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1. OVERVIEW OF MECHATRONICS
Mechatronics is a term originated by the Japanese to describe the integration of mechanical and
electronics engineering. More specifically, it refers to the automation of machines by introducing
computers and other electronic equipment to develop a system which provides new functions and
capabilities with more accuracy and lower cost.
A best and well known example of mechatronics is the industrial robot. In a robot, the body and other
physical parts are manufactured based on mechanical principles, but the functioning and control of the
robot is done by electronic means.
2. The History of Mechatronics

Before the 1970s, most of the industrial products and equipment such as machine tools, manufacturing
equipment, and home appliances were mainly based on mechanical principles with very few electrical and
electronic features. But after the seventies, there was a change in the technology of these products, and the
change was an increasing content of electrical and electronic system integrated with the mechanical parts
of the products.

 The name "mechatronics" was originated in 1969 by senior engineer Tetsura Mori.
 He was working for a Japanese company called Yaskawa Electric Corporation that was famous for
building mechanical factory equipment.
 At that time, Yaskawa Electric Corporation was using some electronic features for manufacturing
mechanical equipment. Mori wanted to introduce a technical term for that new technology, so he
combined the two technical words ‘mechanical’ and ‘electronics’ and created the new word
"Mechatronics."
 In 1970, Yaskawa applied to make this word a registered brand and got the rights in 1973. But, at that
time this term didn’t gain much popularity. After the 1980s, the term started gaining popularity
because of its useful features.
 Earlier, this term was based on only some electrical and electronic computers, but after the 1980s, the
use of computer technology was integrated. The controlling and functioning of machines became
much easier by use computer hardware and software. This allowed the start of manufacturing of a
variety of products of any size with very high accuracy and comparatively low cost.
 Mechatronics, although still a new term as compared to other well established branches of
engineering, now seems to be firmly established. Now, individuals and industries around the world use
the term freely.
 At the research and development level, mechatronics is classified into ten technical areas: Motion
Control, Robotics, Automotive Systems, Intelligent Control, Actuators and Sensors, Modeling and
Design, System Integration, Manufacturing, Micro Devices and Optoelectronics, and Vibration and
Noise control.

Now the application area of mechatronics is extremely broad. This technology is firmly used in the
automation of machines, servo-mechanics, industrial goods, biomedical systems, energy and power
systems, vehicular systems, data communication systems, computer aided design, CNC and DNC systems,
etc. Robotics is directly dependent upon this technique. There are uncountable examples where this
technology is used. But proper application, utilization, and maintenance of these high technology products
and systems are also some important characteristics because these factors are responsible for the
enhancement of productivity and the quality of the product and system.
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Obviously, the design of future products will involve a combination of precision mechanical and
electronic systems, and mechatronics will be the basis for all activities in products and production
technology.

3. DEFINITION:- Mechatronics is an interdisciplinary area of engineering that combines

mechanical and electrical engineering and computer science. A typical mechatronic system picks up
signals from the environment, processes them to generate output signals, transforming them for example
into forces, motions and actions.

It is the extension and the completion of mechanical systems with sensors and microcomputers which is
the most important aspect. The fact that such a system picks up changes in its environment by sensors, and
reacts to their signals using the appropriate information processing, makes it different from conventional
machines.

Examples of mechatronic systems are robots, digitally controlled combustion engines, machine tools with
self-adaptive tools, contact-free magnetic bearings, automated guided vehicles, etc. Typical for such a
product is the high amount of system knowledge and software that is necessary for its design.
Furthermore, and this is most essential, software has become an integral part of the product itself,
necessary for its function and operation. It is fully justified to say software has become an actual "machine
element".
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4. Functions of Mechatronics Systems

We have already learnt that the conception of mechatronics arises from the integration of knowledge from
different areas of physics and technical disciplines. The purpose of mechatronics is to use this integration
in order to achieve a synergic effect, i.e. to obtain a product with highest possible technical and
economical parameters. In this light, mechatronics can be considered as a new and innovative technology
that can be divided into several areas:

4.1 Design:- Here we deal with searching for and mastering of appropriate level of abstract tools and their
interconnection with other levels of abstract tools, whereas these tools have to be able to appropriately
conceive the tasks from mechanics, electrical engineering, electronics, control and data processing,

4.2 Production:- Here we deal with evaluation of product design in terms of its manufacturability under
the respective conditions, namely with respect to mechanical and electrical components,

4.3 Quality and reliability:- Here we deal with development of methods and tools to ensure the quality
and to predict reliability and implementation of these methods and tools into the process of product
designing,

4.4 Education:- Here we deal with breaking through the barriers between a traditional conception of
mechanical engineering and electrical engineering and a control including computer sciences. This area
should be developed within the respective enterprises and also between the enterprises, and last but not
least also in secondary and tertiary education.

For example:-

 Motor vehicles engineering: Window lifters, traction performance control, keyless start up, automatic
air-conditioning control, engine control, seat adjustment, component function control through data bus.
 Mechanical engineering:- Image processing system for automatic positioning, manipulators, robots.
 Consumer electronics:- CD players (laser and accurate mechanic), digital cameras.

Functional integration of mechanical and electrical/electronic components is done by its connection

through material, energy and informational flow. The components can be separated from each other in this
case.

