Characteristics of Measuring Instruments

Instrument characteristic denotes behavior of an instrument when is used for

measurement of quantity.

Various characteristics of instrument are required to be known due to following

reasons:
 To select suitable instruments for given application.
 To know suitability of instrument.
 To know whether instrument should be calibrated or not.

Based upon variation of quantity to be measured, characteristic is of two types:

1. Static characteristic
2. Dynamic characteristic

Static characteristic:

It is that characteristic of an instrument which is consideredwhen it is used for

measuring quantity of which value does not change with time.

Following are the various static characteristics:

 Scale range  Threshold  Hysteresis  Repeatability

 Scale span  Resolution  Drift  Reproducibility
 Static error  Dead zone  Linearity  Reliability
 Accuracy  Dead time  Least Count  Stability
 Precision  Sensitivity  Stiction  Backlash

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Dynamic characteristic:

It is that characteristic of an instrument which is considered when it is used for

measuring quantity of which value changes with time.

Following are the various dynamic characteristics:

 Speedof response  Overshoot

 Measuring lag  Fidelity
 Dynamic error

1. Scale range

It is the region between minimum limit and maximum limit of measurement

Example: A Thermometer measures temperature from 0C to 100C. Scale

range of given thermometer is 0C to 100C.

2. Scale span

It is the difference between maximum limit of measurement &minimum limit

of measurement.

Mathematically,
Scale span = maximum limit – minimum limit

Example:A Thermometer measures temperature from 0C to 100C. Scale range

span of given thermometer 100C.

3. Static error (Absolute Error):

It is difference between measured value and true value of quantity to be

measured.

Static error is also called as absolute error

Mathematically,
Static error = Measured value – True value

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  Relative Error:
It is the ratio of absolute error to true value.

Relative error =


=

Static correction:

It is the difference between true value and measured value of quantity be

measured

Mathematically,
Static correction = True value – Measured value

Relationship between static error and static correction

Static Correction = - (static error)

4. Accuracy

It is the degree of closeness of measured value with true value of quantity to be

measured. Accuracy is desirable characteristic

Accuracy is expressed in different form which is as mentioned below:

a. Accuracy in terms of measured value

b. Accuracy in terms of percentage of true value
c. Accuracy in terms of percentage offull scale deflection.

Formulas:

Accuracy in terms of measured = (Measured value – True value)

value
Accuracy in terms of percentage –
= x 100
of true value

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Accuracy in terms of % full scale –
=
deflection (or % of scale span)

–
% Relative accuracy = 1− x 100

5. Precision

It is closeness of individual value of measurement with average value set of

measurements.

It shows the ability of instrument to show same output value for given input
value. In other words, precision is related to repeatability of instrument.
Precision is desirable characteristics.

Precision of instrument is given by following formula:

Precision in % = − x 100
Where,
Xn= Value of measurement for nth reading
= Average value of set of measurement

Difference between accuracy and precision

Parameter Accuracy Precision

It is degree closeness of
individual value of
It is the degree closeness of measured
Definition measurement with
value with true value.
average value of set of
measurement.

Relative accuracy in %, Precision in %,

Formula –
= 1− x 100 = 1 − x 100

Minimum
No. of One Two
readings
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Relationship
Independent of True
with true Dependent of True value
value
value
Repeatability of
Co-related Sensitivity, Linearity, Resolution
instrument decides
characteristics decides accuracy
precision
Higher precision of
instrument does not give
Higher accuracy of instrument may give
General guarantee of good
good precision of that instrument
accuracy of that
instrument

6. Threshold
It is the minimum input value which instrument can measure.
Or
It is the minimum input value below which instrument does not respond to
measurand.
Threshold is undesirable characteristic. Therefore, its value should be as low as
possible.

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7. Resolution

It is minimum change in input value which instrument can measure.

Resolution is also called as discrimination. Resolution is desirable
characteristics. Higher resolution leads to higher accuracy of instrument.

General relationship between resolution and scale division:

Resolution =

Following are the general causes of Resolution and Threshold:

 Backlash
 Frictional resistance
 Elastic deformation
 Electric & Magnetic effect

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8. Sensitivity:

It is the ratio of change in output value to corresponding change in input value.

Mathematically,

Sensitivity =

Sensitivity is desirable characteristics. Sensitivity for given instrument should
be as high as possible provided external conditions are not influencing result of
measurement.

Inverse sensitivity or Deflection factor

It is the ratio of change in input value to corresponding change in output value.

Inverse Sensitivity or Deflection Factor =

Sensitivity of an instrument should not change during span of measurement.

Sensitivity of an instrument depends upon the slope of calibration curve or

characteristics curve.

For linear instrument sensitivity of instrument remains same throughout the

span of measurement whereas for non-linear instrument sensitivity of
instrument changes over span of measurement.

9. Drift:

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It is phenomenon due to which calibration curve of instrument gradually
changes over period.
OR
It is phenomenon due to which instrument shows different output value for
given input value over a period.

Instrument shows different output value for given input value due to change in
sensitivity of an instrument.

Drift is Undesirable characteristics.

Following are the various causes of drift.

