Flow measurement:

Head Type flow metering principle involves a restriction of known dimension in

the pipe or flow line carrying the fluid. This flow restriction causes a pressure
drop which varies with flow rate . The measurement of pressure drop can be
used for indirect way of flow measurement .

Flow of incompressible fluid in pipe:

If a restriction like orifice is introduced into a pipe line , then the relation between
the pressure and velocity at the sections 1 and 2 (being the positions of upstream
and downstream ) can be found from the law of conservation of energy. For the
flow of incompressible ideal fluids , Bernoulli’s equation is used :

p1 V22 p V2
  Z 2  2  1  Z1
 2g  2g
where ,
p1 = static pressure at upstream
p 2 =static pressure at downstream
 =density of fluid
g =acceleration due to gravity
Z 1 =elevation of centre line of pipe at upstream
Z 2 =elevation of centre line of pipe at downstream

For fluid flow measurement the difference in level ( Z 2  Z 1 ) is very small , even
when the pipe is vertical , since the length of flow measuring restriction is very
small.
2g
 V22  V12  ( p1  p 2 )


Measuring the flow rate of fluids involves determining the volumetric flow rate is
given by the continuity of equation :
q  A2V2  A1V1
where
A1 =area of flow at upstream
A2 =area of flow at downstream

1
Combining the above two equations , the volumetric flow rate is given by :
A2 2 g ( p1  p 2 )
q  KA2 2 gh
1
A2 2 2 
{1  ( ) }
A1
q actual d 4 C
where K =flow coefficient= ( q ) / [1  ( ) ]
ideal D [1   4 ]
where C =discharge coefficient
 =diameter ratio
The term (1   4 ) is known as velocity approach factor , since it is 1.0 if the
upstream velocity V1 is zero . To reduce the above equation in more useful
form , it is often modified as :

K 2 D 2
2 g ( p1  p 2 )
q
4 
where q and ( p1  p 2 ) are the variable quantities in flow measurement.

For actual flow conditions with friction losses present , correction to this formula
is necessary . Besides , the minimum area of the flow channel occurs not at the
restriction but at some point slightly downstream , known as the vena contracta .
This in turn depends on the flow rate . While pressure tapings positions are
fixed , the position of maximum velocity changes with changing flow rate . So the
measurement of pressure at selected pressure tapping points needs to be
modified by a correction factor as given by :

Where

2
K = flow coefficient
C =discharge coefficient
A2 d
  =diameter ratio
A1 D
d =diameter of restriction
D =Diameter of pipe

The factor is termed as velocity of approach factor . thus if h varies , volume

flow rate varies , provided is constant . Unfortunately K depends on the flow
Reynolds’s number and flow channel geometry . The fluid flow through restriction
is characterized by inertia forces and viscous forces , and these are related by
Reynolds’s number as given by :
V 2 d
R

4 pq
Also , R  D
where
V2 = average velocity of fluid
 =absolute viscosity
d =restriction diameter

The turbulent flow occurs at the Reynolds’s no. above 2000 to 2200 , which
depends on the fluid flow velocity, densities , pipe diameters and viscosity .
Industrial flow generally turbulent with R ranging from 10000 to about 1000000 .

Measuring fluid flow with an restriction requires the differential head to be

measured by a manometer . So the effect of the density of the fluid over the
manometer liquid must be taken into account using the following equation as:
p1  p 2  ( m   f ) h
Now the density of the fluid over manometer fluid is different because of different
temperature condition and if the flow rate is to be converted at some standard
temperature base condition , then the ratio of density of flowing fluid should be
included in the final expression .
where
h =differential head at restriction
 f =density of fluid over manometer fluid
 m =density of manometer fluid
 = density of flowing fluid
 s =density of flowing fluid at base condition
Thus the flow rate is given by :
 ( m   f ) gh  2 gh( m   f )
q  KA2 (  K 2 D 2
s 4 s
All quantities on the right hand side are measurable excepting K which is
obtained from the standard table.