5. Mechatronics Systems Engineering:-With each new, innovative development, the inner

workings of modern products increase in complexity. Not only that, but as products evolve, research and
development efforts for the subsequent generation of products also grows more and more complex. In
order to keep up with this cycle, engineering teams are beginning to replace or supplement conventional
mechanical approaches to problem solving with newer electronic and software-based approaches, creating
a new integral, multidisciplinary design process referred to as mechatronics. This complex intermeshing
of disciplines requires profound technical expertise as well as finely-tuned soft skills in order to
effectively work in the diverse teams of experts it usually involves.
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6. Verification Vs Validation in mechatronics system:-

7. Kirchhoffs Circuit Law

Kirchhoffs Circuit Laws allow us to solve complex circuit problems by defining a set of basic network
laws and theorems for the voltages and currents around a circuit
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We saw in the Resistors tutorial that a single equivalent resistance, ( RT ) can be found when two or more
resistors are connected together in either series, parallel or combinations of both, and that these circuits
obey Ohm’s Law.

However, sometimes in complex circuits such as bridge or T networks, we can not simply use Ohm’s Law
alone to find the voltages or currents circulating within the circuit. For these types of calculations we need
certain rules which allow us to obtain the circuit equations and for this we can use Kirchhoffs Circuit
Law. In 1845, a German physicist, Gustav Kirchhoff developed a pair or set of rules or laws which deal
with the conservation of current and energy within electrical circuits. These two rules are commonly
known as: Kirchhoffs Circuit Laws with one of Kirchhoffs laws dealing with the current flowing around a
closed circuit, Kirchhoffs Current Law, (KCL)while the other law deals with the voltage sources
present in a closed circuit, Kirchhoffs Voltage Law, (KVL).

7.1. Krchhoffs First Law – The Current Law, (KCL)

Kirchhoffs Current Law or KCL, states that the “total current or charge entering a junction or node is
exactly equal to the charge leaving the node as it has no other place to go except to leave, as no charge is
lost within the node“. In other words the algebraic sum of ALL the currents entering and leaving a node
must be equal to zero, I(exiting) + I(entering) = 0. This idea by Kirchhoff is commonly known as the
Conservation of Charge.

Here, the three currents entering the node, I1, I2, I3 are all positive in value and the two currents leaving the
node, I4 and I5 are negative in value. Then this means we can also rewrite the equation as;
I1 + I2 + I3 – I4 – I5 = 0
The term Node in an electrical circuit generally refers to a connection or junction of two or more current
carrying paths or elements such as cables and components. Also for current to flow either in or out of a
node a closed circuit path must exist. We can use Kirchhoff’s current law when analysing parallel circuits.

7.2. Kirchhoffs Second Law – The Voltage Law, (KVL)

Kirchhoffs Voltage Law or KVL, states that “in any closed loop network, the total voltage around the
loop is equal to the sum of all the voltage drops within the same loop” which is also equal to zero. In other
words the algebraic sum of all voltages within the loop must be equal to zero. This idea by Kirchhoff is
known as the Conservation of Energy.
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Starting at any point in the loop continue in the same direction noting the direction of all the voltage
drops, either positive or negative, and returning back to the same starting point. It is important to maintain
the same direction either clockwise or anti-clockwise or the final voltage sum will not be equal to zero.
We can use Kirchhoff’s voltage law when analysing series circuits.
When analysing either DC circuits or AC circuits using Kirchhoffs Circuit Laws a number of definitions
and terminologies are used to describe the parts of the circuit being analysed such as: node, paths,
branches, loops and meshes. These terms are used frequently in circuit analysis so it is important to
understand them.

7.3. Common DC Circuit Theory Terms:

 Circuit – a circuit is a closed loop conducting path in which an electrical current flows.
 Path – a single line of connecting elements or sources.
 Node – a node is a junction, connection or terminal within a circuit were two or more circuit
elements are connected or joined together giving a connection point between two or more branches.
A node is indicated by a dot.
 Branch – a branch is a single or group of components such as resistors or a source which are
connected between two nodes.
 Loop – a loop is a simple closed path in a circuit in which no circuit element or node is encountered
more than once.
 Mesh – a mesh is a single open loop that does not have a closed path. There are no components
inside a mesh.

7.4. Application of Kirchhoffs Circuit Laws

These two laws enable the Currents and Voltages in a circuit to be found, ie, the circuit is said to be
“Analysed”, and the basic procedure for using Kirchhoff’s Circuit Laws is as follows:
 1. Assume all voltages and resistances are given. ( If not label them V1, V2,… R1, R2,etc. )
 2. Label each branch with a branch current. ( I1, I2, I3 etc. )
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 3. Find Kirchhoff’s first law equations for each node.

 4. Find Kirchhoff’s second law equations for each of the independent loops of the circuit.
 5. Use Linear simultaneous equations as required to find the unknown currents.

