Chapter 9

Lesson
Vocabulary
Common Logarithms
9-5 logarithm of x to the base 10,
log of x to the base 10,
log base 10 of x
common logarithm,
BIG IDEA When a number is written as a power of 10, the common log
exponent in the expression is the logarithm of the number to the logarithm function to the
base 10. base 10, common
logarithm function

Whenever there is a situation described by an equation of the form Mental Math

y = b x , you may know the values of y and b, and want to find x. For
Find the exact geometric
instance, people may want to know when a population will reach mean of the arithmetic
a certain level, or people may want to know the age of an ancient mean, median, and
Egyptian mummy. Recall that an equation for the inverse of a mode of the data set
function can be found by switching x and y. So, x = b y is an equation {1, 1, 2, 3, 5}.
for the inverse of the exponential function. You can use this equation
and what you know about exponential functions to solve exponential
equations.

Logarithms to the Base 10 READING MATH

by
Consider the equation x = when b = 10. Then x = 10 y, and we say The word logarithm
that y is the logarithm of x to the base 10. is derived from the
Greek words logos,
Definition of Logarithm of x to the Base 10 meaning “reckoning,”
and arithmos, meaning
y is the logarithm of x to the base 10, or the log of x to the
“number,” which is also
base 10, or the log base 10 of x, written y = log10 x, if and only
the root of the word
if 10 y = x.
arithmetic. A logarithm
is literally a “reckoning
For example, 2 = log10 100, because 102 = 100. In the table below are
number.” Logarithms
some other powers of 10 and the related logs to the base 10.
were used for hundreds
Exponential Form Logarithmic Form
of years for calculating
(or “reckoning”) before
107 = 10,000,000 log10 10,000,000 = 7 electronic calculators and
10–3 = 0.001 log10 0.001 = – 3 computers were invented.
__1
10 2 = √
10 10 = __1
log10 √
2
– __14
10 = ____
4
1
log10 ____
4
1
= – __14
√
10 √
10

10a =b log10 b = a

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 Lesson 9-5

Logarithms are exponents. The logarithm of x is the exponent to

which the base is raised to get x. Logarithms to the base 10 are called
common logarithms, or common logs. We often write common logs
without indicating the base. That is, log x means log10 x.

Evaluating Common Logarithms

Common logarithms of powers of 10 can be found quickly without
a calculator.

GUIDED
Example 1
Evaluate.
a. log 100 b. log 0.00001 c. log 1
Solution First write each number as a power of ten. Then apply the
definition of a common logarithm. Remember that the logarithm is the
exponent.
a. Because 100 = 10 ? , log10 100 = ? .
b. You need to find n such that 10n = 0.00001.
?
Because 0.00001 = 10 , log 0.00001 = ? .
c. 100 = 1, so log ? = ? .
QY1
QY1 a. What is log √10
?
b. What is the common
You can use the logarithm function in your calculator to evaluate logarithm of 0.001?
log10 x for any positive number x.

Example 2
Estimate to the nearest hundred-thousandth.
a. log √
2 b. log 5
Solution Use your calculator. You will get a display like that at
the right. Round to five decimal places.
a. log √2 ≈ 0.15051
b. log 5 ≈ 0.69897
Check Use the definition of logarithm to the
base 10: log x = y if and only if 10y = x.
a. Does 100.15051 ≈ √ 2 ? Use the power key on your
calculator. It checks.
b. Does 100.69897 ≈ 5? Yes, it checks.

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 Chapter 9

QY2 QY2
Check your answers to
In general, the common logarithm of 10 x is x. That is, log10(10 x) = x.
Example 1 using your
This is why we say a logarithm is an exponent.
calculator.
The larger a number, the larger its common logarithm. Because of
this, you can estimate the common logarithm of a number without
a calculator. Either compare the number to integer powers of 10 or
write the number in scientific notation to determine between which
two consecutive integers the logarithm falls.

Example 3
Between which two consecutive integers is log 5673?

Solution 1 5673 is between 1000 = 103 and 10,000 = 104, so

log 5673 is between 3 and 4.

Solution 2 5673 = 5.673 · 103. This indicates that log 5673 is

between 3 and 4.

Check A calculator gives log 5673 ≈ 3.753… . It checks.

Solving Logarithmic Equations

You can solve logarithmic equations using the definition of common
logarithms.

Example 4
Solve for x.
a. log x = __2
1
b. log x = 0.71
Solution
1
__
1
a. log x = __2 if and only if 10 2 = x.
__1
So, x = 10 2 = √ 10 ≈ 3.162.
b. log x = 0.71 if and only if 100.71 = x. So, x = 100.71 ≈ 5.129.

The Inverse of y = 10x

The inverse of the exponential function f defined by f(x) = 10 x
is related to common logarithms. You will find the inverse in
the Activity on the next page.

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 Lesson 9-5

Activity
MATERIALS graph paper
Step 1 Fill in the y-values in the table when y = 10 x.
x –2 –1 – 0.75 – 0.5 – 0.25 0 0.25 0.5 0.75 1 2

y ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ?