3
Flow of compressible fluid in pipe:

The relation between pressure and velocity for flow of a compressible fluid
through an orifice can be found from the law of conservation of energy as
employed in thermodynamics .If the fluid is ideal and the flow is considered
adiabatic then there is no heat flow to or from the fluid and no external work done
on or by the fluid , and neglecting the very small difference in we can write :

V22 V2
p2 v2   JE 2  p1v1  1  JE1
2g 2g

where E =internal molecular energy of fluid

J =work equivalent of heat
v =specific volume of fluid
Employing the definition of enthalpy H gives, V22  V12  2 gJ ( H 1  H 2 )
For an ideal gas and if specific heats are constant , then ,
( K 1)
KR p2 K
H1  H 2  T1 [1  ( ) ]
J ( K  1) p1
Where K =ratio of specific heat at constant volume to constant pressure
R =gas constant
T =absolute temperature

A2V2 AV
From the equation of continuity : W   1 1
v2 v1
Where W =weight flow rate (Kg/sec.)

Combining the foregoing equations and simplifying , the relation for isentropic
flow of ideal gases is given by ,
p2 2 / K p
( )  ( 2 ) ( K 1) / K
2 gKp1 p p1
W  A1  2 [ 1 ]
( K  1)v1 4 p2 2 / K
1  ( )
p1

By employing a series expansion by binomial theorem and ignoring term of

second and higher order , we obtain ,

p2 2 / K 2 p p K 1 p
( )  1  (1  2 ) also , ( 2 ) ( K 1) / K  1  ( )(1  2 )
p1 K p1 p1 K p1

4
 2 g ( p1  p 2 )
W  CA1  2
Thus , modified relation is : p
v1 [1   4 ( 2 ) 2 / K ]
p1

The above equation , however , is the simple hydraulic equation for

incompressible fluids .It applies to flow of compressible fluids only when the
change in density or specific volume is small . So to take account for this effect
additional parameter ( Y ) , called “rational expansion factor “is to be included .
compreesiblemassflowrate
Where Y  imcompressiblemassflowrate

p2 2 / K p
(1   4 [(
)  ( 2 ) ( K 1) / K ]
p1 p1
Now Y 
K 1 p p
( )(1  2 )[1   4 ( 2 ) 2 / K ]
K p1 p1
The expansion factor is dimensionless.
The value of the rational expansion factor and the error in flow rate is given in the
following table:

p2 ( p1  p 2 ) Y % error in flow
( )
p1 p1 rate
1.0 0.0 1.0 0.0
0.99 0.01 0.994 0.6
0.98 0.02 0.9884 1.16
0.96 0.04 0.9765 2.35
0.94 0.06 0.9646 3.54
0.92 0.08 0.9526 4.74
0.90 0.10 0.9405 5.95
0.8 0.20 0.878 12.2
0.7 0.30 0.812 18.8
0.6 0.40 0.744 25.6

By determining the mass flow rate of the incompressible fluids and multiplying
with Y , flow rate for compressible fluids can be found out . In industrial practice ,
the pressure ratio is often greater than 99 % , and the simple flow equation
may be used . When the pressure ratio is less than 99 % , there is too great an
error in the calculation , and it is desirable to correct the equation without having
to employ the rational expansion factor of equation . An empirical expansion
factor has been determined for orifices using flanges taps or vena-contracta taps
p  p2
Y  1  [0.42  0.35 4 ]( 1 )
p1 K
The expansion factor for orifice using pipe is given by:

5
 p1  p 2
Y  1  [0.33  1.145(  4  0.7  5  12 13 )]( )
p1 K

When the gas contains appreciable moisture , a moisture factor correcting for the
vapor density is introduced. The moisture correction factor is given by:
p v Gv
M  1 (  1) ,
p G
where p v =vapor pressure
Gv =sp. Gravity of vapor referred to air at the same condition of pressure and
temperature
G = sp. Gravity of gas
The final form of flow equation is
yRT
v v 2 gM 1 m h
p q  KA2Y ( b )( 
Mb v1
where
where ,
q =flow rate
K =flow coefficient
 m =density of manometer fluid
h=manometer differential
v1 =sp. Volume of gas at upstream condition
v b =sp. Volume of gas at base condition
M 1 =Moisture correction factor at upstream condition
M b =moisture correction factor at base condition
Y =expansion factor

The sp. Volume of the gas may be found from the relation as given by:
where
y = compressibility factor
R =gas constant

Moisture in a gas affects the flow rate for a differential head in two ways . The
density of the moist gas changes and gas becomes only a part of the mixture .
With the above notations the moisture correction factor is considered to be the
ratio of the density of the moist gas to that of the dry gas as the correction
factor .The ratio of the weight of the dry gas to that of the mixture should be the
actual moisture correction factor but very often it is simply considered with the
single assumption of density change and the correction factor is then given by:

M  d
m

6
The Reynolds no. of the flowing gas is given by :
4q
Rg 
v1 d

For all flow equation for orifices , that is those for liquid , gas , and vapor , one
further correction factor is required if the temperature of the flowing fluid is high .
Thermal expansion of the metal of which the orifice plate is constructed
increases the orifice diameter . The diameter ratio remains approximately
constant . The correction for thermal expansion can be made by multiplying the
flow rate by ( 1  0.000015t ) , where is the temperature at the orifice plate
A limitation to the maximum flow rate of gases exists when the pressure ratio
p
( 2 ) is small . This can be investigated by differentiating flow rate w w.r.t.
p1
p w p
( 2 ) and equating it to zero . Thus  0 , where p r  2
p1 p r p1

p 2
And ( 2 ) cr  [ ]  1
p1 (  1)
This pressure ratio is called the critical pressure ratio , because it is the condition
for maximum flow of gas through an orifice or other such restriction to flow. For
air the critical pressure ratio is approximately 0.528.
Of greater significance is the fact that , when the pressure ratio is less than the
critical value , the flow rate does not depend on the pressure difference but only
on the upstream pressure p1 . In industrial practice this condition is rarely
encountered when measuring fluid flow in pipe lines. On the other hand when the
fluid is discharged through an orifice or nozzle into the atmosphere , the
upstream pressure is often great enough so that the pressure ratio is less than
critical .

Head type flow sensors:

a) Orifice:

7
Of the four types of commercially available restriction type primary flow
measuring elements , orifice is the most common . The restriction which takes
the form of thin plate is called orifice and is available in three shapes as
concentric , segmented or eccentric .The concentric orifice is by far the most
widely used . The segmented and eccentric orifices are used for measuring
flow of fluids containing solids . In both , the orifice plate is located so that the
bottom of the hole is nearly flush with the bottom inside of the pipe . the
segmented and eccentric orifices require special calibration since the
standard flow coefficients are usable only for standard thin –plate , concentric
orifices. The concentric orifice plate is made of flat metal sheet with a circular
hole , and it is installed in the pipe line with the hole . Orifice plate are made
from steel , stainless steel , Monel , phosphor bronze , or almost any metal
that will withstand the corrosive effects of the fluid . Its thickness is only
sufficient to withstand the bucking forces caused by the pressure differential .
the circular hole or orifice is carefully made with 90 , square , sharp edge
upstream because this type can be manufactured more uniformly than one
with round edges. Wear and abrasion of sharp edge greatly affect the
accuracy of the orifice flow measurement.

A general mounting feature of the orifice fig . .Tappings positions greatly

influence the measuring accuracy . A downstream tap at vena-contracta
d
would generate the largest differential pressure , but flow rate and ratio
D
greatly influence the location of the tap position . For vena contracta
tappings , generally d is made equal to to D , the pipe diameter , while the
downstream tapping position is determined from the curves shown in fig .
Other type of tapping commonly encountered are given in the table :

Tapping type d1 d2 Remarks

8
Pipe taps 1 8D Mainly used for
2 D
2 gas line , when D
is small and
pressure
differential is small
,   0.70
Radius taps D 1 To keep the
D
2 tapping position
fixed irrespective
of 
Flange taps 1 in. 1 in Used mainly for
D>1 in. It is the
most popular
tapping position.

b) Venturi

The venture tubes may be of two different forms as i) short recovery cone
type ii) long recovery cone type also sometimes known as Herschel standard
type. The short recovery cone type uses a straight throat of length equal to
the throat diameter and the throat tapping is made midway . The venture
tube is made of cast iron or steel . In many cases the throat is made a
separate assembly of bronze so that it can be easily replaced . The entrance
section of the standard venture has about 20 and the exit section varies from
5 to 15 depending on the long or short recovery cone type design . The short
venture is suitable for short obstructed lines . It has larger pressure losses
than the Herschel type . The diameter ratio of the venture tube is the ratio of
the throat dia to the pipe –line dia , usually between 0.25 and 0.50 The
pressure taps are made at piezometer rings so as to average the pressure
measurement around the periphery . The venture is more accurate than the
orifice as it has less pressure losses . The flow equation for venture tubes are
the same as those for the orifice with exception of having large discharge
coefficient between 0.9 to 1.0

i) For flow of liquids,

C d  2 D 2 2 g ( m   f )h
q (
4 1  2 
where
q =flow rate
C v = venture discharge coefficient
 =diameter ratio=
d =venture throat diameter
D =pipe diameter

