Binary Heap

Binomial heap

DATA STRUCTURES AND ALGORITHMS

LECTURE 7

Lect. PhD. Oneţ-Marian Zsuzsanna

Babeş - Bolyai University

Computer Science and Mathematics Faculty

2018 - 2019

Lect. PhD. Oneţ-Marian Zsuzsanna DATA STRUCTURES AND ALGORITHMS

 Binary Heap
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In Lecture 6...

Linked Lists on Arrays

Stack, Queue, Deque

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 Binary Heap
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Today

1 Binary Heap

2 Binomial heap

Lect. PhD. Oneţ-Marian Zsuzsanna DATA STRUCTURES AND ALGORITHMS

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ADT Priority Queue

The ADT Priority Queue is a container in which each element

has an associated priority (of type TPriority ).

In a Priority Queue access to the elements is restricted: we

can access only the element with the highest priority.

Because of this restricted access, we say that the Priority

Queue works based on a HPF - Highest Priority First policy.

Lect. PhD. Oneţ-Marian Zsuzsanna DATA STRUCTURES AND ALGORITHMS

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Priority Queue - Representation

What data structures can be used to implement a priority

queue?

Dynamic Array

Linked List

(Binary) Heap - will be discussed later

Lect. PhD. Oneţ-Marian Zsuzsanna DATA STRUCTURES AND ALGORITHMS

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Priority Queue - Representation

If the representation is a Dynamic Array or a Linked List we

have to decide how we store the elements in the array/list:

we can keep the elements ordered by their priorities

Where would you put the element with the highest priority?

we can keep the elements in the order in which they were

inserted

Lect. PhD. Oneţ-Marian Zsuzsanna DATA STRUCTURES AND ALGORITHMS

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Priority Queue - Representation

Complexity of the main operations for the two representation

options:

Operation Sorted Non-sorted

push O(n) Θ(1)
pop Θ(1) Θ(n)
top Θ(1) Θ(n)

What happens if we keep in a separate field the element with

the highest priority?

Lect. PhD. Oneţ-Marian Zsuzsanna DATA STRUCTURES AND ALGORITHMS

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Binary Heap

A binary heap is a data structure that can be used as an

efficient representation for Priority Queues.

A binary heap is a kind of hybrid between a dynamic array and

a binary tree.

The elements of the heap are actually stored in the dynamic

array, but the array is visualized as a binary tree.

Lect. PhD. Oneţ-Marian Zsuzsanna DATA STRUCTURES AND ALGORITHMS

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Binary Heap

Assume that we have the following array (upper row contains

positions, lower row contains elements):

Lect. PhD. Oneţ-Marian Zsuzsanna DATA STRUCTURES AND ALGORITHMS

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Binary Heap

We can visualize this array as a binary tree, where the root is

the first element of the array, its children are the next two
elements, and so on. Each node has exactly 2 children, except
for the last two rows, but there the children of the nodes are
completed from left to right.

Lect. PhD. Oneţ-Marian Zsuzsanna DATA STRUCTURES AND ALGORITHMS

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Binary Heap

If the elements of the array are: a1 , a2 , a3 , ..., an , we know

that:
a1 is the root of the heap

for an element from position i, its children are on positions 2 ∗ i

and 2 ∗ i + 1 (if 2 ∗ i and 2 ∗ i + 1 is less than or equal to n)

for an element from position i (i > 1), the parent of the

element is on position [i/2] (integer part of i/2)

Lect. PhD. Oneţ-Marian Zsuzsanna DATA STRUCTURES AND ALGORITHMS

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Binary Heap

A binary heap is an array that can be visualized as a binary

tree having a heap structure and a heap property.

Heap structure: in the binary tree every node has exactly 2

children, except for the last two levels, where children are
completed from left to right.

Heap property: ai ≥ a2∗i (if 2 ∗ i ≤ n) and ai ≥ a2∗i+1 (if

2 ∗ i + 1 ≤ n)

The ≥ relation between a node and both its descendants can

be generalized (other relations can be used as well).

Lect. PhD. Oneţ-Marian Zsuzsanna DATA STRUCTURES AND ALGORITHMS

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Binary Heap - Examples I

Are the following binary trees heaps? If yes, specify the

relation between a node and its children. If not, specify if the
problem is with the structure, the property, or both.