 Change in temperature
 Thermal EMF.
 Mechanical vibration
 Frictional resistance (i.e., Wear and tear of element)
 Over stressed element

Types of drift:
Following are the various types of drift:
a. Zero drift
b. Span or sensitivity drift
c. Combined zero drift and span drift
d. Zonal drift

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 a. Zero drift:
In such drift, actual calibration curve starts from non-zerooutput value and slope
of actual calibration curve is same as that of nominal calibration curve.

b. Span drift:
In such drift, actual calibration curve starts from zero output value and slope of
actual calibration curve is different from nominal calibration curve.

c. Combined drift:
In such drift actual calibration curve starts from non-zero output and slope of
actual calibration curve is different from nominal calibration curve.

d. Zonal drift:
In such drift slope of actual calibration curve differs from nominal calibration
curve over a portion of span of measurement.
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10.Hysteresis:

It is a phenomenon due to which instrument shows different output values for

given input value when instrument is subjected to loading and unloading.

Hysteresis is undesirable characteristic. Due to hysteresis instrument will show

two different value of output for the same input value.

To minimize error due to hysteresis, average value of two output value is

considered.

Average value (qavg) =

Following factors influences hysteresis

1) Residual stresses
2) Backlash
3) Frictional resistance
4) Change in temperature
5) Elastic deformation of element
6) Magnetic effect

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11.Linearity

It is an ability of an instrument to show output value which is directly

proportional to input value.
OR

Linearity is a measure of maximum deviation of calibrated point from idealized

straight line.

Linearity of instrument is expressed by different methods namely:

a. Linearity in terms of independent of input value
b. Linearity in terms of proportional to input value
c. Linearity in terms of combined independent and proportional to input
value

Linearity in terms of dependent of input value

This is the most preferred method to determine linearity of instrument. In this

method maximum deviation of calibrated point from idealized straight line is
determined. Idealized straight line is obtained from actual calibration curve by
using least square method.
Idealized straight line is also known as best fitting line.

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Non-linearity in term of independent of input value is given by following
formula:

Non linearity = x 100

Non-Linearity is undesirable characteristic whereaslinearity is desirable

characteristic. Non-linearity of an instrument is related to accuracy of an
instrument therefore non-linearity should be minimum.

12.Dead Zone (Dead Band or Dead Spot)

It is the range of input value to which instrument does not show response.
Dead zone is undesirable characteristic. Therefore, value of dead zone should be
minimum.

Following are the various causes of dead zone

 Backlash
 Frictional resistance
 Change in Temperature
 Elastic deformation
 Electric & Magnetic effect

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Dead zone for instrument may occur during any portion of span of
measurement.

13.Dead time

It is the time required by an instrument to respond to given change in input

value.Dead time is associated with dead zone. Value of dead time should be
minimum.

14.Repeatability

It is degree of closeness among output values for given input value which is
measured repetitively over short period of time when measurement is subjected
to same operating condition.

Following are the various factors which define operating conditions

 Type of instrument
 Method of Measurement
 Location of measurement
 Use of instrument
 Operator

Repeatability is function of precision. Repeatability is desirable characteristics.

15. Reproducibility

It is a degree of closeness of output values for the given input value when
measurement is subjected to different operating conditions.

Following are the various factors which influences the operating conditions.
a. Type of instrument
b. Method of measurement
c. Location of measurement
d. Use of instrument
e. Operator
f. Time of use

Reproducibility is desirable characteristic.

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16. Reliability:
It is the ability of an instrument to performconsistently in terms of accuracy,
precision, repeatability and reproducibility over a period.

17. Stability:
It is ability of an instrument to performconsistently though out the specified
storage life and operating life.

18.Zero stability:
It is ability of an instrument to restore to zero reading when input value is
removed.
OR
It is the ability of an instrument to show zero reading when input value is
removed

19.Stiction:
It is the energy or force required to overcome various resistances so as to just
operate instrument.

20.Least count:
It is the smallest change in output which can be measured.

21. Backlash:
It is the maximum distance or angle to which one element of mechanical
assembly can be moved in one direction without causing motion of another
element.
To minimize backlash, closer tolerance should be specified for machine
element.

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Dynamic characteristics

It is that characteristics of an instrument which is considered when it is used for

measuring quantity of which value changes with time.

Dynamic characteristics are considered while selection of instruments which are

used in following fields:

1. Aerospace field
2. Biological field
3. Automation based manufacturing industry like Automobile industry
4. Process industry like: Chemical, Petrochemical, Textile, Paper, Sugar,
Fertilizer, Cement, etc.

Following are the various Dynamic characteristics:

1. Speed of response
2. Fidelity
3. Dynamic error
4. Measuring Lag
5. Overshoot

1. Speed of response:

It is the rapidity or fastness with which an instrument responds to change in

input value.

High speed of response leads to high fidelity of instrument.

Speed of response is desirable characteristic.

2.Fidelity:

It is the faithfulness with which instrument readings are closely following

changes in input value.
OR
It shows the closeness of an instrument readings with changes in input value.

High fidelity is due to high speed of response of instrument. Fidelity is desirable

characteristics.

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3. Dynamic errors

It is the difference between true which changes with time and measured value if
static error of instrument is not considered.

OR

It is the difference between input value which changes with time and measured
value if static error of instrument is not considered.

Mathematically: -

Dynamic error = Truevalue changing with time – Measured Value

Dynamic error is undesirable characteristics.

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4. Measuring lag
It is the retardation or delay in response of an instrument to changes in input
value.
Measuring lag is undesirable characteristic.
Following are various types of Measuring lag:
 Retardation Type
 Time Delay Type

a. Retardation type:
In suchmeasuring lag,Instruments responds immediately after change in
input value.

b. Time delay type:

In suchmeasuring lag,Instruments responds immediately after completion
of dead time.

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5. Overshoot:
For given change in input value, it is the maximum deviation of output
value from the final steady output value of an instrument.
For given change in input value,

Overshoot = Maximum output value – Final steady state output value

Overshoot is undesirable characteristics.

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