9
 m =density of manometer fluid
 f =density of fluid over manometer fluid
 =density of flowing fluid
h =manometer pressure differential
 =absolute viscosity of flowing fluid
R D =Reynolds No.

ii) For the flow of gases or vapor the

 C v  2 D 2 Yv b 2 ghM 1 ( m   f )
q
4 1  4 Mb v1
where ,
Y =rational expansion factor
v1 =sp. Volume of gas at upstream conditions
v b =sp. Volume of gas at base conditions
M 1 =moisture factor at upstream condition
M b =moisture factor at base condition

c) Flow nozzle:

The flow nozzle is a variation of the venture in which the exit section is
omitted and consequently the approach section is bell shaped with a
cylindrical throat . It resembles an orifice with a well rounded upstream edge .
The upstream (high pressure) tap is usually made about one pipe diameter
from the entrance to the nozzle . The downstream (low pressure) tap is
usually made in the pipe directly opposite the straight portion of the nozzle.
It has been developed to have high differential pressure , low permanent
pressure loss , shorter length and lower weight.

10
Installation of head flow meter:

The head flow meter consists of a primary element such as orifice , venture or
pitot tube used with a differential pressure meter to measure the differential head
caused by the flowing fluid at the primary element . The differential pressure may
be any of the various meters such as enlarged-leg manometer , the bell gauge ,
the bellow gauge , the diaphragm gauge , the ring gauge or the tilting U-tube
gauge . The differential pressure meter and the primary element require careful
connection and installation . It must be remembered that the meter is used for the
purpose of measuring differential pressure , not flow , in the range of an cm or
two of mercury head or even less. The factors in selecting proper piping
arrangement are , considering only the important ones:

i) The piping arrangement must be absolutely free of leaks.

ii) Connecting lines must be clean and free from obstructions .
iii) The connecting lines should not be over 50 ft. long , preferably less.
iv) The connecting lines must be maintained at a temperature between 32
and 110 F .
v) The differential –pressure meter should be installed below the level of
the primary element if possible.
vi) Drain leg should be installed at the meter when dirt and sediment exist
in the connecting lines.
vii) Sealing chambers used for corrosive fluid must be level and should be
vented.

The installation of the differential –pressure manometer as secondary device in

flow measurement w.r.t. head type flow measuring element as primary device is
to be done carefully due to the flow , which may be quite small and any small
error in this measurement would greatly affect the flow calculations . Proper
piping arrangement for four different types of special fluids are shown in fig. . For
correct indication the gauge should be at the same level of the tapping piston but
because of other installation components necessary in special cases as shown in
fig. , this condition is not possible to be maintained always.

11
If the pipe is tapped at the bottom , any solid matter flowing in the line might
choke/clog the tap. If the pipe is tapped at the top , any dissolved gas might
escape through the tap and reach the manometer upsetting the true reading .
Generally recommended taps are the side of the pipe , at an angle between 30
and 90 from the vertical . the pipes are arranged so that in case of an eventuality
the meter can be recovered or removed without much difficulty . the equalizer
valve , marked E in fig helps in zeroing the gauge reading without disconnecting
the pipe –lines. Many flowing liquids are i) corrosive , ii) of low freezing point , iii)
thick and viscous iv) carrying foreign matters v) evaporate easily . Corrosive
liquids are kept out of the manometer . large chambers containing sealing liquids
are mounted in the pipelines so that the liquids do not come in contact with the
manometric fluid. These chamber are known as sealing pots , and sealing liquids
are chosen such that they do not mix with the process fluid or react chemically
with them . The two chambers of the sealing pot is connected with connecting
pipe with equalizer valve. . The effect of height of the sealing liquid can be
cancelled out when necessary . The commonly chosen sealing liquids are i)
ethylene glycol and water (50-50) , ii) glycerin and water (50-50) and iii) dibutyl
phthalate for freezing types . Foe heavier liquids chloronapthelene and
chlorinated oils have been used . Generally the sealing fluid should be heavier
than the flowing fluid . The sealing chambers are usually half filled, through filling
plugs with visual checking facility such as gauge glasses .Correction is
sometimes necessary to allow for the difference in density of the flowing fluid,
sealing liquid and manometer fluid and for the relative displacement of the
sealing liquid height . The pressure balance equation can then be written as

h  hm (  m   s ) /  f  hs (  s   f ) /  f
where h = head to be measured for the flowing fluid
hm =manometer head
hs =sealing liquids height difference
 m =manometer liquid density
 f =flowing fluid density
 s =sealing liquid density

Sometimes in high pressure systems , a liquid which will not make harm the
process , is introduced in a small quantity under pressure into the space above
the manometric fluid . This very small amount does not produce any reasonable
pressure head. This system is known as the purging system . Installation
considerations vary and are widely different for different types of processes and
process fluids .