Lect. PhD. Oneţ-Marian Zsuzsanna DATA STRUCTURES AND ALGORITHMS

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Binary Heap - Examples II

Lect. PhD. Oneţ-Marian Zsuzsanna DATA STRUCTURES AND ALGORITHMS

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Binary Heap - Examples III

Lect. PhD. Oneţ-Marian Zsuzsanna DATA STRUCTURES AND ALGORITHMS

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Binary Heap - Examples IV

Lect. PhD. Oneţ-Marian Zsuzsanna DATA STRUCTURES AND ALGORITHMS

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Binary Heap - Examples V

Lect. PhD. Oneţ-Marian Zsuzsanna DATA STRUCTURES AND ALGORITHMS

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Binary Heap - Examples VI

Lect. PhD. Oneţ-Marian Zsuzsanna DATA STRUCTURES AND ALGORITHMS

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Binary Heap - Examples VII

Lect. PhD. Oneţ-Marian Zsuzsanna DATA STRUCTURES AND ALGORITHMS

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Binary Heap - Examples VIII

Are the following arrays valid heaps? If not, transform them

into a valid heap by swapping two elements.
1 [70, 10, 50, 7, 1, 33, 3, 8]
2 [1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64, 65, 10]
3 [10, 12, 100, 60, 13, 102, 101, 80, 90, 14, 15, 16]

Lect. PhD. Oneţ-Marian Zsuzsanna DATA STRUCTURES AND ALGORITHMS

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Binary Heap - Notes

If we use the ≥ relation, we will have a MAX-HEAP. Do you

know why?

Lect. PhD. Oneţ-Marian Zsuzsanna DATA STRUCTURES AND ALGORITHMS

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Binary Heap - Notes

If we use the ≥ relation, we will have a MAX-HEAP. Do you

know why?

If we use the ≤ relation, we will have a MIN-HEAP. Do you

know why?

Lect. PhD. Oneţ-Marian Zsuzsanna DATA STRUCTURES AND ALGORITHMS

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Binary Heap - Notes

If we use the ≥ relation, we will have a MAX-HEAP. Do you

know why?

If we use the ≤ relation, we will have a MIN-HEAP. Do you

know why?

The height of a heap with n elements is log2 n.

Lect. PhD. Oneţ-Marian Zsuzsanna DATA STRUCTURES AND ALGORITHMS

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Binary Heap - operations

A heap can be used as representation for a Priority Queue and

it has two specific operations:
add a new element in the heap (in such a way that we keep
both the heap structure and the heap property).

remove (we always remove the root of the heap - no other

element can be removed).

Lect. PhD. Oneţ-Marian Zsuzsanna DATA STRUCTURES AND ALGORITHMS

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Binary Heap - representation

Heap:
cap: Integer
len: Integer
elems: TElem[]

For the implementation we will assume that we have a

MAX-HEAP.

Lect. PhD. Oneţ-Marian Zsuzsanna DATA STRUCTURES AND ALGORITHMS

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Binary Heap - Add - example

Consider the following (MAX) heap:

Let’s add the number 55 to the heap.

Lect. PhD. Oneţ-Marian Zsuzsanna DATA STRUCTURES AND ALGORITHMS
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Binary Heap - Add - example

In order to keep the heap structure, we will add the new node
as the right child of the node 14 (and as the last element of
the array in which the elements are kept).

Lect. PhD. Oneţ-Marian Zsuzsanna DATA STRUCTURES AND ALGORITHMS

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Binary Heap - Add - example

Heap property is not kept: 14 has as child node 55 (since it is

a MAX-heap, each node has to be greater than or equal to its
descendants).

In order to restore the heap property, we will start a bubble-up

process: we will keep swapping the value of the new node
with the value of its parent node, until it gets to its final
place. No other node from the heap is changed.

