in p1a c e o f in flection ,

85 . 65, 233 t s —i fi ti 242 - 3 ; i fi i en e n ec on , n n

s ufli x 90 ti v es an d p rti c i p l s v rb l u s an d a e , e a no n

dj c ti v s 235 —8 ; c jug ti
.
,

su p rl ti v d gr
e a e e ee, in a dj ec ti ve an d adv e rb ,
a e e ,66 7 on a on ,
-
,

77 - 9, 1 97 201 , 31 6 .
227 ; p ri c i p l p rts 242 Old an d N w
n a a , e

s y t 337 o f si p l s t c 338 —41 0 ;

n ax , m e en en e, e on u
j g t i 2 39 - 41 244 74
a ; irr gu l r
on s , - e a

u i l i ry v rbs 276 —8 1ph b ti l ist

,

o f c p u d d c pl s t c s
om o n an om ex en en e ,
a x a e , a a e c

41 1 37 o f i fi i ti an d p rti c i pl 438 n n ve a e, o f irr gu l r v rbs o f ll ki ds p 1 35

e a e a n , .

6 2 ; 1 i t rr g t i v an d i p r ti v
0
’
n e o a e m e a e sen c m p u d v rb l f r s o r v rb-ph r s s
o o n e a o m , e a e ,

t s 463 80 o f cl t ry s t
en oe , ex am a o en en 2 79 305 pas si v e~ph rases, 297 305

4 8 1 498 503
c es , o f i co p l t ,
c pl t syst o f f r an d ph r s s
- n m e e sen om e e em o m s a e ,

t s 482 508
eh ee ,
2 95 p ssi v 300 .
cl ss s tr siti v a e, a e , an e

an d i tr siti v 223 358 -61 ; d isti n an e, , no

t s i v e r b 64 ; i fl t i 243 ; i gu
en e, n
ti o f c ti v p ssi v ann
d ut
ec
r 301
on rre
on a e, a e, ne e , ,

l i ti
ar 256 t s ph r s s 279 305
e s,
36 1
,
si p l d ri
en
v ti v an
e-
d c o p oun d a e
,

-
m e, e a e, m ,

306 ; i p rs l
.
,
22 4 6 ; fl i 307 -
T ut i c o r G r
e on i c la gu g s G
—c stru c ti s gr
e m an
t w ith sub
n a e see er
on
re ex ve ,

eem en
m e on a ,

m ani c on : a
.

di g i j t 59 - 6 3 346 8 ; c p l t d b y p r d ec om e e e
4h u
dj c ti v 40 351 —
ld
,
ffi
,
s 89 93 1 1 8 x,21 6 a, o en n n
,

v rbs 243
e
i t
,
u o r ,
7 ; by ca e n o n a e e, ,

th
,

bbr v i t d p r ssi w ith 330 d

.

bj c t 71 358 68 w ith bj c ti v p r d o e , ,
- o e e e ~

369 —
an , a e a e ex e on
71 ; b y qu l i fyi g d v rb o r
, ,
i t ca e, a n a e
4 94 ; u as c j u c ti 506 ; as p r p
se
d v rb p h r s 380 —
on n
3 402 b y d v rbi l
on , e o
-
siti u 330 d a e a e, ,
a e a

390 —
o ,

t h t as r l ti v pr onoun 1 80 ; as
bj c ti.

v 4; issi o f v e r b i o e e, om on n
nju
,
a e a e co nc

ti 330 435 ; issi f 1 84 331 bbr v i t d p r ssi 495 ; p rs in g o f

,
a e a e ex e on , a

v rbs p 1 31 —3
on , e, c om on o , , ,
e , . .

t he rti cl 21 9 - 20 ; p r m i l a dv erb
a e,
v rb p hr s s of t s d o d e 279 96 ;
on o na
e - a e ,
en e an . m ,
,

221 31 3 6
p ssi v 297 - 305 ; s h d i t r d i r y
,
a e, a e n o o na

p r ssi s
.
,
296
th em e o r b s 87 a e,
ex e on ,
.

an d er y uc h 309
.

th e re ,p c u l i r u o f (th i
e 31 7 y
a se ere s
ve r v m ,
.

v c ti v o r i ti v o f dd r ess 1 41 1 58
.

th ird p rs 61 1 53 p r u f 1 59 63
e on , — on o n o
o a e n om na e a , , ,

502 ; its c stru c ti , .

,
1 41
t h u use f 1 58
on on , .

o o
,
v i c c ti v an d p ssi v
.
,
301
ti i fl cti o f v rb fo r 64 232
m e, n e on e , ,
.
o e, a e a e, .

ti o f yth i g p r ss d b y d v rbi l w d o r w d uffi 31 3

m e an n , ex e e a e a - ar ~
ar s, s x, c .

obj c ti v 393 e e, w k o r N w c jug ti — N w

.
ea e on a on see e .

!o as sig ri fi it i 237 as substitut

n o W l sh f r rl y s p k i E ngl an d 2
n n ve, e, e o m e o en n .

492 ; its use o r issi 440 1

,

w h t f w h t t h u g h 496 om on , .
a i , a o , .

too an d t uc h 309 oo m w h th as c ju c ti 506 ,

.
e er on n on , .

tr siti v v e rb 223 358

an e w h s o r f w hi c h 1 79
, ,
.
o e o ,
.

- t y o r i ty u ffi - 118 ,
sw i ll an d s hall x, u i l i ri s f r i g futur
a .
, a x a e o m n e

an d c d iti l b p h r s s 282 2 87 ; on on a v er -
a e , ,

u p fi 1 00 1 93 d 225 b
n re x, utl i s o f th ir d isti c ti 283 7
, , .
o ne e n on , .

u d rst d
n e i g f 4 83
oo ,w is
- uffi 31 3 b
m ean n o ,
.
e, s x, .

u i fl t d p rts o f s p ch 79
n n ec e w rd o f an y ki d us d as n o un 1 48
a ee ,
.
o n e ,
.

w rd s 1 6 th ir d i ff r t us s 1 6 - 8 ; o ,
e e en e ,

v e rb d fi iti 28 9 222 ss ti l to ifi d as p rts o f s p c h 1 8 - 9

‘

,
e n l on , , e en a a c as s e a ee .
,

s t c 28 40 222 340 i fl ti fo r
en en e, , , ,
n ec on

nu be r 59 60 228 230 ; fo r p rs
m , y uffi
- 93 1 93 , ,
e on ,
~
, s x, ,
a .