Step 2 Plot the points (x, 10 x) from the table on graph paper. Connect the
points with a smooth curve.
Step 3 Plot the points of the inverse of the relation in the table on the same
graph as in Step 2. Connect the points with a smooth curve.
Step 4 Graph both y = 10 x and y = log x on the same set of axes in the
window –2 ≤ x ≤ 2 and –2 ≤ y ≤ 2 on a graphing utility. Compare
them to the graphs you made in Steps 2 and 3.

y
Your graphs from the Activity should look similar to the one at the 4
right. The graph of y = 10 x passes the horizontal-line test, and so its 3 y =
10 x
inverse is a function. This means that y = log x is an equation for a
2
function, the inverse of the exponential function with equation y = 10 x .
1
x
᎑2 ᎑1 0 1 2 3 4
Properties of y = 10 x and y = log x ᎑1 y =
log x
The inverse of the function f with equation f(x) = 10 x can be ᎑2
described in several ways as shown in the table below.

Ways of Thinking of
the Inverse of f with Written Spoken
f(x) = y = 10x

“x equals 10 to the
Switching x and y x = 10y yth power.”
Using the language y = log10 x “y equals the log of
of logs y = log x x to the base 10.”
Using function f –1(x) = log10 x “f inverse of x equals the
notation f –1(x) = log x log of x to the base 10.”

The curve defined by these equations is called a logarithmic curve.

As the graph from the Activity above shows, a logarithmic curve
is the reflection image of an exponential curve over the line with
equation y = x.
The function that maps x onto log10 x for all positive numbers x
is called the logarithm function to the base 10, or the common
logarithm function.

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 Chapter 9

Because they are inverses, each property of the exponential function

defined by y = 10 x corresponds to a property of its inverse, the
common logarithm function defined by y = log x.

Function Domain Range Asymptote Intercepts

set of real set of positive
y = 10x numbers real numbers x-axis (y = 0) y-intercept = 1

set of positive set of real

y = log x real numbers numbers y-axis (x = 0) x-intercept = 1

Questions
COVERING THE IDEAS
1. If m = log10 n, what other relationship exists between m, 10,
and n?
2. a. Write in words how to read the expression log10 8.
b. Evaluate log10 8 to the nearest ten-thousandth.
In 3–8, evaluate using the definition of common logarithms.
3. log 10,000,000 4. log 105 5. log 0.0000001
3 1
6. log √10 7. log __
10
8. log 10
9. Between which two consecutive integers is the value of the
common logarithm of 100,000,421?
In 10–12, approximate to the nearest thousandth.
10. log 3 11. log 0.00309 12. log 309,000
In 13 and 14, solve for x.
13. log x = 5 14. log x = 1.25
15. Consider the graph of y = log10 x.
a. Name its x- and y-intercepts, if they exist.
b. Name three points on the graph.
c. Name the three corresponding points on the graph of y = 10 x .
16. What are the domain and range of the common logarithm
function?
17. Fill in the Blank The functions f and g, with equations f(x) = 10 x
and g(x) = ? , are inverses of each other.

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 Lesson 9-5

APPLYING THE MATHEMATICS

18. If 5 log v = 2, what is the value of v?
19. If a number is between 10 and 100, its common logarithm is
between which two consecutive integers?
20. The common logarithm of a number is –5. What is the number?
21. Evaluate 10log 3.765.
22. Explain why for all positive numbers a, 10log a = a.
23. If f(x) = 10 x and g(x) = log10 x, what is f  g(x)? Explain
your answer.
In 24 and 25, use this information: Most of
today’s languages are thought to be descended
from a few common ancestral languages.
The longer the time lapse since a language
split from the ancestral language, the fewer
common words exist in the descendant
language. Let c = the number of centuries
since two languages split from an ancestral
language. Let w = the fraction of words from
the ancestral language that are common to the
two descendent languages. In linguistics, the
English and Spanish
equation ___ _____
10 2 log r
c = log w (in which r = 0.86 is the descended from the Indo-
index of retention) has been used to relate c and w. European language family.
24. If about 15% of the words in an ancestral language are common Chinese descended from the
to two different languages, about how many centuries ago did Sino-Tibetan family.
they split from the ancestral language?
25. If it is known that two languages split from an ancestral language
about 1500 years ago, about what percentage of the words in the
ancestral language are common to the two languages?

REVIEW
26. Find an equation of the form y = ab x that passes through the
points (0, 3) and (4, 48). (Lesson 9-4)
27. A tool and die machine used in a metal working factory
depreciates so that its value after t years is given by
N(t) = Ce–0.143t , where C is its initial value. If after 4 years
the machine is worth $921,650, what was its original
value? (Lesson 9-3)

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 Chapter 9

28. Refer to the graph at the right of y

8
the cubing function f defined by
6
f(x) = x 3. (Lessons 8-3, 7-6, 7-1)
4
a. What are the domain and range
2
of this function?
x
b. Graph the inverse. ᎑6 ᎑4 ᎑2 0 2 4 6
᎑2
c. Is the inverse a function?
Why or why not? ᎑4

d. What name is usually given to ᎑6

the inverse function? ᎑8

In 29 and 30, simplify without using a

calculator. (Lessons 7-6, 7-3, 7-2)
5
29. (133 · 13 – 6)2 30. √
815

EXPLORATION
31. In 2005, the three leading international public repositories
for DNA and RNA sequence information reached over 100
gigabases (100,000,000,000 bases) of sequence. For perspective,
the human genome is about 3 gigabases. The table below
presents the approximate size of the international databases in
each year from 2000-2005.

Year 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005

Gigabases 11 18 37 53 81 104

a. Write an equation to predict the number n of bases stored

t years after 2000.
b. What is the growth rate of sequence mapping?
c. Use your equation in Part a to predict the year that the
international databases will hold the amount of information
equal to the information contained in the genomes of
1000 people.

QY ANSWERS
1
1. a. __2 b. –3

2.

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