HINDUSTAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND

SCIENCE
SCHOOL OF COMPUTING SCIENCES

NOTES FOR

MODULE 1
PROBLEM SOLVING TECHNIQUES AND LANGUAGES

COMMON TO ALL BRANCHES

 UNIT I
INTRODUCTION
Fundamentals of Digital Computers – Number System – Binary – Decimal – Conversion –
Problems – Problem Solving Techniques: Algorithm – Pseudo code – Flow Chart.
Program Control Structures – Programming Paradigms – Generation of Programming
languages – Language Translators – Features of a Good Programming Languages.

INTRODUTION:
Computer definition
 Computer is an electronic device which converts raw data into meaningful data or
processed data.
 Computer is an electronic device designed in such a way that is automatically
accepts and stores the input data process them and produce the desired output.
 Computer is an electronic device that operates upon information given.
Basic operations of a computer:
1. Input: It is a process of capturing the information.
2. Process: It is a transformation process to convert input into output.
3. Output: It is the result which comes from transformation process.
4. Storing: It is the process of saving the data.
5. Controlling: It is the process of directing/sequence in which all operation have to
be performed.
Applications of computer:
1. Education
2. Business
3. communication
4. Science
5. Engineering
6. Entertainment
7. Banking
8. Health
Evolution of computer:
Computer is Latin word computer which means to calculate .
1. calculating machine
2. Napier bones
3. Slide rule
4. Pascal add/Sub machine.
5. Leibniz’s mul/div machine.
6. Punch card system.
7. Babbage’s analytical engine.
 8. Hollerith’s punched card tabulating machine.
Generation of Computers:
1. First generation computers
2. second generation computers
3. Third generation computers
4. Fourth generation computers
5. Fifth generation computers
Synopsis
 Hardware technology
 Software technology
 Computing characteristic
 Physical appearance
 Application
 Examples
 Advantages
 Disadvantages

First generation computers (1940-1956)

Vacuum tubes Diagram:

Hardware technology:
 They used vacuum tubes for circuitry and magnetic drums for memory.
 The Input to the computer was through punched cards.
 The output was displayed printouts.
Software technology:  The Instructions were written in
machine language.
 Machine language uses ’s and ’s for coding the machine instructions.
 First generation computers can solve only one problem at a time.
Computing characteristics:
 The Computation time was in milliseconds. (1 milliseconds = 1*10 -3 Seconds).
Physical appearance:
 These computers are Enormous in size.
 They required large room for installation.
Applications:
 They were used for scientific applications.
Examples:
 UNIVAC- UNIVersal Automatic Computer
 ENIAC – Electronic numerical integrator and Computer
 EDVAC – Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer
Advantages:
 They were fastest computing device in their time
 They can able to execute complex mathematical problems in efficient manner.
Disadvantages:
 First generation computers used a large number of vacuum tubes and thus
generated a lot of heat.
 Because of heat these machine leads to malfunctioning.
 They consumed large amount of electricity and were expensive to operate.  These
computers are not reliable need high maintenance.
 It depends on machine language ’s and ’s these computers were not easy to
program.
 Special purpose computers not flexible in running different type of applications.
 Single tasking not productive.
 It is not transferable because of large size.

Second generation computers (1956-1963) Transistors Diagram:

Hardware technology:
 Transistors replaced the vacuum tubes from first generation computers.
 It allows the computer become smaller faster, cheaper energy efficient and reliable.
 The second generation computer uses magnetic core technology for primary
memory.
  They use magnetic tapes and magnetic disks for secondary memory.
 The Input to the computer was through punched cards.
 The output was displayed as printouts.
 They used the concept of stored program.
 Instructions were stored in memory of computer.
Software technology:
 Instructions were written using assembly language.
 Assembly language uses mnemonics like ADD, SUB, MUL, DIV, etc.
 High level programming languages such as COBOL, FORTRAN were also developed
during this period.
Computing characteristics:
 The Computation time was in Micro seconds. (1 Micro seconds = 1*10-6 Seconds).
Physical appearance
 Transistors are smaller than vacuum tubes so size of computers is also reduced.
Applications:
 They are used for special purpose.
Examples
 PDP-8,IBM 1401,CDC 1604

Advantages:
 They are fastest computing device of their time.
 It is easier to write instructions in assembly language than machine language.
 It can be transferred easily from one location to other locations because of small
size and light weight components.
 They required less maintenance than first generation computers and reliable.
Disadvantages:
 Input and output mechanisms are not improved.
 The Cost of these computers is very high beyond to use home users.
 They are special purpose computers only for specific applications.