Lect. PhD. Oneţ-Marian Zsuzsanna DATA STRUCTURES AND ALGORITHMS

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Binary Heap - Add - example

When bubble-up ends:

Lect. PhD. Oneţ-Marian Zsuzsanna DATA STRUCTURES AND ALGORITHMS

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Binary Heap - add

subalgorithm add(heap, e) is:

//heap - a heap
//e - the element to be added
if heap.len = heap.cap then
@ resize
end-if
heap.elems[heap.len+1] ← e
heap.len ← heap.len + 1
bubble-up(heap, heap.len)
end-subalgorithm

Lect. PhD. Oneţ-Marian Zsuzsanna DATA STRUCTURES AND ALGORITHMS

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Binary Heap - add

subalgorithm bubble-up (heap, p) is:
//heap - a heap
//p - position from which we bubble the new node up
poz ← p
elem ← heap.elems[p]
parent ← p / 2
while poz > 1 and elem > heap.elems[parent] execute
//move parent down
heap.elems[poz] ← heap.elems[parent]
poz ← parent
parent ← poz / 2
end-while
heap.elems[poz] ← elem
end-subalgorithm

Complexity:

Lect. PhD. Oneţ-Marian Zsuzsanna DATA STRUCTURES AND ALGORITHMS

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Binary Heap - add

subalgorithm bubble-up (heap, p) is:
//heap - a heap
//p - position from which we bubble the new node up
poz ← p
elem ← heap.elems[p]
parent ← p / 2
while poz > 1 and elem > heap.elems[parent] execute
//move parent down
heap.elems[poz] ← heap.elems[parent]
poz ← parent
parent ← poz / 2
end-while
heap.elems[poz] ← elem
end-subalgorithm

Complexity: O(log2 n)
Can you give an example when the complexity of the
algorithm is less than log2 n (best case scenario)?
Lect. PhD. Oneţ-Marian Zsuzsanna DATA STRUCTURES AND ALGORITHMS
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Binary Heap - Remove - example

From a heap we can only remove the root element.

Lect. PhD. Oneţ-Marian Zsuzsanna DATA STRUCTURES AND ALGORITHMS

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Binary Heap - Remove - example

In order to keep the heap structure, when we remove the root,

we are going to move the last element from the array to be
the root.

Lect. PhD. Oneţ-Marian Zsuzsanna DATA STRUCTURES AND ALGORITHMS

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Binary Heap - Remove - example

Heap property is not kept: the root is no longer the maximum

element.

In order to restore the heap property, we will start a

bubble-down process, where the new node will be swapped
with its maximum child, until it becomes a leaf, or until it will
be greater than both children.

Lect. PhD. Oneţ-Marian Zsuzsanna DATA STRUCTURES AND ALGORITHMS

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Binary Heap - Remove - example

When the bubble-down process ends:

Lect. PhD. Oneţ-Marian Zsuzsanna DATA STRUCTURES AND ALGORITHMS

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Binary Heap - remove

function remove(heap) is:

//heap - is a heap
if heap.len = 0 then
@ error - empty heap
end-if
deletedElem ← heap.elems[1]
heap.elems[1] ← heap.elems[heap.len]
heap.len ← heap.len - 1
bubble-down(heap, 1)
remove ← deletedElem
end-function

Lect. PhD. Oneţ-Marian Zsuzsanna DATA STRUCTURES AND ALGORITHMS

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Binary Heap - remove

subalgorithm bubble-down(heap, p) is:

//heap - is a heap
//p - position from which we move down the element
poz ← p
elem ← heap.elems[p]
while poz < heap.len execute
maxChild ← -1
if poz * 2 ≤ heap.len then
//it has a left child, assume it is the maximum
maxChild ← poz*2
end-if
if poz*2+1 ≤ heap.len and heap.elems[2*poz+1]>heap.elems[2*poz] th
//it has two children and the right is greater
maxChild ← poz*2 + 1
end-if
//continued on the next slide...