8. NETWORK THEOREMS AND AC CIRCUIT ANALYSIS:-

8.1. What are the application of network theorem in AC circuit?
When two or more sources are present in a network and they are connected in such a way that they are not
mutually in series or in parallel, special network solution methods like mesh analysis or nodal
analysis must be employed. The application of these two techniques being described earlier for d.c.
networks, they are well applied in a.c. network analysis too. The difference is that in a.c. application
the complex numbers (i.e., impedances) are used as the coefficient of the equations (instead of real
numbers i.e., resistances as done in d.c. applications) and the variable (like current and voltages) have
phasors instead of scalar voltage or currents.
In addition to application of mesh or nodal analysis in a.c. networks, application of network theorems
like Thevenin’s theorem, Norton theorem etc., are listed in this website. Since the discussion of theoretical
aspects have been well covered in the dc, applications, hence in theoretical discussions regarding these
theorems here, only the variations required in a.c. application are considered.

8.2. NETWORK THEOREM ANALYSIS

Electric circuit theorems are always beneficial to help find voltage and currents in multi loop circuits.
These theorems use fundamental rules or formulas and basic equations of mathematics to analyze basic
components of electrical or electronicsparameters such as voltages, currents, resistance, and so on. These
fundamental theorems include the basic theorems like Superposition theorem, Tellegen’s theorem,
Norton’s theorem, Maximum power transfer theorem and Thevenin’s theorems.
Other group of network theorems which are mostly used in the circuit analysis process includes
Compensation theorem, Substitution theorem, Reciprocity theorem, Millman’s theorem and Miller’s
theorem.
8.2.1. All these theorems are briefly discussed below.
1. Super Position Theorem:- The Super position theorem is a way to determine the currents and
voltages present in a circuit that has multiple sources (considering one source at a time). The super
position theorem states that in a linear network having a number of voltage or current sources and
resistances, the current through any branch of the network is the algebraic sum of the currents due to
each of the sources when acting independently.
Super position theorem is used only in linear networks. This theorem is used in both AC and DC circuits
wherein it helps to construct Thevenin and Norton equivalent circuit.
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Super Position Theorem

In the above figure, the circuit with two voltage sources is divided into two individual circuits according
to this theorem’s statement. The individual circuits here make the whole circuit look simpler in easier
ways. And, by combining these two circuits again after individual simplification, one can easily find
parameters like voltage drop at each resistance, node voltages, currents, etc.
2. Thevenin’s Theorem:- Statement: A linear network consisting of a number of voltage sources
and resistances can be replaced by an equivalent network having a single voltage source called Thevenin’s
voltage (Vthv) and a single resistance called (Rthv).

Thevenin’s Theorem
The above figure explains how this theorem is applicable for circuit analysis. Thevinens voltage is
calculated by the given formula between the terminals A and B by breaking the loop at the terminals A
and B. Also, Thevinens resistance or equivalent resistance is calculated by shorting voltage sources and
open circuiting current sources as shown in the figure.
This theorem can be applied to both linear and bilateral networks. It is mainly used for measuring the
resistance with a Wheatstone bridge.
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3. Norton’s Theorem:- This theorem states that any linear circuit containing several energy sources
and resistances can be replaced by a single constant current generator in parallel with a single resistor.

Norton’s Theorem
This is also same as that of the Thevinens theorem, in which we find Thevinens equivalent voltage and
resistance values, but here current equivalent values are determined. The process of finding these values is
shown as given in the example within the above figure.
4. Maximum Power Transfer Theorem:- This theorem explains the condition for the maximum
power transfer to load under various circuit conditions. The theorem states that the power transfer by a
source to a load is maximum in a network when the load resistance is equal to the internal resistance of the
source. For AC circuits load impedance should match with the source impedance for maximum power
transfer even if the load is operating at different power factor.

Maximum Power Transfer Theorem

For instance, the above figure depicts a circuit diagram wherein a circuit is simplified up to a level of
source with internal resistance using Thevinens theorem. The power transfer will be maximum when this
Thevinens resistance is equal to the load resistance. The Practical application of this theorem includes an
audio system wherein the resistance of the speaker must be matched to the audio power amplifier to obtain
a maximum output.
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5. Reciprocity Theorem:- Reciprocity theorem helps to find the other corresponding solution even
without further work, once the circuit is analyzed for one solution. The theorem states that in a linear
passive bilateral network, the excitation source and its corresponding response can be interchanged.

Reciprocity Theorem
In the above figure, the current in R3 branch is I3 with a single source Vs. If this source is replaced to the
R3 branch and shorting the source at the original location, then the current flowing from the original
location I1is same as that of I3. This is how we can find corresponding solutions for the circuit once the
circuit is analyzed with one solution.
6. Compensation Theorem

Compensation Theorem
In any bilateral active network, if the amount of impedance is changed from the original value to some
other value carrying a current of I, then the resulting changes that occurs in other branches are same as
those that would have been caused by the injection voltage source in the modified branch with a negative
sign, i.e., minus of voltage current and changed impedance product. The four figures given above show
how this compensation theorem is applicable in analyzing the circuits.
7. Millman’s Theorem

Millman’s Theorem
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This theorem states that when any number of voltage sources with finite internal resistance is operating in
parallel can be replaced with a single voltage source with series equivalent impedance. The Equivalent
voltage for these parallel sources with internal sources in Millmans theorem is calculated by the below
given formula, which is shown in the above figure.
8. Tellegen’s theorem