6 1 - 3 2 29 ; f t se 64 232 fo r m o d e y an d yo u u of 1 58
,
or en , , ,
e ,
se , .
 2 E XT R A C T S FOR P A RS IN G .

1 m y c arg o
shore ; but as t o i t was a great p a rt of i t l ost espe
2
, ,

c i al ly the i r on
3
wh i c h I e x p e c te d“wou l d ha v e been of great use t o
,

me ; h o wev e r whe n the t i d e was out I g o t most o f the p i e c es of

, ,

c ab l e ash o re an d s o me o f the i ro n though w i th i n fi n i te l abor for I

, ,

w as fa i n to ( li p 5 for i t i n to the water : a w o rk 6 w h i c h fat i gue d m e

v ery mu c h A fte th i s I we t e v ery d ay on board an d brought
r 7
n .
, ,

away what I c ou l d get .

I ha d bee n n e w th i rtee n d ays "on shore an d had bee n e l e v en ,

t i mes7 o n boar d 8 t he sh i p i n w hi c h tim e I had br o ught away a ll ,

'

that o n e p a i r of han d s c o u l d we ll be su pp ose d c ap ab l e to b rin gg ;

th o ugh I bel i e v e v er ily ha d 1 0 the c al m weather held I shou l d hav e , ,

br o ught away the who l e sh i p p i ec e1 1 by p i e c e B ut p re p ar in g the ,

.
,

twel fth t i me t o g o 5 o n b o ard I fo u n d 1 2 the W in d began t o r i se1 3 ,

howe v er at l ow water I w e n t o n board an d th o ugh I thought I ha d

,
1 2
,

ru m mage d th e c ab i n so effe c tual] y that n oth in g m o re c ou l d be fou n d ,

y et I d i s c o v ere d a l o c ker w i th d rawers 1 4 in i t 1 4 i n on e of wh i c h I ,

fo u n d t w o or three raz o rs an d o n e p ai r of l arge s c i ss o rs w i th s o me 15

, ,

t en or a d ozen of goo d k n i v es an d fo rks i n another I fou n d about 1 6

th i rty s ix p ou n d s v a l ue i n mo n e y — some E uro p ean c o i n some
-
’
,

B raz il 1 7 so m e p i e c es of e i gh t some go l d an d some s i l v er

, , ,
.

”
I sm i l ed to m yse l f at the s i ght of th i s mone y 0 d rug ! sa i d I
‘

al o u d what art thou goo d for T hou art not worth 1 8 to me — no

, ,

not the tak i n g o ff the groun d : o n e of those k i v es i s w rth all

19
n o
18

t s to g ea t p r t of i t i s a pp o siti v e t o i t n ex t
r
1 i . e . so far 2 a as el a e . , r a

a b o v o r a m o d i fi e d r p titi o n o f th l tt er
e, 3 A pp o siti v
e e to g ea t p r t e a . e r a .

p ec ted is p a r en t h eti c an d whi ch i s i m m d i at e su bj c t o f w o uld ha e

4 I e x e e v
,

been W e n o t s el d o m see o w -d ys e v e i f irl y g o o d w rit ers su ch ph r as s

. n -
a a ,
n n a ,
e

as w h om ( i st ea d o f w h ) I e p ec ted w ou
n ld h e been b ut th ey are i c o rr c t
o x av n e .

5 44 8 6 A pp o s i ti v e t o to cl i i 7 390 8 For o n
.
p f or t e t ,
c. .

boa d f b y b b r ev i ti o n so t ha t o b a rd (l i k e a l n g si d e 5 04 ) h as b e c o m e a
r o ,
a a ,
n o o ,

p r ep o siti p h ra s e 32 6 on - 9 4 4 8 : m o r e usu al n o w i s a bl e to b i n
: .
g or r ,

c p a ble of b in g i g 10 4 71 1 1 A s o rt o f a pp o siti on t o hi
a r n p . s

on p i ec e o f i t b y ( L e al g w it h o r a ft er ) an o t h er pi ec e Or th e t h ree
e . on .
,

w r d s m ay b e p ars ed as an a d v r b i al p h r as e
o i n p i eces o r pi ecem ea l e , ,
.

1 5 som e m ak e s t h e f ll o w i
g n u m er
1 3 4 36 13 4 44.
1 4 4 01 . . o n

al m o r e i n d e fi n i t
s 1 5 a bo ut l s o m k s t h e u m r al i n d fi i t e : I fo u d
e . a a e n e e n n

t h v l u e o f ab o ut ( i e n e r i
e a th ei g h b rh o o d o f
. t fa f r o m ) s o m u c h
. a ,
n e n o ,
no r

a p r ep o siti on al p h r a s e tr at ed l i k e a si m p l e n u n ( 4 0 2 e 1 7 i e B r azi l o . .

1 8 The adj ec ti v e w or th
c o i B ra i l us ed as adj ec ti v e (2 0 3 en d )
n z ( a ls o , .
,

r ar el y w or thy) is f ll w d b y a n o u n ex p r essi g the v al u e w it h o ut th e hel p o f

,
o o e n

a p r ep o siti o n s i f the dj c ti v e g o v er n ed d i rec t l y an obj ec ti v e c as e as s om e

,
a a e ,

a d j c ti v es l o a d ti v e ( 36 6 l st h lf )
e ! a 1 9 the i v es t ki n
g g t h e c haract er
, a a . a

of a n o u n
 ’ ”
FR O M A DDIS O N S S P E CTAT O R . 3

t h i s hea p ; I ha v e no man n er o f n n use for thee —e e remai where ’

th o u art an d go to the b o ttom as 1 a c r eatu r e w hose li fe i s n o t

, ,

w o rth 2 sav i n g 8 H owe v er u p o n se c o n d th oughts I took i t away

.
, ,

an d wrapp i n g a ll t h i s i n a p i e c e of c an v as I bega n to th i n k 4 o f
, ,

mak i n g 5 a n other raft ; but wh il e I was p re p ari n g th i s I fou n d the ,

sk y o v e rcast 6 an d the w i n d began to r i se an d i n a quarter of an

, ,

hour i t b l ew a fresh gal e7 from t he shore I t 8 p resently o cc urre d to .

me that i t was i n v a i to p rete d

,
8 n n
9
t o make a raft w i th the w in d
4

off shore ; an d that i ts was m y bus i ness to be go n e9 befo re th e t id e

of fl o od began otherw i se I m i ght n ot be abl e to rea c h the sh o re
,
10

at a ll Acc ord i n gly I l et m y se l f d own i n to the water an d swam

.
, ,

a c ro ss the c han n e l wh i c h la y betwee n the sh i p an d th e san d s an d ,

ev e n that1 1 m th d i ffi c ul ty enough p artly w i t h the we i ght o f the

’

th i n gs1 2 I ha d about m e an d p artly the ro ugh n ess of the water ; fo r ,

the w i n d r o se v ery hast ily an d befo re i t1 3 was qu i te h i gh water i t1 3 ,

b l e w a storm 7 .