Third generation computers (1964-1971)

Integrated Circuits Diagram:

Hardware technology:
 The third generation computers used the Integrated Circuit (IC) chips.
 In an IC Chip many transistors are place on silicon chip and it’s a type of semi
conductors.
 The use of IC increases the speed and efficiency of the computers.
 The Input to the computer was through keyboard.
 The output was displayed in monitors.
Software technology:
 The Keyboard monitors are interfaced through operating system.
 Operating system allowed multiple applications run at same time.
 High level languages were used extensively for programming instead of machine
languages and assembly languages.
Computing characteristics:
 The Computation time was in nanoseconds. (1 nanoseconds = 1*10-9 Seconds).
Physical appearance:
 Size of the computers was quit small compared to the second generation
computers.

Application:
 These Computers become accessible to mass audience.
 They are produced commercially.
 They are general purpose computers and it can be used for any purpose.
Example:
 IBM System 370, PDP 11
Advantages:
 The third generation computers used less power and generated less heat than the
second generation computers.
 The cost of the computers reduced significantly as individual components of the
computer were not required to assemble manually.
 The maintenance cost of the computer was also less compared to previous
generation computers.
 They were fastest computing device compared to first and second generation
computers.
 It can be transferred easily from one location to other locations because of small
size.
 These computers are productive because of less computing time.
 It is easier to program in high level language than any other language.
 These computers are multi tasking and general purpose computers.
Disadvantages
 The storage capacity of the computer is small.

 The performance of the computer got degraded while executing large applications
and complex calculations.
  These computers were needed to be placed in Air-conditioned room.
High level language:
 It is a computer programming language that is independent of machine details.
 The Programmers find it easy to use them.
 The Programs written in one computer can be executed in other computers.
Fourth generation computers (1971 to present)- Micro processors

Hardware technology
 They use the large scale integration and the very large scale integration technology.
 Thousands of transistors are integrated on a small silicon chip using LSI
technology.
 VLSI allows hundreds of transistors are integrated
Software technology
 Several operating systems like the MS-DOS and MS –windows developed during
this time.
 This generation of computer supports Graphical user interface (GUI).
 GUI is a user friendly interface that allows user to interact with the computer via
menus and icons,
 High level languages are used for writing of programs.
Computing characteristic
 The computation time is in Pico seconds (1 Pico seconds = 1*10-12 Seconds).
Physical appearance
 They are smaller than the computers of the previous generation. Some can even fit
into the palm of the hands
Application
 They become widely available for commercial purpose
 Personal computers become available to the home users.
Examples
 The Intel 14004 chip was the first microprocessor.
 The components of the computers like CPU and memory were located in a single
chip.
Advantages
 The micro processor has resulted in the fourth generation computers being smaller
and cheaper than their predecessors.
 Storage capacity is very large and faster.
  They are portable and more reliable.
 They generate much lesser heat and require less maintenance compared to their
predecessors.
 Networking has resulted in resource sharing and communication among different
computers.
 It provides user friendly environment because of GUI and input /output devices.
Disadvantages
 Soldering of LSI and VLSI chips on the board was not easy process and it needs a
complex technology.
 Working of these computers depends on instructions given by programmers. Fifth
generation computers (Present- Next generation)

Hardware technology
 The goal of fifth generation computer is to develop computers that are capable of
learning and self –organization.
 They use super large scale integrated (SLSI) chips that are able to store millions of
components on one silicon chip.
 They have large memory requirements.
Software technology
 They use parallel processing that allows several instructions to be executed in
parallel, instead of serial execution.
 Parallel processing results in faster processing speed.
 The Intel dual core micro processor uses parallel processing.
 They are based on Artificial intelligence; they try to simulate human way of
thinking and reasoning.
 AI includes areas like expert system, natural language processing (NLP), Speech
recognition, voice recognition, and robotics.
Computing characteristic
 Computing time is less than Pico seconds.
Physical appearance
 It is available according to the user needs. Laptop, PC, PDA
Application
 General purpose.
Examples
 Apple, MAC, Notepad, Tab.
Advantages
 Fastest computing device.
 Many applications can be run on same time (high speed).
 VLSI technology leads to reduced size, these computers can be used in travelling.
 Multimedia features and wireless are available.
Disadvantages
 Not provided intelligence program that can guide computers in different
applications.