Tellegen’s Theorem
This theorem is applicable for circuits with a liner or nonlinear, passive or active and hysteric or non-
hysteric networks. It states that summation of instantaneous power in circuit with n number of branches is
zero.
9. Substitution Theorem
This theorem states that any branch in a network can be substituted by a different branch without
disturbing the currents and voltages in the whole network provided the new branch has the same set of
terminal voltages and current as the original branch. Substitution theorem can be used in both linear and
nonlinear circuits.
10. Miller’s Theorem

Miller’s Theorem
This theorem states that, in a linear circuit if a branch exists with impedance Z connected between two
nodes with nodal voltages, this branch can be replaced by two branches connecting the corresponding
nodes to the ground by two impedances. The application of this theorem is not only an effective tool for
creating equivalent circuit, but also a tool for designing modified additional electronic circuits by
impedance.
These are all basic network theorems used widely in the electrical or electronic circuit analysis. We hope
that you might have got some basic idea about all these theorems.
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8.3. Nodal Analysis

Node voltage analysis of a.c. networks is identical to that of d.c. networks. In the frequency domain
network having n-principle nodes, one of them is designated as the reference node and we require (n-1)
node voltage equations to solve for the desired result. Regarding sign convention of nodal currents, we
take the currents entering the nodes as -Ve while the currents leaving the nodes are +Ve.

8.4.Independent and Dependent Sources

The term independent indicates that the magnitude of the source is independent of the network to which it
is applied and that is exhibits its terminal characteristics even if completely isolated.

A dependent or controlled source is that whose magnitude is governed by a current or voltage of the
system in which it is situated.

The diagrammatic representation of the dependent sources is similar to that we have shown in analyzing
the d.c. network.

9. Definition of Transformer
A transformer is a static machine used for transforming power from one circuit to another without
changing frequency. This is a very basic definition of transformer. Since, there is no rotating or moving
part, so a transformer is a static device. Transformer operates on an ac supply. A transformer works on the
principle of mutual induction.
A transformer is a passive electrical device that transfers electrical energy between two or more circuits.
A varying current in one coil of the transformer produces a varying magnetic flux, which, in turn, induces
a varying electromotive force across a second coil wound around the same core. Electrical energy can be
transferred between the two coils, without a metallic connection between the two circuits. Faraday's law of
induction
9.1. Use of Power Transformer
Generation of electrical power in low voltage level is very much cost effective. Theoretically, this low
voltage level power can be transmitted to the receiving end. This low voltage power if transmitted results
in greater line current which indeed causes more line losses. But if the voltage level of a power is
increased, the current of the power is reduced which causes reduction in ohmic or I2R losses in the system,
reduction in cross-sectional area of the conductor i.e. reduction in capital cost of the system and it also
improves the voltage regulation of the system. Because of these, low level power must be stepped up for
efficient electrical power transmission. This is done by step up transformer at the sending side of the
power system network. As this high voltage power may not be distributed to the consumers directly, this
must be stepped down to the desired level at the receiving end with the help of step down transformer.
Electrical power transformer thus plays a vital role in power transmission.
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Two winding transformers are generally used where ratio of high voltage and low voltage is greater than
2. It is cost effective to use auto transformer where the ratio between high voltage and low voltage is less
than 2. Again a single unit three phase transformer is more cost effective than a bank of three single phase
transformers unit in a three phase system. But a single three phase transformer unit is a bit difficult to
transport and have to be removed from service entirely if one of the phase winding breaks down.

9.2. Types of Transformer

Transformers can be categorized in different ways, depending upon their purpose, use, construction etc.
The types of transformer are as follows,
1. Step Up Transformer and Step Down Transformer – Generally used for stepping up and down the
voltage level of power in transmission and distribution power system network.
2. Three Phase Transformer and Single Phase Transformer – Former is generally used in three phase
power system as it is cost effective than later. But when size matters, it is preferable to use a bank
of three single phase transformer as it is easier to transport than one single three phase transformer
unit.

3. Electrical Power Transformer, Distribution Transformer and Instrument Transformer– Power

transformers are generally used in transmission network for stepping up or down the voltage level.
It operates mainly during high or peak loads and has maximum efficiency at or near full
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load. Distribution transformer steps down the voltage for distribution purpose to domestic or
commercial users. It has good voltage regulation and operates 24 hrs a day with maximum
efficiency at 50% of full load. Instrument transformers include C.T and P.T which are used to
reduce high voltages and current to lesser values which can be measured by conventional
instruments.
4. Two Winding Transformer and Auto Transformer – Former is generally used where ratio between
high voltage and low voltage is greater than 2. It is cost effective to use later where the ratio
between high voltage and low voltage is less than 2.
5. Outdoor Transformer and Indoor Transformer – Transformers that are designed for installing at
outdoor are outdoor transformers and transformers designed for installing at indoor are indoor
transformers.
6. Oil Cooled and Dry Type Transformer – In oil cooled transformer the cooling medium is
transformer oil whereas the dry type transformer is air cooled.
7. Core type, Shell type and Berry type transformer – In core type transformer it has two vertical legs
or limbs with two horizontal sections named yoke. Core is rectangular in shape with a common
magnetic circuit. Cylindrical coils (HV and LV) are placed on both the limbs.
Shell type transformer: It has a central limb and two outer limbs. Both HV, LV coils are placed on
the central limb. The double magnetic circuit is present.
Berry type transformer: The core looks like spokes of wheels. Tightly fitted metal sheet tanks are
used for housing this type of transformer with transformer oil filled inside.