B ut I ha d got h ome t o m y l i ttl e ten t where 1 4 I l ay w i th al l , ,

m y wea l t h 1 5 ab o ut me 1 5 v er y se c u re 1 6 I t b l ew v ery hard a l l , .

n i ght 1 7 an d i n the m o r n i n g w he n I l o oke d out beho ld 1 8 no more

, , ,

sh i p w as to be seen !

11 . Fro m Ad d i s o n s ’ “
S pe c tato r .

T he gent l eman ne x t i n esteem an d authori ty amo n g a s i s an other

ba c he l o r who i s a member o f the I n n er T e m pl e a m an 1 9 of great p ro
,

b i t y w i t a n d u n d erstan d i n g but h e has c hose n h i s p l a c e o f re s id en c e

, ,

r t her
a t o o b e v 20
the d i re c t i on of an o l d humorsome father than i n
p ursu i t of h i s o w n i n c li n at i o n s H e was pl a c e d there to study 20 the .

l a w s o f t h e l a n d an d i s the m o st l ear n e d of an y of th e house i n those

,

o f the stag e A ri sto t l e an d L o n g i n us are mu c h better u n d ersto o d by

.

1 i . e . as a c reature g s oe .
2 S ee no e t 1 8 o n the p ag e n ex t p rec ed i g
, n
t his .
3 s vi
a g d m its n a of be i ng r eg a rd d ither a u n o as i fi i ti e
e e s no r n n v ,
b ut p re fe rab ly as i n fi n i ti v e .
4 44 4 .
5 445 .
6 36 9 .
7
8 1 6 311 1 “ 44 8 :
.
9 44 3 .
a ble is us d th us o e n ly w it h a r t -i
oo n fin i
ti v e ; w e s ay ca a ble O r ea h i n
p f g, ap a c c ble of a ff r t
e n o ,
e tc . 11 i e . an d
e v en t ha ( t he t
w m m n g ) I ! l id w hs i
,
i it et c .
12 1 84 .
13 l 6 3b .

1‘ 4 37 .
15 4 01 .
16 35 5 .
17 390 .
13 Ah i m p r ti v e
e a
,
as i f add ress e d t o t h read rs c lli e e
, a ng th em to t ak e no ti c e ; it m ay be re
g ar lc d as an i n t rj c ti n
r e e o 19 A pp o siti v e to ba c helo r : 37 5
2 "44 8
.

.
 4: EX T R A C TS FOR P A RS I N G .

h i m than L i ttl eton or C oke T he father sen d s u p e v ery post1 ques .

t i ons re l at in g to marr i age-art i cl es l eases an d tenures i n the nei gh , ,

b orho od a ll wh i c h quest i ons he agrees w i th an attorne y to a n swer 8

12

an d take3 c are of i n the l um p He i s stu dyin g the p ass i ons themse l v es

.
,

when he shou l d be i n qu i r i n g i n to the d ebates among men W h i c h ari se

from them He knows the argument of ea c h of the orat i o n s of D emos
.

th en es an d T u lly but n o t o n e case i n the re p orts of our own c ourts

, .

N o o n e e v er to o k h i m for a fo o l but none e x c e p t h i s i n t i mate fr i e n d s

, , ,

know 4 h e has a great d eal of w i t T h i s turn makes h i m at o n c e both 6 .

d i s i n tereste d an d agreeabl e A s few of h i s thoughts are d rawn from

.
‘

b us i ness the y are most of them 6 fi t for c on v ersat i on

,
Hi s taste of .

books i s a li ttl e7 t o o j ust fo r the age he li v es i n 8 he has read all but ,

a pp ro v es of v ery few Hi s fam ili ari ty w i th the c ustoms manners

.
, ,

a c t i ons an d wr i t i ngs o f the a n c i en ts makes hi m a v ery d e li c ate ob ser

,

v er of what o cc urs to h i m i n the p resen t worl d He i s an e x c ell ent .

cr i t i c an d the t i me of the p l ay i s h i s hour of bus in ess e x ac tly at

,

fi v e9 he p asses through N ew I n n c rosses through R usse l l C ourt an d , ,

takes a turn at Will s t ill the p l ay beg in s he h as h i s shoes rubbe d 1 0

’

’
an d h i s p er i w i g p o w d ere d 1 0
at the barber s as1 1 y ou go i n to the Rose .

I t i s for the g o o d of the a ud i e n c e when he i s at a p l ay ” for the ,

a c tors ha v e an amb i t i on to p l ease1 3 hi m .

’ “
Van ity Fair
”
I II . Fro m T hac ke rays .

Mi ss C rawl ey was , i n c onsequen c e an obj e c t of great res p e c t when ,

’
she c ame to Quee n
’
s C raw l e y for she h ad a b al an c e at her ba n ke r s 14

W h i c h wou l d ha v e mad e her be l o v e d an y where .

What a d i gn i ty i t g i v es an o l d l ad y that bal an c e at th e banker s

1 5 ’ 16
,

H ow ten d erl y we l ook at her fau l ts i f sh e i s a rel ati v e (a d m y

n a 17
,

1 390 .
2 4 37 .
3 448, s ec o n d h al f ; th e ex p r essi on is n ot qu it e
a cc ur t
a e; a g r ees w i t h is us e d i n e a
g gt h e s en s e o f
es 4 4 36 5 506n . . .