Lect. PhD. Oneţ-Marian Zsuzsanna DATA STRUCTURES AND ALGORITHMS

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Binary Heap - remove

if maxChild 6= -1 and heap.elems[maxChild] > elem then

tmp ← heap.elems[poz]
heap.elems[poz] ← heap.elems[maxChild]
heap.elems[maxChild] ← tmp
poz ← maxChild
else
poz ← heap.len + 1
//to stop the while loop
end-if
end-while
end-subalgorithm

Complexity:

Lect. PhD. Oneţ-Marian Zsuzsanna DATA STRUCTURES AND ALGORITHMS

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Binary Heap - remove

if maxChild 6= -1 and heap.elems[maxChild] > elem then

tmp ← heap.elems[poz]
heap.elems[poz] ← heap.elems[maxChild]
heap.elems[maxChild] ← tmp
poz ← maxChild
else
poz ← heap.len + 1
//to stop the while loop
end-if
end-while
end-subalgorithm

Complexity: O(log2 n)
Can you give an example when the complexity of the
algorithm is less than log2 n (best case scenario)?
Lect. PhD. Oneţ-Marian Zsuzsanna DATA STRUCTURES AND ALGORITHMS
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Questions

In a max-heap where can we find the:

maximum element of the array?

Lect. PhD. Oneţ-Marian Zsuzsanna DATA STRUCTURES AND ALGORITHMS

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Questions

In a max-heap where can we find the:

maximum element of the array?

minimum element of the array?

Lect. PhD. Oneţ-Marian Zsuzsanna DATA STRUCTURES AND ALGORITHMS

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Questions

In a max-heap where can we find the:

maximum element of the array?

minimum element of the array?

Assume you have a MAX-HEAP and you need to add an

operation that returns the minimum element of the heap.
How would you implements this operation, using constant
time and space? (Note: we only want to return the minimum,
we do not want to be able to remove it).

Lect. PhD. Oneţ-Marian Zsuzsanna DATA STRUCTURES AND ALGORITHMS

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Exercises

Consider an initially empty Binary MAX-HEAP and insert the

elements 8, 27, 13, 15*, 32, 20, 12, 50*, 29, 11* in it. Draw
the heap in the tree form after the insertion of the elements
marked with a * (3 drawings). Remove 3 elements from the
heap and draw the tree form after every removal (3 drawings).

Insert the following elements, in this order, into an initially

empty MIN-HEAP: 15, 17, 9, 11, 5, 19, 7. Remove all the
elements, one by one, in order from the resulting MIN HEAP.
Draw the heap after every second operation (after adding 17,
11, 19, etc.)

Lect. PhD. Oneţ-Marian Zsuzsanna DATA STRUCTURES AND ALGORITHMS

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Heap-sort

There is a sorting algorithm, called Heap-sort, that is based

on the use of a heap.

In the following we are going to assume that we want to sort

a sequence in ascending order.

Let’s sort the following sequence: [6, 1, 3, 9, 11, 4, 2, 5]

Lect. PhD. Oneţ-Marian Zsuzsanna DATA STRUCTURES AND ALGORITHMS

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Heap-sort - Naive approach

Based on what we know so far, we can guess how heap-sort

works:

Build a min-heap adding elements one-by-one to it.

Start removing elements from the min-heap: they will be

removed in the sorted order.

Lect. PhD. Oneţ-Marian Zsuzsanna DATA STRUCTURES AND ALGORITHMS

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Heap-sort - Naive approach

The heap when all the elements were added:

When we remove the elements one-by-one we will have: 1, 2,

3, 4, 5, 6, 9, 11.
Lect. PhD. Oneţ-Marian Zsuzsanna DATA STRUCTURES AND ALGORITHMS
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Heap-sort - Naive approach

What is the time complexity of the heap-sort algorithm

described above?

Lect. PhD. Oneţ-Marian Zsuzsanna DATA STRUCTURES AND ALGORITHMS

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Heap-sort - Naive approach

What is the time complexity of the heap-sort algorithm

described above?

The time complexity of the algorithm is O(nlog2 n)

What is the extra space complexity of the heap-sort algorithm

described above (do we need an extra array)?

Lect. PhD. Oneţ-Marian Zsuzsanna DATA STRUCTURES AND ALGORITHMS

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Heap-sort - Naive approach

What is the time complexity of the heap-sort algorithm

described above?

The time complexity of the algorithm is O(nlog2 n)

What is the extra space complexity of the heap-sort algorithm

described above (do we need an extra array)?

The extra space complexity of the algorithm is Θ(n) - we need

an extra array.

Lect. PhD. Oneţ-Marian Zsuzsanna DATA STRUCTURES AND ALGORITHMS

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Heap-sort - Better approach

If instead of building a min-heap, we build a max-heap (even

if we want to do ascending sorting), we do not need the extra
array.