10. Analog device is usually a combination of both analog machine and analog media that can
together measure, record, reproduce, or broadcast continuous information, for example, the almost infinite
number of grades of transparency, voltage, resistance, rotation, or pressure. In theory, the continuous
information (also analog signal) has an infinite number of possible values with the only limitation
on resolution being the accuracy of the analog device.

The analog nature of electronic signals is of importance as the real world is analog, and because in modern
microchips even digital circuits exhibit analog behaviour. Examples of engineering problems in analog
electronics are: how to efficiently represent an analog signal such as an image recorded by a digital
camera in a digital format so that it can be stored in a digital memory or processed by a microprocessor;
how to send large amounts of information such as high-definition video data from one microchip to
another quickly; how to send data such as a text message to a cell phone wirelessly in the presence of
interference; and how to design a pacemaker or neural implant to function inside a human body.

Career choices are abundant with locations around the world. Commonly advertised positions include:
electronic engineer, circuit design engineer and analog/mixed-signal integrated circuit design engineer.
Some major employers are: Intel, AMD, Analog Devices, Micron, and National Semiconductor.

10.1.1. Non-electrical
There are notable non-electrical analog devices, such as clocks (sundials, water clocks, pendulum clocks,
analog watches), the astrolabe, slide rules, the governor of a steam engine, the planimeter (a simple device
that measures the area of a closed shape), Kelvin's mechanical tide predictor, acoustic rangefinders,
servomechanisms (e.g. the thermostat), a simple mercury thermometer, a bathroom scale, and the
speedometer
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10.1.2. Electrical
The telautograph is an analogue precursor to the modern fax machine. It transmits electrical impulses
recorded by potentiometers to stepping motors attached to a pen, thus being able to reproduce a drawing
or signature made by the sender at the receiver's station. It was the first such device to transmit drawings
to a stationary sheet of paper; previous inventions in Europe used rotating drums to make such
transmissions.
An analog synthesizer is a synthesizer that uses analog circuits and analog computer techniques to
generate sound electronically.
The analog television encodes television and transports the picture and sound information as an analogue
signal, that is, by varying the amplitude and/or frequencies of the broadcast signal. All systems preceding
digital television, such as NTSC, PAL or UNIT are analog television systems.
An analog computer is a form of computer that uses electrical, mechanical or hydraulic phenomena to
model the problem being solved. More generally an analog computer uses one kind of physical quantity to
represent the behaviour of another physical system, or mathematical function. Modeling a real physical
system in a computer is called simulation.

11. SIGNAL CONDITIONING:- In electronics, signal conditioning is the manipulation of

an analog signal in such a way that it meets the requirements of the next stage for further processing.
In an analog-to-digital converter application, signal conditioning includes voltage or current limiting
and anti-aliasing filtering.
In control engineering applications, it is common to have a sensing stage (which consists of a sensor), a
signal conditioning stage (where usually amplification of the signal is done) and a processing stage
(normally carried out by an ADC and a micro-controller). Operational amplifiers (op-amps) are commonly
employed to carry out the amplification of the signal in the signal conditioning stage. In some transducers
this feature will come inherent for eg in hall effect sensors.
In power electronics, before processing the input sensed signals by sensors like voltage sensor and current
sensor, signal conditioning scales signals to level acceptable to the microprocessor.

11.1. Inputs
Signal inputs accepted by signal conditioners include DC voltage and current, AC voltage and
current, frequency and electric charge. Sensor inputs can
be accelerometer, thermocouple, thermistor, resistance thermometer, strain gauge or bridge,
and LVDT or RVDT. Specialized inputs include encoder, counter or tachometer, timer or clock, relay or
switch, and other specialized inputs. Outputs for signal conditioning equipment can be voltage, current,
frequency, timer or counter, relay, resistance or potentiometer, and other specialized outputs.