6 m os t o them i s a pp o s i ti v e t o the d i fi d r e p e titi o n o f i t ; m os t of them

f y o r a m o e ,

a re w o u l d b e en o u gh 7 a li ttle a d v r b i al o bj ec ti v e
. .
li ttle b ei g us ed
e n

0 O bj ec ti v e p r d i c at e
a s a n o u n 8. 1 8 4 9 4 95 .
1 . a e

p ec ul i a r p h r as e i w h i ch ha s t akes th e s en s e o f causes to be
,
n 1 1 Elli
p .

ti c al z= whi h you c o m e up o n o r s as yo u etc

c 1 ? A d v er bi al cl a us e
ee, .
, ,

i t h e s en s e o f a su b st a ti v e o n e an ti c i p t e d b y i t as g r am m ati c al su bj c t
n n , a e

( 1 6 3 a ); a i f i tsw e r e t h a t h e is a t a p l y is f r t h e g o o d et c a 13 4 4 8 o , . .

1 4 4 95 .
15 it r ep etiti o n b y an ti c i p ati o n o f the r eal su bj ect tha t
, ,

ba la ce n .
1 6 50 1
( an d so t he fo ll o w i n g s en t en c es t o th e en d o f th e pi ec e) ,
.

1 7 4 8 0.
6 EXT R A C T S FOR P A RS I N G .

had j ust a li ghte d fro m a han d s o me p r i v ate c arr i age wh i c h had o rd ers ,

to w ai t 1 i n the street wh il e i ts ow n er tran sa c te d h i s bus i n ess T h i s .

p erso n c ame u p t o the d esk w i th a qu i c k d eterm in e d ste p an d l o o ke d ,

the I n te lligen c er2 i n the fa c e w i th a reso l ute ey e : though at the ,

same ti me some se cret troub l e gl eame d from i t i n red an d d usk y

,

l i ght
”
I ha v e an estate to di spose o fi sa i d he w i th a bre v i t y t h at
l f ,

s eeme d c hara c ter i st i c .

D es c r i be i t ”
sai d the I nte lli gen c er
, .

T h e app li c an t p ro c ee d e d t o g i v e t he boun d ar i es of h i s p r o p erty i ts ,

nature c om p ri si ng t ill age p asture woo d l an d an d pl easure grou n d s

, , , ,
-
,

i n am p l e c i r c u i t t o gether w i th a mans i on -house i n the c o n stru c t i o n ,

of wh i c h i t ha d been h i s obj e c t to reali ze4 a c astl e i n the ai r hard e n ,

i n g 5 i ts shad o w y wa ll s i nto gran i te an d re n d er i n g 5 i ts Vi s i o n ary ,

s p l en d o r p er c e p t i b l e 6 to the awa ken e d ey e J ud gi n g7 fro m h i s .

d es c ri p t i on i t was beaut ifu l e n ough to v an i sh li ke a d ream y et sub

, ,

st an ti al e n o ugh to e n d ure fo r c e nturi es H e s p o ke too of the .

, ,

gorgeous fur n i ture the refi n em en ts of u p ho l stery an d all the l u x u

, ,

r i ons artifi c es that c omb in e d to ren d er th i s a resid en ce w here li fe .

m ight fl o w onwar d i n a s t ream of go l d e n days u n d i sturbe d b y the ,

rugge d ness wh i c h fate l o v es t o fl in g i n to i t .

I am a m an o f str on g w ill sai d h e i n c o n clus i on an d at m y

,
”

fi r st sett i n g out i n l i fe as a p o or u n fr i e n d e d y o uth I reso l v ed t o

-
, , ,

make my se l f the p ossess o r of su c h a man s i on a n d estate as th i s ,

t o gether w i th the abu n dan t re v e n ue ne c essary to up h o l d i t I hav e .

su cc ee d e d t o the e x tent of m y utm o st w i sh An d th i s i s the estate .

wh i c h I ha v e n o w c o n cl u d e d to d i s p o se o f 8
.

“
An d y o ur terms 9 aske d the I n te lli gen c er after tak i n g d ow n ,

the p arti c u l ars wi th wh i c h th e stran ger ha d su pp li e d h i m .

“
E as y — abu n d a n t ly e as
y
m l a n swere d th e su cc essfu l m an sm il
”
,

i n g but w i th a ster n an d a l most fri gh tfu l c o n tra c t i o n o f the br o w

, ,

as i f t o quell 1 1 an i n war d p an g I ha v e bee n e n gage d i n v ar i o us .

sorts of bu s i n ess — a d i still e r 1 2 a t rad er to A fri c a an E ast I n d i a , ,

1 448 .
2 H ist o ri c all y a d ati v e o r i n d ir ect
,
ob e j c t l i k e the classi cal
,

t h i c l d ti v e ;
e a a
”
b ut m ay be p ars ed as o bj ec t o f loo ked us d tr siti v el y
e an ,

as i f Q uali fi es
3 en d . 4 1 6 3a 5 t h e pro
l k d at oo e . 32 3, .

n ou n c on t a i ed i n i m pl i d
n su bj c t o f th e a c ti on e p r ss
hi s an d e as e x e e d b y to

6 O bj ec ti v e p r d i c a t U s d i n an ab s l ut e w ay o r s
r ea li ze . 36 9
I e e, . e o ,
a

i f w ith an i n d efi i te su bj c t u d rst o d
n i f o n e m i gh t j u d g
e n e o 3 32 3 e .
”
.

9 I c o m p l t e ex p r essi on
n e d d a r e w ha t 1 0 I n c o m p l et e 4 9 0
a .
.
,

ppo siti on al to I
1 1 i e as i f he d id i t i n o rd er t o 12 A
. .
q u ll e .
 ’
FR OM C A R LYL E S HE R O ES AND H ER O -W O R S HI P . 7

mer c hant a s p e c ul at o r i h the st o cks — an d i n the c o urse of these

,

affai rs ha v e c o n tra c te d an e n c umbran c e o f a c erta i n n ature T he .

p ur chaser of the estate sha ll mere ly be requ i re d to assume th i s

burd en to h i mse l f ”
.

“
I u n d ersta n d yo u sa i d the m an of I ntelli gen c e p utti n g h i s p en
”
, ,

beh i n d h i s ear I fea r that n o bargai n c an be negot i ate d o n these

c o n d i t io n s Very p robab ly the n e x t p ossessor may a cqu i re the estate
.

w i th a s i m il ar en c umbran c e but i t w ill be of h i s o w n c o n tra c ti n g 1 ,

an d w il l n o t li ghte n y our bur d en i n the l east .