Lect. PhD. Oneţ-Marian Zsuzsanna DATA STRUCTURES AND ALGORITHMS

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Heap-sort - Better approach

We can improve the time complexity of building the heap as

well.

Lect. PhD. Oneţ-Marian Zsuzsanna DATA STRUCTURES AND ALGORITHMS

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Heap-sort - Better approach

We can improve the time complexity of building the heap as

well.

If we have an unsorted array, we can transform it easier into a

heap: the second half of the array will contain leaves, they can
be left where they are.

Starting from the first non-leaf element (and going towards the
beginning of the array), we will just call bubble-down for every
element.

Time complexity of this approach: O(n) (but removing the

elements from the heap is still O(nlog2 n))

Lect. PhD. Oneţ-Marian Zsuzsanna DATA STRUCTURES AND ALGORITHMS

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Priority Queue - Representation on a binary heap

When an element is pushed to the priority queue, it is simply

added to the heap (and bubbled-up if needed)

When an element is popped from the priority queue, the root

is removed from the heap (and bubble-down is performed if
needed)

Top simply returns the root of the heap.

Lect. PhD. Oneţ-Marian Zsuzsanna DATA STRUCTURES AND ALGORITHMS

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Priority Queue - Representation

Let’s complete our table with the complexity of the operations

if we use a heap as representation:

Operation Sorted Non-sorted Heap

push O(n) Θ(1) O(log2 n)
pop Θ(1) Θ(n) O(log2 n)
top Θ(1) Θ(n) Θ(1)

Consider the total complexity of the following sequence of

operations:
start with an empty priority queue
push n random elements to the priority queue
perform pop n times

Lect. PhD. Oneţ-Marian Zsuzsanna DATA STRUCTURES AND ALGORITHMS

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Priority Queue - Application

Print all numbers of the form a3 + b 3 in ascending order

where 0 ≤ a ≤ N and 0 ≤ b ≤ N.

Lect. PhD. Oneţ-Marian Zsuzsanna DATA STRUCTURES AND ALGORITHMS

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Priority Queue - Application

Print all numbers of the form a3 + b 3 in ascending order

where 0 ≤ a ≤ N and 0 ≤ b ≤ N.

Option 1: Generate all possible numbers, sort them and print

the sorted array

We can use less memory if we use the fact that a3 + b 3 is

always less than (a + 1)3 + b 3 and a3 + (b + 1)3 . But if we
push those two numbers when popping a3 + b 3 , we will have
many duplicates in the priority queue (a3 + b 3 will be pushed
both for (a − 1)3 + b 3 and a3 + (b − 1)3 ).

Generate all numbers of the form 03 + i 3 , and add them in a

priority queue. When a number is popped, we push
(a + 1)3 + b 3 .

Lect. PhD. Oneţ-Marian Zsuzsanna DATA STRUCTURES AND ALGORITHMS

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Priority Queue - Extension

We have discussed the standard interface of a Priority Queue,

the one that contains the following operations:
push
pop
top
isEmpty
init
Sometimes, depending on the problem to be solved, it can be
useful to have the following three operations as well:
increase the priority of an existing element
delete an arbitrary element
merge two priority queues

Lect. PhD. Oneţ-Marian Zsuzsanna DATA STRUCTURES AND ALGORITHMS

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Priority Queue - Extension

What is the complexity of these three extra operations if we

use as representation a binary heap?

Increasing the priority of an existing element is O(log2 n) if we

know the position where the element is.

Deleting an arbitrary element is O(log2 n) if we know the

position where the element is.

Merging two priority queues has complexity Θ(n) (assume

both priority queues have n elements).

Lect. PhD. Oneţ-Marian Zsuzsanna DATA STRUCTURES AND ALGORITHMS

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Priority Queue - Other representations

If we do not want to merge priority queues, a binary heap is a

good representation. If we need the merge operation, there
are other heap data structures that can be used, which offer a
better complexity.

Out of these data structures we are going to discuss one: the

binomial heap.

Lect. PhD. Oneţ-Marian Zsuzsanna DATA STRUCTURES AND ALGORITHMS

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Binomial heap

A binomial heap is a collection of binomial trees.