11.2. Processes
Signal conditioning can include amplification, filtering, converting, range matching, isolation and any
other processes required to make sensor output suitable for processing after conditioning.
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11.3. Filtering
Filtering is the most common signal conditioning function, as usually not all the signal frequency
spectrum contains valid data. The common example is 50/60 Hz AC power lines, present in most
environments, which cause noise if amplified.
11.4. Amplification
Signal amplification performs two important functions: increases the resolution of the input signal, and
increases its signal-to-noise ratio.[citation needed] For example, the output of an electronic temperature sensor,
which is probably in the millivolts range is probably too low for an analog-to-digital converter (ADC) to
process directly.[citation needed] In this case it is necessary to bring the voltage level up to that required by
the ADC.
Commonly used amplifiers used for signal conditioning include sample and hold amplifiers, peak
detectors, log amplifiers, antilog amplifiers, instrumentation amplifiers and programmable gain
amplifiers.[1]
11.5. Attenuation
Attenuation, the opposite of amplification, is necessary when voltages to be digitized are beyond the ADC
range. This form of signal conditioning decreases the input signal amplitude so that the conditioned signal
is within ADC range. Attenuation is typically necessary when measuring voltages that are more than 10 V.
11.6. Excitation
External power is required for the operation of an active sensor. (E.g. a temperature sensor like a
thermistor & RTD, a pressure sensor(piezo-resistive and capacitive), etc.). The stability and precision of
the excitation signal directly relates to the sensor accuracy and stability.
11.7. Linearization
Linearization is necessary when sensors produce voltage signals that are not linearly related to the
physical measurement. Linearization is the process of interpreting the signal from the sensor and can be
done either with signal conditioning or through software.
11.8. Electrical Isolation
Signal isolation may be used to pass the signal from the source to the measuring device without a physical
connection. It is often used to isolate possible sources of signal perturbations that could otherwise follow
the electrical path from the sensor to the processing circuitry. In some situations, it may be important to
isolate the potentially expensive equipment used to process the signal after conditioning from the sensor.
Magnetic or optical isolation can be used. Magnetic isolation transforms the signal from a voltage to a
magnetic field so the signal can be transmitted without physical connection (for example, using a
transformer). Optical isolation works by using an electronic signal to modulate a signal encoded by light
transmission (optical encoding). The decoded light transmission is then used for input for the next stage of
processing.
11.9. Surge protection
A surge protector absorbs voltage spikes to protect the next stage from damage.
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12. Digital electronics, digital technology or digital (electronic)

circuits are electronics that operate on digital signals. In contrast, analog circuits manipulate analog
signals whose performance is more subject to manufacturing tolerance, signal attenuation and noise.
Digital techniques are helpful because it is a lot easier to get an electronic device to switch into one of a
number of known states than to accurately reproduce a continuous range of values.
Digital electronic circuits are usually made from large assemblies of logic gates (often printed
on integrated circuits), simple electronic representations of Boolean logic functions.[1]

12.1 Properties
An advantage of digital circuits when compared to analog circuits is that signals represented digitally can
be transmitted without degradation caused by noise.[23] For example, a continuous audio signal transmitted
as a sequence of 1s and 0s, can be reconstructed without error, provided the noise picked up in
transmission is not enough to prevent identification of the 1s and 0s.
In a digital system, a more precise representation of a signal can be obtained by using more binary digits
to represent it. While this requires more digital circuits to process the signals, each digit is handled by the
same kind of hardware, resulting in an easily scalable system. In an analog system, additional resolution
requires fundamental improvements in the linearity and noise characteristics of each step of the signal
chain.
With computer-controlled digital systems, new functions to be added through software revision and no
hardware changes. Often this can be done outside of the factory by updating the product's software. So,
the product's design errors can be corrected after the product is in a customer's hands.
Information storage can be easier in digital systems than in analog ones. The noise immunity of digital
systems permits data to be stored and retrieved without degradation. In an analog system, noise from
aging and wear degrade the information stored. In a digital system, as long as the total noise is below a
certain level, the information can be recovered perfectly. Even when more significant noise is present, the
use of redundancy permits the recovery of the original data provided too many errors do not occur.
In some cases, digital circuits use more energy than analog circuits to accomplish the same tasks, thus
producing more heat which increases the complexity of the circuits such as the inclusion of heat sinks. In
portable or battery-powered systems this can limit use of digital systems. For example, battery-powered
cellular telephones often use a low-power analog front-end to amplify and tune in the radio signals from
the base station. However, a base station has grid power and can use power-hungry, but very
flexible software radios. Such base stations can be easily reprogrammed to process the signals used in new
cellular standards.
Many useful digital systems must translate from continuous analog signals to discrete digital signals. This
causes quantization errors. Quantization error can be reduced if the system stores enough digital data to
represent the signal to the desired degree of fidelity. The Nyquist-Shannon sampling theorem provides an
important guideline as to how much digital data is needed to accurately portray a given analog signal.
In some systems, if a single piece of digital data is lost or misinterpreted, the meaning of large blocks of
related data can completely change. For example, a single-bit error in audio data stored directly as linear
pulse code modulation causes, at worst, a single click. Instead, many people use audio compression to
save storage space and download time, even though a single bit error may cause a larger disruption.
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Because of the cliff effect, it can be difficult for users to tell if a particular system is right on the edge of
failure, or if it can tolerate much more noise before failing. Digital fragility can be reduced by designing a
digital system for robustness. For example, a parity bit or other error management method can be inserted
into the signal path. These schemes help the system detect errors, and then either correct the errors, or
request retransmission of the data.
12.2. Construction
A binary clock, hand-wired on breadboards
A digital circuit is typically constructed from small electronic circuits called logic gates that can be used to
create combinational logic. Each logic gate is designed to perform a function of boolean logic when acting
on logic signals. A logic gate is generally created from one or more electrically controlled switches,
usually transistors but thermionic valves have seen historic use. The output of a logic gate can, in turn,
control or feed into more logic gates.
Another form of digital circuit is constructed from lookup tables, (many sold as "programmable logic
devices", though other kinds of PLDs exist). Lookup tables can perform the same functions as machines
based on logic gates, but can be easily reprogrammed without changing the wiring. This means that a
designer can often repair design errors without changing the arrangement of wires. Therefore, in small
volume products, programmable logic devices are often the preferred solution. They are usually designed
by engineers using electronic design automation software.
Integrated circuits consist of multiple transistors on one silicon chip, and are the least expensive way to
make large number of interconnected logic gates. Integrated circuits are usually interconnected on
a printed circuit board which is a board which holds electrical components, and connects them together
with copper traces.