A d e
n m 1 to li v e o n
” fi erc ely e x c l a i me d the stran ger w i th
, ,

the d i rt o f these a cc urse d a c res an d the gran i te o f th i s i n fern a l man

s io n c rush i n g d o wn m y sou l ? H ow 3 if I shou l d turn the ed i fi c e
i nt o an al mshouse or a hos p i tal or tear i t d own an d bui l d a ,

c hu rc h 2 ”

Y o u c an at l east make the e x p er i ment sa i d the I ntell i gen c er ; ,

but the who l e matter i s one wh ic h y ou must sett l e for y oursel f .

”

T he m an of d ep l orab l e su cc ess w i th d rew an d got i n t o h i s c oa c h , ,

w h i c h ratt l e d o ff li ght ly o v er the woo d e n p a v eme n ts though l a d en ,

w i th the we ight o f mu c h l an d a stately house an d p o n d erous heap s , ,

of gol d all c o m p ressed i n t o an e v il c o n s c i e n c e

,
.

V . Fro m C a rlyl e
’
s “
He ro e s an d H e ro -W o rs hi p .

ha v e u n d ertaken to d i s c o urse 5 here fo r a l i tt l e 6 o n G reat

1Ve4
Men the i r ma n n er of a pp eara n c e i n o ur w o rl d s bus i n ess how 7 the y
,
’
,
’
ha v e sh a p e d themse l v es i n the w o rl d s h i story what i d eas men ,

fo r me d o f them what work the y d id o n H er o es namely 8 an d on

, , ,

the ir re c e p ti o n an d p erfo r ma n c e what I ca ll H ero worsh i p an d the -

H er io c
9 in
human a ffai rs T o o e v i d e n tly th i s i s a l arge t o p i c ; d e
.

se v i g qu i te other treatme t tha

r n n n
10
w e c an e x p e c t t o g i v e i t at
p rese n t A large to p i c ;1 1 i n d ee d an illi m i tabl e o n e ; w i d e as U n i
.
,

v ersa l H i sto r y i tse l f For as I take i t U n i v e r sal Hi sto ry the

.
, , ,

h is tory o f what m an has a cc o m p li she d i n th i s w o rld i s at b o tt o m ,

the Hi sto ry o f the G reat Men w ho hav e worke d here T hey were .

t he l ead e rs of m en these great o n es the m o d el ers p atter n s an d i n

, , ,

1 40 1 .
2 44 8 .
3 4 96 .
4 1 57 . 5 444 .
0 31 5
i . 6 . ittle wh i le
l .
7 T his foll o w i n g su b st an t iv e c l a us es g o v e rn ed b y
an d th e
on in l 1 l i k m
.
,
e an n e r of appea r a n ée i n l 2 3 i f I m en ti o n t he m b y
. .

n am e .
9 1 4 4 11 .
1 0 A b b r e v i a t ed t h a n th e o n e w h i c h w e
c an , e tc . 1 1 R e p etiti o n o f t he s a m e w o r d s a b o v e I 6 . .
,
8 E XT R A C T S FO R P A RS I N G .

a w i d e sense c reators of whats o e v er the ge n eral mas s of men co n

,

; a ll th i n gs that we see stan d i ng ae c om

l
t r i ved t o ( 10 1 or to a t t ai n

l i shed i n the w o r l d are p r o p er ly the o uter materi a l resu l t the

p ,

p ra ct i c al rea li zat i o n an d em bo d i men t o f T h o ugh t s that d wel t i n the ,

G reat Men sen t i nto the w o r l d ; the soul of the wh o l e worl d s h i s ’

t o ry i t2 may j ust ly be c on s i d ere d w ere 8 the h i story of these T o o

, , .

c l early i t i s a t o p i c we shall d o n o j ust i c e t o i n thi s p l a c e :

4

O n e c o mfo rt i s that G reat Men taken u p in an y way are pro fi tab l e

, , ,

c om p an y We c an n o t l ook h o we v er i m p erfe ct ly up on a great m an

.
, ,

w i th o ut gai ni g someth i ng by hi m
5
H e i s the l i v i ng li ght -foun leun 6
'
’

n .

wh i c h’ i t i s goo d an d p l e asa n t to be near T h e li ght8 wh i c h en .

l i ghten s wh i c h has en li ghten e d th e d arkn ess of the w o rl d ; an d

,

9 “
th i s not as a k n dl e d l am p ly but rather as a n atural l um i
i o n
10
, ,

nary shi n i n g b y the gif t of H ea v en ; a fl o w i n g l i h t fountain 1 1 as cr

o
-
,

I sa y of nat i v e or i g ina l i n si ght of manh o o d an d her o i c nob l en ess ;

, ,

i n whose radi an c e all sou l s fee l that i t i s we ll w i t h them Ou an y . .

terms whatsoe v er 1 2 y ou w il l not gru dge to wan d er1 i n su c h ne i gh

,

b orho od for a wh il e .

Fro m Enierso n S elf-Rel i an c e

’ “ ”
VI . s .

’
T here i s a t i me i n e v er y man s e d u c at i on when he arri v e s at the
c on v i c t i on that en v y i s i gno a c e
1 3 r n
18
that i m i tat i o n i s su i c id e that1 3
he must take h i msel f for better for worse 1 4 as hi s p ort i on that 1 3
, , ,

though1 5 the w i d e u n i v erse i s full of goo d no kerne l of nouris h in g ,

c o rn c an c ome to hi m but t rough h i s to il bestowe d on that pl ot

16
h 17

of groun d wh i c h is g i v e ton hi m to t ill 18

T he p ower whi c h res id es .

in h i m i s new in nature a n d no n e but 19

h e kn ows what that i s wh i c h
,

h e c an d o ; nor d oes he k n ow unt il he has tr i e d N o t fo r noth i ng .

o n e fa c e one c hara c t er o n e fa c t makes mu c h i m p ress i on on hi m

, ,
an d
, ,

1 44 4 .
2 l 6 3b .
3 S ub j un ct iv e he r e = wo u l d h e ,

m i gh t be c si d r
on e e d .
4 32 3 .
5 44 5 .
5 1 1 90 .
7 36 6 .

9 R ep etiti on li g ht i n li g h t-f oun ta i n , l 1 0

of
9 i e t h is t h i n
g u st st at ed ,
. . . j
o r i ts en l i gh t en i n g t h e d ar k n e ss o f t he w o rl d an d t h is i t has d o n e .