12
Pitot tube:
The pitot tube is primary device for measuring fluid velocity . When a solid body
is held stationary along

Construction of pitot tube:

The simplest design of pitot tube consists of an impact opening of 3 to 6 mm dia
pointing towards the approaching fluid . The impact tube is made by assembly of
two concentric tubes . The inner tube has the impact opening while the outer
tube has one or more holes on the side . The stagnation pressure is measured
through the inside tube and the static pressure through the outside tube . The
static pressure measurement made st the pitot tube may be slightly erroneous
because of eddies around the pitot tube assembly .

The energy equation of incompressible fluid in Pitot tube is given by :

p2 p V2
 1  1 ,. Where any difference in height to a datum line is ignored .
  2g
where
=stagnation pressure
=static pressure of the flowing fluid
=density of fluid
=velocity of flowing fluid in a stream tube with axis of impact op0ening.

Solving for velocity we find ,

Vf  2 g ( p1  p 2 )  2hgh
Introducing velocity coefficient and correction due to manometer , the modified
relation is given by:

13
 m  f
V f  C v 2 gh( )

where =velocity of the moving fluid
=velocity coefficient
=density of manometer fluid
=density of sealing fluid in manometer
=density of moving fluid
For incompressible fluid, assuming adiabatic and reversible flow , the energy
equation is given by :
(  1)
2 g p 
Vf  p1v1 [( 2 )  1]
 1 p1
Cp
where  = ratio of specific heats= . For industrial use it is desirable to
Cv
measure the pressure differential ( ) rather than the pressure ratio . Employing
an expansion by the binomial theorem ,
 1
p2   1 p
( )  1 ( )(1  2 )
p1  p1
Neglecting higher order terms , and simplifying ,
Vf  2 gv1 ( p 2  p1 )
Introducing correction factor due manometer head and flow coefficient
V f  Cv 2 ghv1 ( m   f )
where
If gas contains an appreciable amount of moisture

The pitot tube has no standard design data . Value of is obtained by experiment .
It varies from 0.84 to 0.88 for short opening line and between 0.98 to 1.02 for
long impact line . It is assumed that the impact opening of the pitot tube gaces
directly into the flow stream without more than a 3 angle between the axis of the
opening and the axis of the pipe.

Area flow meter:

The area meter operates on the principle that the change in area of the flow
stream required to produce pressure differential at a restriction to fluid is
proportional to the flow rate But , in practice , the variable flow area
measurement is difficult , if not impossible .

Rotameter:

In construction the rotameter is tapered cone with different inlet outlet diameter
i.e. the cone diverges in respect of area from bottom to top direction . The fluid

14
enters the vertical tapered cone at the bottom and flow out from the top. The
metering tube is hollow , usually made of glass so that tube can be seen through
it , and must be installed vertically .A weighted bob or float placed in the tube is
maintained at static equilibrium by the combined action of the upward dragging
force due to the flowing fluid , the downward force i.e. weight of the bob and the
buoyancy forces due to displaced fluid by the bob. In the equilibrium position ,
the differential pressure across the restriction , which is variable as the float
moves vertically up and down in a tapered tube , is zero The flow rate is read by
noting the position of the float against a calibrated scale marked on the glass .