12.3 Design
Engineers use many methods to minimize logic functions, in order to reduce the circuit's complexity.
When the complexity is less, the circuit also has fewer errors and less electronics, and is therefore less
expensive.
The most widely used simplification is a minimization algorithm like the Espresso heuristic logic
minimizer[needs update] within a CAD system, although historically, binary decision diagrams, an
automated Quine–McCluskey algorithm, truth tables, Karnaugh maps, and Boolean algebra have been
used.
When the volumes are medium to large, and the logic can be slow, or involves complex algorithms or
sequences, often a small microcontroller is programmed to make an embedded system. These are usually
programmed by software engineers.
When only one digital circuit is needed, and its design is totally customized, as for a factory production
line controller, the conventional solution is a programmable logic controller, or PLC. These are usually
programmed by electricians, using ladder logic.
12.3 Representation
Representations are crucial to an engineer's design of digital circuits. Some analysis methods only work
with particular representations.
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The classical way to represent a digital circuit is with an equivalent set of logic gates. Each logic symbol
is represented by a different shape. The actual set of shapes was introduced in 1984 under IEEE/ANSI
standard 91-1984. "The logic symbol given under this standard are being increasingly used now and have
even started appearing in the literature published by manufacturers of digital integrated circuits."[24]
Another way, often with the least electronics, is to construct an equivalent system of electronic switches
(usually transistors). One of the easiest ways is to simply have a memory containing a truth table. The
inputs are fed into the address of the memory, and the data outputs of the memory become the outputs.
For automated analysis, these representations have digital file formats that can be processed by computer
programs. Most digital engineers are very careful to select computer programs ("tools") with compatible
file formats.
12.4 Combinational vs. Sequential
To choose representations, engineers consider types of digital systems. Most digital systems divide into
"combinational systems" and "sequential systems." A combinational system always presents the same
output when given the same inputs. It is basically a representation of a set of logic functions, as already
discussed.
A sequential system is a combinational system with some of the outputs fed back as inputs. This makes
the digital machine perform a "sequence" of operations. The simplest sequential system is probably a flip
flop, a mechanism that represents a binary digit or "bit".
Sequential systems are often designed as state machines. In this way, engineers can design a system's
gross behavior, and even test it in a simulation, without considering all the details of the logic functions.
Sequential systems divide into two further subcategories. "Synchronous" sequential systems change state
all at once, when a "clock" signal changes state. "Asynchronous" sequential systems propagate changes
whenever inputs change. Synchronous sequential systems are made of well-characterized asynchronous
circuits such as flip-flops, that change only when the clock changes, and which have carefully designed
timing margins.
12.5 Synchronous systems

A 4-bit ring counter using D-type flip flops is an example of synchronous logic. Each device is connected
to the clock signal, and update together.
Main article: synchronous logic
The usual way to implement a synchronous sequential state machine is to divide it into a piece of
combinational logic and a set of flip flops called a "state register." Each time a clock signal ticks, the state
register captures the feedback generated from the previous state of the combinational logic, and feeds it
back as an unchanging input to the combinational part of the state machine. The fastest rate of the clock is
set by the most time-consuming logic calculation in the combinational logic.
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The state register is just a representation of a binary number. If the states in the state machine are
numbered (easy to arrange), the logic function is some combinational logic that produces the number of
the next state.
12.6 Asynchronous system
As of 2014, most digital logic is synchronous because it is easier to create and verify a synchronous
design. However, asynchronous logic is thought can be superior because its speed is not constrained by an
arbitrary clock; instead, it runs at the maximum speed of its logic gates. Building an asynchronous system
using faster parts makes the circuit faster.
Nevertherless, most systems need circuits that allow external unsynchronized signals to enter synchronous
logic circuits. These are inherently asynchronous in their design and must be analyzed as such. Examples
of widely used asynchronous circuits include synchronizer flip-flops, switch debouncers and arbiters.
Asynchronous logic components can be hard to design because all possible states, in all possible timings
must be considered. The usual method is to construct a table of the minimum and maximum time that each
such state can exist, and then adjust the circuit to minimize the number of such states. Then the designer
must force the circuit to periodically wait for all of its parts to enter a compatible state (this is called "self-
resynchronization"). Without such careful design, it is easy to accidentally produce asynchronous logic
that is "unstable," that is, real electronics will have unpredictable results because of the cumulative delays
caused by small variations in the values of the electronic components.
12.7 Register transfer systems