A binomial tree can be defined in a recursive manner:

A binomial tree of order 0 is a single node.
A binomial tree of order k is a tree which has a root and k
children, each being the root of a binomial tree of order k − 1,
k − 2, ..., 2, 1, 0 (in this order).

Lect. PhD. Oneţ-Marian Zsuzsanna DATA STRUCTURES AND ALGORITHMS

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Binomial tree - Example

Binomial trees of order 0, 1, 2 and 3

Lect. PhD. Oneţ-Marian Zsuzsanna DATA STRUCTURES AND ALGORITHMS

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Binomial tree

A binomial tree of order k has exactly 2k nodes.

The height of a binomial tree of order k is k.

If we delete the root of a binomial tree of order k, we will get

k binomial trees, of orders k − 1, k − 2, ..., 2, 1, 0.

Two binomial trees of the same order k can be merged into a

binomial tree of order k + 1 by setting one of them to be the
leftmost child of the other.

Lect. PhD. Oneţ-Marian Zsuzsanna DATA STRUCTURES AND ALGORITHMS

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Binomial tree - Merge I

Before merge we have two binomial trees of order 2

Lect. PhD. Oneţ-Marian Zsuzsanna DATA STRUCTURES AND ALGORITHMS

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Binomial tree - Merge II

One way of merging the two binomial trees into one of order 3

Lect. PhD. Oneţ-Marian Zsuzsanna DATA STRUCTURES AND ALGORITHMS

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Binomial tree - Merge III

Another way of merging the two binomial trees into one of order 3

Lect. PhD. Oneţ-Marian Zsuzsanna DATA STRUCTURES AND ALGORITHMS

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Binomial tree - representation

If we want to implement a binomial tree, we can use the

following representation:
We need a structure for nodes, and for each node we keep the
following:
The information from the node
The address of the parent node
The address of the first child node
The address of the next sibling node

For the tree we will keep the address of the root node (and
probably the order of the tree)

Lect. PhD. Oneţ-Marian Zsuzsanna DATA STRUCTURES AND ALGORITHMS

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Binomial heap

A binomial heap is made of a collection/sequence of binomial

trees with the following property:

Each binomial tree respects the heap-property: for every node,

the value from the node is less than the value of its children
(assume MIN HEAPS).

There can be at most one binomial tree of a given order k.

As representation, a binomial heap is usually a sorted linked

list, where each node contains a binomial tree, and the list is
sorted by the order of the trees.

Lect. PhD. Oneţ-Marian Zsuzsanna DATA STRUCTURES AND ALGORITHMS

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Binomial tree - Example

Binomial heap with 14 nodes, made of 3 binomial trees of orders 1, 2 and 3

Lect. PhD. Oneţ-Marian Zsuzsanna DATA STRUCTURES AND ALGORITHMS

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Binomial tree

For a given number of elements, n, the structure of a binomial

heap (i.e. the number of binomial trees and their orders) is
unique.

The structure of the binomial heap is determined by the

binary representation of the number n.

For example 14 = 1110 (in binary) = 23 + 22 + 21 , so a

binomial heap with 14 nodes contains binomial trees of orders
3, 2, 1 (but they are stored in the reverse order: 1, 2, 3).

For example 21 = 10101 = 24 + 22 + 20 , so a binomial heap

with 21 nodes contains binomial trees of orders 4, 2, 0.

Lect. PhD. Oneţ-Marian Zsuzsanna DATA STRUCTURES AND ALGORITHMS

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Binomial heap

A binomial heap with n elements contains at most log2 n

binomial trees.

The height of the binomial heap is at most log2 n.

Lect. PhD. Oneţ-Marian Zsuzsanna DATA STRUCTURES AND ALGORITHMS

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Binomial heap - merge

The most interesting operation for two binomial heaps is the

merge operation, which is used by other operations as well.
After the merge operation the two previous binomial heaps
will no longer exist, we will only have the result.

Since both binomial heaps are sorted linked lists, the first step
is to merge the two linked lists (standard merge algorithm for
two sorted linked lists).