Theory of operation:

Considering the rotameter , it is assumed that the pressure acting upward on the
bottom of the float is the stagnation pressure . It is also assumed that the
pressure acting downward on the float is the static pressure p2 . Thus for static
equilibrium of the float at any given position , the relation is given by :

Fd  1V f   2V f,
where
Fd =drag force
v =volume of float
1 =fluid density
 2 =density of float material
Fd  V f (  2   1 )
The drag force is given by:

1
Fd  C d A f Va ,
2g
where
C d =drag coefficient
A f =effective area of float

15
Va =fluid average velocity in the annular restriction
Combining the above equations, the volume flow rate is given by:

Aa 2 gV f (  2  1 )
q  Va Aa 
Cd A2 1
Generally the tube diameter at the tube inlet is equal to the float diameter so that
at no flow the float fits in the inlet opening . At the equilibrium position , let the
tube inlet diameter be and a constant indicating the tube taper such that for
small  , D  d  h . The term is also known as scale length factor . The
inlet area being the float frontal area , the annular area is easily calculated as

Aa  (h 2  2hd )
4
Thus volume flow rate is given by:
2
 h 2 gV f d  2
q( )(h  ) (  1)
Cd 2d 2 A2 1
For many practical purposes ,  denoting the taper is very small and d is quite
large , so that h  h 2 / 2d , and , hence
2
h gV f d  2  gV f d 2  2
q( ) (  1) ,  q  Kh , where K  ) (  1)
Cd 2 A2 1 Cd 2 A2 1
Thus the flow rate is directly proportional to the height of the float . The
parameter K is called the meter constant .

The drag coefficient is dependant on the Reynold’s no. i.e. , viscosity . Thus if the
effect due to the change in viscosity can be made zero , the meter can also be
made independent of viscosity . This can be done by making the drag coefficient
constant by appropriate design of the float . Inverted cone shaped floats found to
have reasonably constant . But for wide variation in viscosity , viscous drag over
this float also varies .
The flow rate also dependant on the float and fluid density . If the fluid density
changes from to the reading of volume flow rate changes from as given by :
q '  q [{(   1' ) 1 } /{(  2  1 ) 1' }]

The mass flow rate is given by:

w  q1  Kh {(  2  1 ) 1 }
w
If the rotameter indication is to be independent of the fluid density , then   0
1

Or  2  2 1
Thus , if the density of the float material is made twice the density of the flowing
liquid , compensation is almost exact at all flows . It is clear that as the fluid
becomes more dense , buoyancy force increases forcing the float up , although ,

16
 w
flow rate may remain the same . It would be observed that , known as the
h
metering ratio R , must be constant , If the density relation is not satisfied , R
changes and the meter reading is in error . However , with a 10% change in
density , change in the metering ratio is only 0.5 % . Selection of dense float
material such as silver , lead or tantalum provides partial compensation .

Viscosity compensation in area flow meters can be provided by suitably shaping

the float . The reason for changes in viscosity effecting the calibration of the area
meter is that the viscous drag acting on the float disturbs the static –equilibrium
position of the float for a given flow rate . The force of viscous drag will naturally
vary with fluid viscosity . If , then , the float can be shaped so as to provide a
constant viscous drag at all flow rates , the operation of the area flow meter is
made independent of viscosity . Fig:- illustrates this effect. With the ordinary
plumb-bob shape float the turbulence and viscous drag are greatly different at
different flow rates. With the inverted cone shaped float the turbulence and
viscous drag are nearly alike at all flow except at extremely small Reynold’s
no.s . Therefore , the upward force of viscous drag is approximately constant ,
and the meter operation is insensitive to viscosity variations . Actually several
patented arrangements of this kind are in common industrial use for
measurement of flow of liquids having variable viscosity.

Advantages:
i) Low and constant pressure loss
ii) Usability for corrosive fluids
iii) Good accuracy at low and medium flow rates
iv) Ruggedness due to use of plastic and metal metering tubes.
v) Possibilities of compensation for fluid density variation and viscosity

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Open channel flow measurement:

Open channel flow measurement is important in hydro-electric power generating

station, municipal waterworks, sewage disposal units , water irrigation projects .
The open channel flow meters are mainly used for measuring flow of water ,
sewage sludge , chemical wastes , and other semi fluids. Weirs are used where
sufficient fall or head can be obtained . Three types of weirs are used in general
as i) rectangular-notch weir ii) V-notch weir and iii) Trapezoidal weir
Rectangular-notch is often employed for measuring large flow rates . Since the
velocity is proportional to depth at the weir,
V  2 gZ , where =velocity at given lamina
=depth from surface to lamina
h
The total flow is the product of velocity times area , thus q  0 2 gZ .bdz
Where q =flow rate
b =width of rectangular notch
h =head over weir crest
Since the actual flow is less than the ideal because of contraction of the jet ,
2
Then q  C r .b 2 gh 3 , where C r = flow co-efficient.
3
The weir has side contraction in that the width of the weir notch b is less than the
channel width.
The V-notch or Thomson weir is used with the apex of the triangle downward and
is generally more useful in measuring small flow rates and where good accuracy
is desired . Its flow relation can be developed as before,
8 
q  C v ( tan ) 2 gh 5 , where C v = flow co-efficient
15 2
In trapezoidal notch or Cipoletti weir , slope of the sides is such as to
1
compensate for side contraction , and the included angle  is made 2 tan ( )
1