1 0 as h er e = i h t h e ch a r ac t er o f o r su pp l y m i g ht d o a ft e r on ly an d l um i

n a ry .
1 1 R e p e titi o n ,
ag a i n ,
o f l i h
g f
l oa n ta zn a b o v e,
1 1 0 12 In co m
’

. .

p l at e ex p r essi on , fo r what ev er th ey m ay b e 1 3 S u b st an ti v e c la us es .

4 34d , f 1 4 i e w h et h e r fo r b ett e r o r fo r w o rs e : better wor se, 1 44 a .

. . .
,

1 5 4 32 f 1 3 H e r e c o n j u n c ti o n
.
u n less , o r o ther w is e than 1 7 37 6 .

13 44 8 .
19 C o nj u n c ti o n ,
as ab o ve .
10 E XTR A C T S FO R P A RS I N G .

’
Fo r i t 1 i s a p r i n c e s p art to p ar d on 2 A n d S ol omo n I am sure sa i th 8 .
, , ,

I t i s the g l ory of a m an t o p ass b y an o ffe n se T hat wh i c h i s p ast

”
.

i s gone an d i rre v o c ab l e ; an d w i se m en hav e e n ough to d o 4 w i t h

,

th ings p rese n t an d to c o me5: therefore they d o but t ri fl e w i th them

se l v es , that 6 l ab o r i n p ast matters T here i s no m an 7 d oth a wr on g .

’
for the wr ong s sake but thereb y to p ur c hase4 h i mse l f 8 profi t or ,

p l easure o r honor o r th e like T herefo re wh y sh o u l d I be an gry

, , .

w i th a m an for l o v i n g9 h i mse l f better than 1 0 me ? An d i f an y man

shou l d d o wron g mere ly ut of il l nature wh y 7 Y et i t i s but li ke
o - 11
,

the thorn or br i ar, wh i c h p ri c k 1 2 an d s c rat ch 1 2 be c ause they c an d o n o

o ther 8 T he most to l erab l e sort o f re v enge i s fo r those wrongs wh i c h 4
1 1
.

t here i s n o l aw to reme d y but then l et a m an take hee d th e re

1 5 16
,

v e n ge b e su c h as there i s no l aw t o p u n i sh e l se a man s enemy

17 18 ’

i s st ill beforehan d , an d i t i s two 1 9 fo r one S ome whe n they take .

,

re v enge are d es i rous the p arty shou ld k n ow when c e i t c o meth ;

,
16

th i s i s the more generous 20 For the d eli ght seemeth to b e2 1 n ot so .

mu c h i n d o in g t he hurt as i n mak i ng the p arty re p e n t ; but base

9 9

an d c raft y c owar d s are li ke the arrow that fl i eth i n the d ar k C osmus , .

Du ke of Fl oren c e ha d a d es p erate sayi n g aga in st perfi d i o us or n eg l e c t

,

i n g fr i en d s as i f 22
those wro n gs were u n p ar d o n abl e : Y o usha11 read
,
23

sa th that we are c om m an d e d to fo rg i v e ou r e n em i es but y ou

24
( i h e
)
n e v er rea d that we are c omman d e d to fo rg i v e ou r fr i e n d s
”
24
B ut y et .

“
the s p i r i t of J o b was i n a better tune : S ha ll we ( sa i th he) take
go o d at G o d s han d s an d n o t be c o n te n t t o take e v il al so 2 An d
’
,
25 ”

26 of fr i e d s
so n i n a p ro p ort i o n
27
T h i s i s c ertai n : that a m an that .

stu d i eth re v e n ge kee p s h i s o w n wou n d s green wh i ch otherw i se ,

wou l d heal an d d o we ll P ub li c re v e n ges are for the most p art .

fo rtunate ; as28 that for the d eath of C aesar for the d eath o f P erti ,

na x , fo r the d eath of H e n ry the T h i r d of Fran c e an d man y m o re ,

.

1 1 6 3a .
2
44 3 .
3 2 4 3, 2 79 ; an d so th r ou g h th e p i ec e .

5 7 184 en d . 3 1 39
4 44 8 .
4 500 .
5 1 80 en d . .

9 44 5 .
1° 330d .
11 i . e . wh y b e an g ry ? 12 T he si g u lar is m o r e
n

us ual an d c o rrec t ) a fter u n s j o i ed by 13 n o o th er o l d st yl e

( no n or . ,

fo r n o o ther th i n g , o r n oth i n g else. 14 O b j ec t o f r em ed y .

15 4 77 .

15 4 36 .
17 2 34 .
st e d
18 1 86 .
19 i . e . t wo en em i es in a

22 i e a s a i
o f on e .
20 i e k i n d o f r ev e ge
. .
2 1 n y g .
. . n

2 3 Old st l e i m p l i
wh i c h r ead as i f o r w h i c h i m p l i e d t h t y y g a n

—
. ,

2 5 A b b r ev i
a p r o m is e 8 d
24 44 9 304 5 25 4 4 en .
.
, .
,

a t ed an d th e c as e is s o o f ( i e r s p c ti g i n r egar d t o ) etc e e n .
. .
, ,

2 7 Pr es en t us m i t s t h e a 2 8 A b b r ev i at e d as t h at e tc w as
g e o a . ,
.
,

fo rt u n at e .
 ’ ”
RO M
F LO N G FE LLO W S E VA N G E LI N E . 11

B ut i n p r i v a t e re v en ges i t i s n o t so Nay rather v i n d i c t i v e p erson s .

, ,

1 of w i t c hes who 2
as the y are m i s c h i e v ous so en d they 2
li v e th e li fe ,

u n fo rtunate .

’
VI I I . Fro m Lo n g fe ll o w s Evan g e li ne .

S o mewhat a p art from the v ill age an d n earer the bas i n of Mi nas , ,

B e n e d i c t B e ll efo n ta i n e the weal th i est farmer of G ran d P ré

,
-
,

D we l t o n h i s goo d ly a cres an d w i th h i m d i re c t i n g h i s h o useho l d , ,

G e n tl e E v a n g eline li v e d h i s c h il d an d the p r id e of the v ill age

, ,
.

S ta l wo rth an d state ly i n form was the man of se v e n ty w i nters

H earty an d hal e was h e an oak that i s c o vere d w i th snow-fl akes
,

Wh i te as th e s n ow w ere h i s l o c ks an d h i s c heeks as brown as the oak ,

l eav es .