Example of a simple circuit with a toggling output. The inverter forms the combinational logic in this
circuit, and the register holds the state.
Many digital systems are data flow machines. These are usually designed using synchronous register
transfer logic, using hardware description languages such as VHDL or Verilog.
In register transfer logic, binary numbers are stored in groups of flip flops called registers. The outputs of
each register are a bundle of wires called a "bus" that carries that number to other calculations. A
calculation is simply a piece of combinational logic. Each calculation also has an output bus, and these
may be connected to the inputs of several registers. Sometimes a register will have a multiplexer on its
input, so that it can store a number from any one of several buses. Alternatively, the outputs of several
items may be connected to a bus through buffers that can turn off the output of all of the devices except
one. A sequential state machine controls when each register accepts new data from its input.
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Asynchronous register-transfer systems (such as computers) have a general solution. In the 1980s, some
researchers discovered that almost all synchronous register-transfer machines could be converted to
asynchronous designs by using first-in-first-out synchronization logic. In this scheme, the digital machine
is characterized as a set of data flows. In each step of the flow, an asynchronous "synchronization circuit"
determines when the outputs of that step are valid, and presents a signal that says, "grab the data" to the
stages that use that stage's inputs. It turns out that just a few relatively simple synchronization circuits are
needed.
12.8 Computer design

Intel 80486DX2 microprocessor

The most general-purpose register-transfer logic machine is a computer. This is basically
an automatic binary abacus. The control unit of a computer is usually designed as a microprogram run by
a microsequencer. A microprogram is much like a player-piano roll. Each table entry or "word" of the
microprogram commands the state of every bit that controls the computer. The sequencer then counts, and
the count addresses the memory or combinational logic machine that contains the microprogram. The bits
from the microprogram control the arithmetic logic unit, memory and other parts of the computer,
including the microsequencer itself. A "specialized computer" is usually a conventional computer with
special-purpose control logic or microprogram.
In this way, the complex task of designing the controls of a computer is reduced to a simpler task of
programming a collection of much simpler logic machines.
Almost all computers are synchronous. However, true asynchronous computers have also been designed.
One example is the Aspida DLXcore.[25] Another was offered by ARM Holdings. Speed advantages have
not materialized, because modern computer designs already run at the speed of their slowest component,
usually memory. These do use somewhat less power because a clock distribution network is not needed.
An unexpected advantage is that asynchronous computers do not produce spectrally-pure radio noise, so
they are used in some mobile-phone base-station controllers. They may be more secure in cryptographic
applications because their electrical and radio emissions can be more difficult to decode.[26]
12.9 Computer architecture
Computer architecture is a specialized engineering activity that tries to arrange the registers, calculation
logic, buses and other parts of the computer in the best way for some purpose. Computer architects have
applied large amounts of ingenuity to computer design to reduce the cost and increase the speed and
immunity to programming errors of computers. An increasingly common goal is to reduce the power used
in a battery-powered computer system, such as a cell-phone. Many computer architects serve an extended
apprenticeship as microprogrammers.
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12.10. Design issues in digital circuits:- Digital circuits are made from analog components. The design
must assure that the analog nature of the components doesn't dominate the desired digital behavior. Digital
systems must manage noise and timing margins, parasitic inductances and capacitances, and filter power
connections.
Bad designs have intermittent problems such as "glitches", vanishingly fast pulses that may trigger some
logic but not others, "runt pulses" that do not reach valid "threshold" voltages, or unexpected
("undecoded") combinations of logic states.
Additionally, where clocked digital systems interface to analog systems or systems that are driven from a
different clock, the digital system can be subject to metastability where a change to the input violates the
set-up time for a digital input latch. This situation will self-resolve, but will take a random time, and while
it persists can result in invalid signals being propagated within the digital system for a short time.
Since digital circuits are made from analog components, digital circuits calculate more slowly than low-
precision analog circuits that use a similar amount of space and power. However, the digital circuit will
calculate more repeatably, because of its high noise immunity. On the other hand, in the high-precision
domain (for example, where 14 or more bits of precision are needed), analog circuits require much more
power and area than digital equivalents.
13. DATA ACQUISITION SYSTEMS:
Data acquisition (DAQ) is the process of measuring an electrical or physical phenomenon such as voltage,
current, temperature, pressure, or sound with a computer. A DAQ system consists of sensors, DAQ
measurement hardware, and a computer with programmable software. Compared to traditional
measurement systems, PC-based DAQ systems exploit the processing power, productivity, display, and
connectivity capabilities of industry-standard computers providing a more powerful, flexible, and cost-
effective measurement solution.
Data acquisition is the process of sampling signals that measure real world physical conditions and
converting the resulting samples into digital numeric values that can be manipulated by a computer. Data
acquisition systems, abbreviated by the acronyms DAS or DAQ, typically convert analog waveforms into
digital values for processing. The components of data acquisition systems include:

 Sensors, to convert physical parameters to electrical signals.

 Signal conditioning circuitry, to convert sensor signals into a form that can be converted to digital
values.
 Analog-to-digital converters, to convert conditioned sensor signals to digital values.
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Digital Data Acquisition System Block Diagram

Data acquisition applications are usually controlled by software programs developed using various general
purpose programming languages such
as Assembly, BASIC, C, C++, C#, Fortran, Java, LabVIEW, Lisp, Pascal, etc. Stand-alone data
acquisition systems are often called data loggers.
There are also open-source software packages providing all the necessary tools to acquire data from
different hardware equipment. These tools come from the scientific community where complex
experiment requires fast, flexible and adaptable software. Those packages are usually custom fit but more
general DAQ packages like the Maximum Integrated Data Acquisition System can be easily tailored and
is used in several physics experiments worldwide.