The result of the merge can contain two binomial trees of the
same order, so we have to iterate over the resulting list and
transform binomial trees of the same order k into a binomial
tree of order k + 1. When we merge the two binomial trees we
must keep the heap property.

Lect. PhD. Oneţ-Marian Zsuzsanna DATA STRUCTURES AND ALGORITHMS

 Binary Heap
Binomial heap

Binomial heap - merge - example I

Let’s merge the following two binomial heaps:

Lect. PhD. Oneţ-Marian Zsuzsanna DATA STRUCTURES AND ALGORITHMS

 Binary Heap
Binomial heap

Binomial heap - merge - example II

Lect. PhD. Oneţ-Marian Zsuzsanna DATA STRUCTURES AND ALGORITHMS

 Binary Heap
Binomial heap

Binomial heap - merge - example III

After merging the two linked lists of binomial trees:

Lect. PhD. Oneţ-Marian Zsuzsanna DATA STRUCTURES AND ALGORITHMS

 Binary Heap
Binomial heap

Binomial heap - merge - example IV

After transforming the trees of the same order (final result of
the merge operation).

Lect. PhD. Oneţ-Marian Zsuzsanna DATA STRUCTURES AND ALGORITHMS

 Binary Heap
Binomial heap

Binomial heap - Merge operation

If both binomial heaps have n elements, merging them will

have O(log2 n) complexity (the maximum number of binomial
trees for a binomial heap with n elements is log2 n).

Lect. PhD. Oneţ-Marian Zsuzsanna DATA STRUCTURES AND ALGORITHMS

 Binary Heap
Binomial heap

Binomial heap - other operations I

Most of the other operations that we have for the binomial

heap (because we need them for the priority queue) will use
the merge operation presented above.

Push operation: Inserting a new element means creating a

binomial heap with just that element and merging it with the
existing one. Complexity of insert is O(log2 n) in worst case
(Θ(1) amortized).

Top operation: The minimum element of a binomial heap (the

element with the highest priority) is the root of one of the
binomial trees. Returning the minimum means checking every
root, so it has complexity O(log2 n).

Lect. PhD. Oneţ-Marian Zsuzsanna DATA STRUCTURES AND ALGORITHMS

 Binary Heap
Binomial heap

Binomial heap - other operations II

Pop operation: Removing the minimum element means

removing the root of one of the binomial trees. If we delete
the root of a binomial tree, we will get a sequence of binomial
trees. These trees are transformed into a binomial heap (just
reverse their order), and a merge is performed between this
new binomial heap and the one formed by the remaining
elements of the original binomial heap.

Lect. PhD. Oneţ-Marian Zsuzsanna DATA STRUCTURES AND ALGORITHMS

 Binary Heap
Binomial heap

Binomial heap - other operations III

The minimum is one of the roots.

Lect. PhD. Oneţ-Marian Zsuzsanna DATA STRUCTURES AND ALGORITHMS

 Binary Heap
Binomial heap

Binomial heap - other operations IV

Break the corresponding tree into k binomial trees

Lect. PhD. Oneţ-Marian Zsuzsanna DATA STRUCTURES AND ALGORITHMS

 Binary Heap
Binomial heap

Binomial heap - other operations V

Create a binomial heap of these trees

Lect. PhD. Oneţ-Marian Zsuzsanna DATA STRUCTURES AND ALGORITHMS

 Binary Heap
Binomial heap

Binomial heap - other operations VI

Merge it with the existing one (after the merge algorithm)

Lect. PhD. Oneţ-Marian Zsuzsanna DATA STRUCTURES AND ALGORITHMS

 Binary Heap
Binomial heap

Binomial heap - other operations VII

After the transformation

The complexity of the remove-minimum operation is O(log2 n)

Lect. PhD. Oneţ-Marian Zsuzsanna DATA STRUCTURES AND ALGORITHMS

 Binary Heap
Binomial heap

Binomial heap - other operations VIII

Assuming that we have a pointer to the element whose

priority has to be increased (in our figures lower number
means higher priority), we can just change the priority and
bubble-up the node if its priority is greater than the priority of
its parent. Complexity of the operation is: O(log2 n)