Fa ir was sh e to beh o l d 3 that ma i d en of se v e n teen summers

, .

B l a c k we r e her ey es as the berry that grows on the thorn by the

way s i d e
B l a ck y et h o w s o ftly the y gl eame d 5 b eneath the brown shad e of her
4
,

tresses !
S weet was her breath as th e breath of k i ne that fee d i n the
mead o w s .

Whe n i n the harv est heat she here to the reap ers at n o o nt i d e
Fl agons of home brewe d a l e ah fa i r i n sooth was the mai d e n
-
, .

Fa i rer was she whe n 6 on S un d ay mor n wh il e the be ll fr o m i ts turret

, ,

S p r i n k l e d w i th h o ly sou n d s th e ai r as the p r i est w i th h i s h y sso p ,

S pr i n k l es the c o n gregat i o n an d s c atters b l ess i n gs u p o n them

, ,

D own the l o ng street she p assed w i th her Chapl et of bead s an d her ,

m i ssal ,

Wear i n g her N orman c a p an d her k i rtl e o f b l ue an d the earr i n gs

, ,

B ro ught i n the ol d en t i me from Fran c e an d s i n c e as an he i rl o o m , , ,

H a n d e d d o w n fr o m mother to ch il d thro ugh l o n g ge n erat i o n s ,

.

B ut a c el est i a l bri ghtness a m o re ethereal beauty , ,

S h o n e o n her fa c e an d e n c i rc l e d her fo rm whe n after c o n fess io n , , ,

H o me w a rd sere n ely she wal ked w i th G o d s be n e d i c t i o n u p o n h er

’
,
.

n
"
Whe she had p assed i t seeme d li ke the c eas i n g o f e xqu i s i te mus i c .
,

1 36 2 a .
2 E heit r w ho or they is st ri c tly sup rfluo us 3 44 8
e . .

4 R e p etiti o n o f th e s am e wo rd i n the pr c di g li
e e a
n if = bl k i d d
n e, s ac ,
n ee ,

her eye s we r e .
5 50 1 .
0 Co n c ts i m m d i at ly w ith she passed
ne e e ,

th ree l i n es b elo w .
7 36 6 .
12 EXT R A CTS FOR P A RS I N G .

IX . Fro m S c o tt s
’
Lad y o f the La ke .

H a v e then , th y w i sh
, wh i st l e d shrill 1
l
”
He ,

A n d he was an swere d from the h ill ;

W il d as the s c ream of the c ur l ew ,

From c rag to c rag the s i g n a l fl ew .

1
I stant through c o p se an d heath arose
n , ,

B o n n ets an d s p ears an d ben d e d bows

Ou r i ght on l eft abo v e be l ow
, , , ,

S p r ung u p at on c e th e l urk i n g foe

From sh i ng l es gray the i r l an ees sta rt ,

The brac ken bush sen d s fo rt h the d art ,

T h e rushes an d the w ill o w-w an d

A re bri stli n g into a x e an d bran d ,

A n d e v ery tuft of broom g i v es li fe

T o p l a i d e d warr i or armed for str ife .

T hat W h i st l e garr i so n e d th e gl en
At on c e W i th fu ll fi ve hu n d re d m en ,

A s if the y awni n g h ill to hea v en

A subterran ean host ha d gi v en .

W at c hi ng their l ead er s be c k an d w ill

’
,

All s il ent there the y stoo d an d st ill ,

.

L i ke th e l o ose c rags whose threaten i n g mass

’
L ay totter i n g o er t h e h o ll o w p ass ,
’ '
A s i f an i n fan t s tou c h c o u l d urge
T he i r head l on g p ass a e d own 2 the v erge
g
,

W i th ste p an d wea p on forward fl un g ,

U p o n th e m o untai n s i d e the y h u n g .

T he mounta i n eer c ast gl an c e of p ri d e

’
A l on g B en l ed i s li vi n g s i d e ,

T hen fix ed h i s e y e an d sab l e brow

“ ’
Fu ll on Fi tz J ames - H o w say st th e n now 2
’
T h ese are C l an A l p i n e s warr i or true
- s

A n d S a x on I em R o d er i ck D hu l
, ,
”

Fi tz -J ames was bra v e though to h i s heart

T h e li fe -b l oo d thr ill e d w i th su dd en start ,

1 31 3d .
2 32 1 d .
 14 EX TR A C T S FO R P A RS I N G .

A n d soun d e d all the d e p ths an d sh oal s of honor

Fo un d thee a way out of h i s wre c k to r i se 1 i n ’
, ; ,

A sure an d safe o n e though th y master m i sse d i t ,

Mark but m y fa ll an d that that ru i n e d me , .

C rom w e ll I c harge thee fl i n g away amb i t i on

, ,

B y that si n fe ll the a n ge l s how c an m an the n

, ,

T he i mage of h i s Maker ho p e to w i n b y t i ,
’

L o v e th y se l f l ast c her i sh those hearts that hate thee

C orru p t i o n w in s n o t more than honesty .

S t ill i n th y r i ght han d c arry gen t l e p ea c e

,

T o s il en c e en v i o us to n gues B e j ust an d fear not ; .

,

L et a ll the e d s thou s i m et at 2 be th y c ou n t ry ’s
n
’
,
’
Th y G o d s an d truth s then i f thou fa ll et O C romwell
,
’ ’
, !
’
T hou fall st a bl esse d marty r .

S er v e the k i n g an d — p r y thee l ead me i n

’
,

T here take an i n v e n tor y of all I h a v e ,

T o the l ast p enn y ; t i s the k i n gs ; m y r o be

’ ’
,

A n d m y i n tegr i ty to hea v en i s a ll ,

I d are n o w c a ll m i n e o wn 0 C romwe ll C romwe l l l .

,

H ad I but ser v e d m y G o d w i th ha l f the zeal

I ser v e d m y k i ng 3 h e w o u l d n ot i n m i n e age
,

H av e l eft me nake d to m i ne e n em i es !

XI . Fro m Mi lto n
’
s P arad i se Lo st .

T hese are thy gl ori ous works P aren t of g o o d ! ,

A l mi ghty ! T h i ne th i s u n i v ersal frame ,

T h us won d ro us fai r th y sel f how w on d rous then“!

