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Introduction To Proofs 1

This document is a lecture on proofs from a discrete mathematics course taught by Adnan Aslam on October 1, 2018. It introduces different types of proofs like direct proofs, proofs by contradiction and contraposition. It provides examples of direct proofs proving statements about odd integers. It also explains that indirect proofs like proofs by contraposition are useful when direct proofs fail and includes an example proof by contraposition.

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The Awsomist
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58 views

Introduction To Proofs 1

This document is a lecture on proofs from a discrete mathematics course taught by Adnan Aslam on October 1, 2018. It introduces different types of proofs like direct proofs, proofs by contradiction and contraposition. It provides examples of direct proofs proving statements about odd integers. It also explains that indirect proofs like proofs by contraposition are useful when direct proofs fail and includes an example proof by contraposition.

Uploaded by

The Awsomist
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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Course: Discrete Mathematics

Instructor: Adnan Aslam

October 01, 2018

Adnan Aslam Course: Discrete Mathematics October 01, 2018 1 / 14


Inroduction to proofs

Proof
• A proof is a valid argument that establishes the truth of a
mathematical statement.
• A proof can use the hypotheses of the theorem, if any,
axioms assumed to be true, and previously proven theorems.
• Using these ingredients and rules of inference, the final step
of the proof establishes the truth of the statement being
proved.

Adnan Aslam Course: Discrete Mathematics October 01, 2018 2 / 14


Undestanding How Theorems Are Stated

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Inroduction to proofs

Methods of Proving Theorems


• Proving mathematical theorems can be difficult.
• To construct proofs we need all available ammunition,
including a powerful battery of different proof methods.
These methods provide the overall approach and strategy of
proofs.
• Understanding these methods is a key component of learning
how to read and construct mathematical proofs.
• Once we have chosen a proof method, we use axioms,
definitions of terms, previously proved results, and rules of
inference to complete the proof.

Adnan Aslam Course: Discrete Mathematics October 01, 2018 4 / 14


Methods of Proving Theorems
There are large number of techniques that can be used to prove a wide
variety of theorems, some of these are as follows
(1). Direct Proofs
(1). Proof by Contraposition
(1). Proofs by Contradiction

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Direct Proofs

proofs sometimes require particular insights and can be quite tricky.

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Definition

Example
Give a direct proof of the theorem “If n is an odd integer, then n2 is odd”.

Solution
• Let P(n) : “n is an odd integer”
• and Q(n) : “n2 is an odd integer”
• So the above theorem can be stated as ∀n (P(n) −→ Q(n)).
• We will follow the usual convention in mathematical proofs by
showing that P(n) implies Q(n), and not explicitly using universal
instantiation.
Adnan Aslam Course: Discrete Mathematics October 01, 2018 7 / 14
Solution
• To begin a direct proof of this theorem, we assume that the
hypothesis of this conditional statement is true, namely, we assume
that n is odd.
• By the definition of an odd integer, it follows that n = 2k + 1, where
k is some integer.
• We want to show that n2 is also odd.
• We can square both sides of the equation n = 2k + 1 to obtain a new
equation that expresses n2 .
• When we do this, we find that

n2 = (2k + 1)2 = 4k 2 + 4k + 1 = 2(2k 2 + 2k) + 1.

• By the definition of an odd integer, we can conclude that n2 is an odd


integer (it is one more than twice an integer).
• Consequently, we have proved that if n is an odd integer, then n2 is
an odd integer.
Adnan Aslam Course: Discrete Mathematics October 01, 2018 8 / 14
Example
Give a direct proof that if m and n are both perfect squares, then nm is
also a perfect square. (An integer a is a perfect square if there is an
integer b such that a = b 2 .)

Solution
• To produce a direct proof of this theorem, we assume that the
hypothesis of this conditional statement is true, namely, we assume
that m and n are both perfect squares.
• By the definition of a perfect square, it follows that there are integers
s and t such that m = s 2 and n = t 2 .

Adnan Aslam Course: Discrete Mathematics October 01, 2018 9 / 14


Solution
• The goal of the proof is to show that mn must also be a perfect
square when m and n are;
• looking ahead we see how we can show this by multiplying the two
equations m = s 2 and n = t 2 together.
• This shows that mn = s 2 t 2 , which implies that mn = (st)2 (using
commutativity and associativity of multiplication).
• By the definition of perfect square, it follows that mn is also a perfect
square, because it is the square of st, which is an integer.
• We have proved that if m and n are both perfect squares, then mn is
also a perfect square.

Adnan Aslam Course: Discrete Mathematics October 01, 2018 10 / 14


Indirect Proofs
• Direct proofs lead from the hypothesis of a theorem to the conclusion.
• They begin with the premises, continue with a sequence of
deductions, and end with the conclusion.
• However, we will see that attempts at direct proofs often reach dead
ends.
• We need other methods of proving theorems of the form
∀x(P(x) −→ Q(x)).
• Proofs of theorems of this type that are not direct proofs, that is,
that do not start with the hypothesis and end with the conclusion, are
called indirect proofs.

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Proof by Contraposition
• An extremely useful type of indirect proof is known as proof by
contraposition.
• Proofs by contraposition make use of the fact that the conditional
statement p −→ q is equivalent to its contrapositive, ¬q −→ ¬p.
• This means that the conditional statement p −→ q can be proved by
showing that its contrapositive, ¬q −→ ¬p, is true.
• In a proof by contraposition of p −→ q, we take ¬q as a hypothesis,
and using axioms, definitions, and previously proven theorems,
together with rules of inference, we show that ¬p must follow.

Adnan Aslam Course: Discrete Mathematics October 01, 2018 12 / 14


Example
Prove that if n is an integer and 3n + 2 is odd, then n is odd.

Solution
• We first attempt a direct proof.
• To construct a direct proof, we first assume that 3n + 2 is an odd
integer.
• This means that 3n + 2 = 2k + 1 for some integer k.
• Can we use this fact to show that n is odd?
• We see that 3n + 1 = 2k, but there does not seem to be any direct
way to conclude that n is odd.
• Because our attempt at a direct proof failed, we next try a proof by
contraposition.

Adnan Aslam Course: Discrete Mathematics October 01, 2018 13 / 14


Solution
• The first step in a proof by contraposition is to assume that the
conclusion of the conditional statement “If 3n + 2 is odd, then n is
odd”is false; namely, assume that n is even.
• Then, by the definition of an even integer, n = 2k for some integer k.
• Substituting 2k for n, we find that

3n + 2 = 3(2k) + 2 = 6k + 2 = 2(3k + 1).

• This tells us that 3n + 2 is even (because it is a multiple of 2), and


therefore not odd.
• This is the negation of the hypothesis of the theorem.
• Because the negation of the conclusion of the conditional statement
implies that the hypothesis is false, the original conditional statement
is true.
• Our proof by contraposition succeeded;
• we have proved the theorem ”If 3n + 2 is odd, then n is odd.”
Adnan Aslam Course: Discrete Mathematics October 01, 2018 14 / 14

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