Assuming that we have a pointer to the element that we want

to delete, we can first decrease its priority to −∞ (this will
move it to the root of the corresponding binomial tree) and
remove it. Complexity of the operation is: O(log2 n)

Lect. PhD. Oneţ-Marian Zsuzsanna DATA STRUCTURES AND ALGORITHMS

 Binary Heap
Binomial heap

Problems with stacks, queues and priority queues I

Red-Black Card Game:

Statement: Two players each receive n2 cards, where each card
can be red or black. The two players take turns; at every turn
the current player puts the card from the upper part of his/her
deck on the table. If a player puts a red card on the table, the
other player has to take all cards from the table and place
them at the bottom of his/her deck. The winner is the player
that has all the cards.
Requirement: Given the number n of cards, simulate the game
and determine the winner.
Hint: use stack(s) and queue(s)

Lect. PhD. Oneţ-Marian Zsuzsanna DATA STRUCTURES AND ALGORITHMS

 Binary Heap
Binomial heap

Problems with stacks, queues and priority queues II

Robot in a maze:
Statement: There is a rectangular maze, composed of
occupied cells (X) and free cells (*). There is a robot (R) in
this maze and it can move in 4 directions: N, S, E, V.
Requirements:
Check whether the robot can get out of the maze (get to the
first or last line or the first or last column).
Find a path that will take the robot out of the maze (if exists).

Lect. PhD. Oneţ-Marian Zsuzsanna DATA STRUCTURES AND ALGORITHMS

 Binary Heap
Binomial heap

Problems with stacks, queues and priority queues III

Hint:
Let T be the set of positions where the robot can get from
the starting position.
Let s be the set of positions to which the robot can get at a
given moment and from which it could continue going to
other positions.
A possible way of determining the sets T and S could be the
following:

Lect. PhD. Oneţ-Marian Zsuzsanna DATA STRUCTURES AND ALGORITHMS

 Binary Heap
Binomial heap

Problems with stacks, queues and priority queues IV

T ← {initial position}
S ← {initial position}
while S 6= ∅ execute
Let p be one element of S
S ← S \{p}
for each valid position q where we can get from p and which is not in T do
T ← T ∪ {q}
S ← S ∪ {q}
end-for
end-while

T can be a list, a vector or a matrix associated to the maze

S can be a stack or a queue (or even a priority queue,
depending on what we want)

Lect. PhD. Oneţ-Marian Zsuzsanna DATA STRUCTURES AND ALGORITHMS

 Binary Heap
Binomial heap

Think about it - Linked Lists

Write a non-recursive algorithm to reverse a singly linked list

with Θ(n) time complexity, using constant space/memory.

Suppose there are two singly linked lists both of which

intersect at some point and become a single linked list (see
the image below). The number of nodes in the two list before
the intersection is not known and may be different in each list.
Give an algorithm for finding the merging point (hint - use a
Stack)

Lect. PhD. Oneţ-Marian Zsuzsanna DATA STRUCTURES AND ALGORITHMS

 Binary Heap
Binomial heap

Think about it - Stacks and Queues I

How can we implement a Stack using two Queues? What will

be the complexity of the operations?

How can we implement a Queue using two Stacks? What will

be the complexity of the operation?

How can we implement two Stacks using only one array? The
stack operations should throw an exception only if the total
number of elements in the two Stacks is equal to the size of
the array.

Lect. PhD. Oneţ-Marian Zsuzsanna DATA STRUCTURES AND ALGORITHMS

 Binary Heap
Binomial heap

Think about it - Stacks and Queues II

Given a string of lower-case characters, recursively remove

adjacent duplicate characters from the string. For example,
for the word ”mississippi” the result should be ”m”.

Given an integer k and a queue of integer numbers, how can

we reverse the order of the first k elements from the queue?
For example, if k=4 and the queue has the elements [10, 20,
30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90], the output should be [40, 30, 20,
10, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90].

Lect. PhD. Oneţ-Marian Zsuzsanna DATA STRUCTURES AND ALGORITHMS

 Binary Heap
Binomial heap

Think about it - Priority Queues

How can we implement a stack using a Priority Queue?

How can we implement a queue using a Priority Queue?

Lect. PhD. Oneţ-Marian Zsuzsanna DATA STRUCTURES AND ALGORITHMS