’
U n s p eakab l e w h o si tt st ab o v e these h ea v e n s
5
, ,

T o u s i n v i s i bl e
6
or d i m ly seen 6
,

I n these th y l o west works y et these d e cl are

T h y go o d n ess bey o n d th o ught 7 an d p o wer d i v i ne ,
.

S p eak ye w h o best c an te ll ye s o n s of li ght

, , ,

A n gel s for ye beh o l d h im an d w i th s o n gs ,

An d c hora l sy m ph o n i es d ay8 w i thout n i ght , ,

1 44 8 .
2 32 3 .
3 i . e. that I s er v ed m y k i n g w it h .
4 i . e. how
won d r o us th art t h o u t h ys l f ! 481 5 i e O u n s p eak abl e o e
n
,
en , e . . . .

3 Pr ed i c t e ad h h y n d tho u g h t adJ ec ti ve
i l i 7 be
a j t
ec e e vo g g to w n 35 5 n o . o ,

p r ep o si t i on al ph ras e 4 0 1 ,
3 A d v erb i al o bj ec ti v e 393
.
, .
 ’ “ ”
FRO M MIL T O N S P A R A D I S E LO S T . 15

C i r c l e h i s thro n e rej o i c i n g ye i n heav en

On earth j o i n all ye c reatures to e x to l
H i m fi rst hi m l ast
,
h i m m i d st 1 an d w i th o ut
, en d , .

Fai rest o f s tars l ast i n t he t ra i n of n i gh t

, ,

I f better thou be l o n g not to the d awn ,

’
S ure p l e d ge of d ay that c ro w n st the sm i li ng morn ,

1Vi t h th y bri ght c i r c l e t — p ra i se h i m i n th y s p here

Wh il e d ay ari ses that s weet hour of p r i me ,
.

T hou s un of th i s great w o rl d bo t h ey e 2 an d sou l 2

, ,

Ack n ow l e d ge hi m th y greater 9 s o un d h i s p rai se ,

’
I n th y eter n a l c o urse both when thou cli m b st , ,
’
An d w he n h i gh n o o n hast gai n e d an d when thou fall s t ,
.

Mo o n that n o w m eet s t the o ri en t sun now fly st

,
’ ’
, ,

IVi t h t he fix ed stars fi xed i n th e i r orb that fli es ,

A n d ye fi ve o ther wa n d er i n g fi res that m o v e ,

I n m y st i c d an c e n o t w i th o u t so n g resoun d ,

“
Hi s p rai se w h o out o f d arkness c all e d u p li ght
, .

Ai r a n d ye e l eme n ts the e l d est b i rth

, ,
’
Of n ature s w o mb th at i n quater n i on run ,

P e rp etua l c i rc l e mu l t i form an d m i x , ,

An d n o ur i sh a ll th i n gs l et y o ur c easel ess c hange ,

Va ry 5 to our great Maker st il l n ew p ra i se .

Y e m i sts an d e x ha l at i o n s that now r i se ,

Fr om h ill o r s tea m i n g l ake d usk y or gray , ,

Till t he s un p ai n t y o ur fi eec y sk i rts w i th go l d ,

I n h o n o r t o t he w o r l d s great A uth o r ri s e6
’

Whe t h er to d ec k w i t h c l ou d s the un c o l o re d sk y ,

O r w e t t he th i rst y ear t h w i th fa lli n g sho w ers ,

Ri s i n g o r fa lli n g s t ill a dv a n c e 6 h i s p ra i se
, .

H i s p ra i se ye w i n d s that fro m four quarters b l ow

, , ,
"
B reathe s f or l u d 7
an d wa v e y o ur t o p s
ye p i nes
o t o 7
, ,

Wi th e v e ry p l an t i n s i gn of w o rsh i p w av e 6,
.

Fo u n ta i n s a n d ye that warb l e as e fl o w
, y , ,

Me l o d io us mu r m urs 8 w arb li n g9 tu n e 6 hi s p ra i se ,
.

J o i n v o i c e s al l ye li vi n g s o u l s ye b i rd s
, ,

1 i . e. i d m o st
m .
9 A ppo siti on to s un , 37 5 .
9 A dj c ti v e e as n o un ,

1 44 ; o e bj c ti v p r d i c te e a e A t c d t f wh
t o hi m , 36 9 .
4 n e e en o o, as if the
r
p a is e of h i m wh etc
.
5 U s d f c titi v l
o, .
y a i f pr d uc i e a e ,
s o e n va r ie ty ;

pr a is e is its o bj c t 9 Im
e
p r ti v.e 7 Al rb i l p r d i c t e a . ( ve a e a e (355 ) to
his pr a is e. 9 O bj c t f w r bl 9 i
e wh i le y
oe w a r bl e a e
. . e. .
16 EX T R A C TS FOR P A R S I N G .

T h at s i ng i n g u p to hea v en -gate as c en d ,

an d i n y our notes h i s p ra i se
1 on y our w i n gs
B ear .

Y e that i n waters glid e , an d ye that wa l k

T he earth , an d statel y trea d or l ow ly c ree p ,

W i tness i f I be s i l ent ,
m o m
2
or e v en 2
,

T 0 h i ll or v all e y fou n tai n or fresh sh ad e

, ,

Mad e v o c al by m y s on g an d taught h i s p ra i se 8
, .

H a il un i v ersa l L or d ! be b orm t eo us st i l l
,

T o g i v e4 us on ly goo d an d if the n i ght

H av e gathere d aught of e v il or c on c eal e d 5 ,

D i s p erse i t as n e w l i ght d i s pe ls the d ark

, .

1 Im perat i v e .
2 39 3
.
8 M i gh t b e v erb i al obj ec t i v e
c alled an ad

( 391 ) on e o f th o s e pass i v e c on stru c ti on s ( 30 5) i n w h i ch t he i n d ir ec t i n stead

o f th e d ir ec t o bj e c t i s m ad e su b j e c t 0 1
1 t h e p assi v e ph r a s e an d t h e di r ec t o bj e c t
,

i s l eft as a k i n d o f quali fi er o f t he pa rti c i p l e ; m y s on g ta ug ht the m h is p r a i se

b ec om es passi v el y they w er e ta ug h t his pr a i se by m y son g i n st ea d o f his pr a i se ,

was ta ug h t them by m y s on g .
4 B elo n g s t o bo un teous , 4 4 8 .
5 i . e.

t r c c
h a v e g a h e e d or o n eal ed ali gh t .

BERWIC K S MIT H PRINTERS BO S T ON

, , .