4
If side contraction is compensated , then , flow rate :
2
q  Ct b 2 gh 3 , where C t =flow co-efficient
3
If the velocity distribution in the upstream of a weir is not uniform , inaccuracy
would result in measurement . The edge finish should be done on free breaking
consideration of the stream . This requires a square edged type on the upstream
side and a beveled –edge type on the downstream side. The flow coefficients for
three type of weirs are less than unity .

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Positive displacement type flow meter:

Quantity meter:

This type of meter operates by passing the fluid in separate and distinct
increments into different discrete volumes which are then counted to give the
summed flow quantity . Thus quantity of flow is determined simply by totalizing
the no. of increments. There are two basic kinds of quantity meters ; those that
weighs discrete increments of fluid , and those that pass discrete volumes of
fluid.

The volumetric flow rate is given by: q  Qi n , where Qi =fluid volume

increment , n = frequency of passing increments of fluid
The weight flow rate is given by : w  Qi n ,  = density of flowing fluid

The types available are:

a) Nutating disc
b) Sliding vane
c) Lobed impeller
d) Reciprocating piston

a) Nutating disc type :

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In this type water enters the left side of eccentrically mounted disc . The disc
is pivoted at the geometric center and is allowed to nututate in a specially
designed chamber. The vertical shaft of the disc generates a cone with its
apex downward . Thus liquid enters the chamber and by the action of the
differential pressure causes the disc to nututate and the quantity of liquid to
be rolled out through the outlet. Each complete cycle of nutation of the disc
will be counted by the counter mechanism which can be directly calibrated in
terms of the volume of the liquid received or discharged . The effect of density
and viscosity on volume flow measurement is usually small , but not
negligible., because the clearance at the disc is appreciable , and a small
amount of liquid is bypassed .

b) Sliding vane type:

Here a drum rotates eccentrically inside the meter casing . As the drum
rotates , the vanes are pushed outward by springs to form separate sealed
chambers. The drum rotates by the action of differential pressure across the
meter and a fixed quantity of liquid is trapped inside each chamber which is
ultimately pushed out through the outlet . Through the shaft of drum , a
counter may be connected and flow quantity registered . The meter is
insensitive to density and viscosity.

c) Lobed impeller type:

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 In this type there are two rotors , each having lobes arranged to mesh very
much like gears . The rotors rotes in a close fitting chamber .The liquid is
trapped in between the two rotors from the inlet and is guided on to the outlet
during their rotation. With a counter fitted to the shaft of any one rotor the flow
can be measured. This type of meters can also be used for gas flow
measurement.

d) Reciprocating piston type:

In this type , two reciprocating piston passes the liquid alternately through
each end of the cylinder from the inlet to the outlet and also the side valve
which controls the inlet and outlet ports and operates the counter. A no. of
pistons operating on a center of crank are generally incorporated in this type .
The crank arm operates rotary valve mechanism , which opens and closes
the inlet and exhaust valves at proper point in the piston stroke. The crank
arm also operates a register for indicating total quantity. For low flow
differential pressure is small , for which large diameter pistons and small
piston strokes are chosen with minimum of friction. The effect of liquid density
and viscosity on accuracy of measurement volume flow rate is negligible .

Solid flow measurement:

The general approach in the measurement of flow of solid materials is to weigh

them directly machine or measure the volume . The direct weighing system
incorporates weighing section in the conveyor system. A typical scheme is
illustrated . Here The dry solid material (e.g. coal , cement , powdered chemicals

21
etc.) are transported from storage bin to remote location and passes over a
conveyor belt . The moving material gives stress on pivoted lever arm supported
by underneath roller of the belt and is transferred to spring loaded balance
beam . .The movement of beam is metered by pointer on graduated scale
calibrated in Kg/Hr . Integrators are used for determining total flow in Kg over the
time of conveying the material . In an alternative scheme , the storage bin is
provided with the weighing system . the stress on the support bearings actually
provides the signal via strain measuring system by a bonded electrical strain
gauge attached to the support bearing

Electromagnetic flow meter

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