Classifications of computers

 Based on their size and type

 Based On Operating Principles
 Based on area of applications
 Based on number of users
Based on their size and type:
1. Micro computers
2. Mini computers
3. Mainframe computers
4. Super computers
Microcomputers (Personal Computer)
A microcomputer is the smallest general purpose processing system. The older pc started
8 bit processor with speed of 3.7MB and current pc 64 bit processor with speed of 4.66
GB.
Examples: - IBM PCs, APPLE computers
Microcomputer can be classified into 2 types:
1. Desktops
2. Portables
The difference is portables can be used while travelling whereas desktops computers
cannot be carried around.
The different portable computers are: - 1.
Laptop
2. Notebooks
3. Palmtop (hand held)
4. Wearable computers Laptop: -
This computer is similar to a desktop computers but the size is smaller. They are
expensive than desktop. The weight of laptop is around 3 to 5 kg.
Notebook: -
These computers are as powerful as desktop but size of these computers are
comparatively smaller than laptop and desktop. They weigh 2 to 3 kg. They are more
costly than laptop.

Palmtop (Hand held): -

They are also called as personal Digital Assistant (PDA). These computers are small
in size. They can be held in hands. It is capable of doing word processing, spreadsheets
and hand writing recognition, game playing, faxing and paging. These computers are not
as powerful as desktop computers.
Ex: - 3com palmV.
Wearable computer: -
The size of this computer is very small so that it can be worn on the body. It has
smaller processing power. It is used in the field of medicine. For example pace maker to
correct the heart beats. Insulin meter to find the levels of insulin in the blood.

Minicomputer:
A minicomputer is a medium-sized computer. That is more powerful than a
microcomputer. These computers are usually designed to serve multiple users
simultaneously (Parallel Processing). They are more expensive than microcomputers.
Examples: Digital Alpha, Sun Ultra.

Mainframe computers:
Computers with large storage capacities and very high speed of processing
(compared to mini- or microcomputers) are known as mainframe computers. They
support a large number of terminals for simultaneous use by a number of users like
ATM transactions. They are also used as central host computers in distributed data
processing system.
Examples: - IBM 370, S/390.
Supercomputer:
Supercomputers have extremely large storage capacity and computing speeds
which are many times faster than other computers. A supercomputer is measured in
terms of tens of millions Instructions per second (mips), an operation is made up of
numerous instructions. The supercomputer is mainly used for large scale numerical
problems in scientific and engineering disciplines such as Weather analysis. Examples: -
IBM Deep Blue

Classification Based On Operating Principles

1. Digital Computers
2. Analog Computers
3. Hybrid Computers Digital Computers: -
Operate essentially by counting. All quantities are expressed as discrete or
numbers. Digital computers are useful for evaluating arithmetic expressions and
manipulations of data (such as preparation of bills, ledgers, solution of simultaneous
equations etc)

Analog Computers: -
An analog computer is a form of computer that uses the continuously changeable
aspects of physical phenomena such as electrical, mechanical, or hydraulic quantities to
model the problem being solved. In contrast, digital computers represent varying
quantities symbolically, as their numerical values change.
Hybrid Computers: -
Hybrid Computers are computers that exhibit features of analog computers and digital
computers. The digital component normally serves as the controller and provides logical
operations, while the analog component normally serves as a solver of differential
equations.

Classification based on area of applications

Modern computers depending upon their applications are classified as: -
1. Special Purpose Computers
2. General Purpose Computers
Special Purpose Computers:
A special purpose computer is designed only to meet the requirements of a
particular task or application. The instructions needed to perform a particular task are
permanently stored into the internal memory, so that it can perform the given task on a
single command. It therefore doesn’t possess unnecessary options and is less expensive.
General Purpose Computers: -
General Purpose computers are designed to meet the needs of many different
applications. In these computers, the instructions needed to perform a particular task
are wired permanently into the internal memory. When one job is over, instructions for
another job can be loaded into the internal memory for processing. This, a general
purpose machine can be used to prepare pay-bills, manage inventories, print sales report
and so on.

Classification based on word length and number of users

1. Single user
2. Multi user
3. Network

Single User: - Only one user can use the resource at any time.

Multi User: -
A single computer shared by a number of users at any time.
Network: -
A number of interconnected autonomous computers shared by a number of users at any
time.

BASIC ORGANIZATION OF COMPUTERS:

 This topic explains the way in which different units of computer are interconnected
with each other and controlled.
 It describes the various operations performed by each units.
It has four units
1. Input unit
2. Output unit
3. CPU
4. Memory unit
 This unit contains devices with the help of which we enter data into computer. This
unit makes link between user and computer.
 The input devices translate the information into the form understandable by
computer.

1. Keyboard
2. Mouse
3. Joy Stick
4. Light pen
5. Track Ball
6. Scanner
7. Graphic Tablet
8. Microphone
9. Webcam
10. Bar Code Reader

Key Board

 Keyboard is the most common and very popular input device which helps in
inputting data to the computer.
 The layout of the keyboard is like that of traditional typewriter, although there are
some additional keys provided for performing additional functions.
 Keyboards are of two sizes 84 keys or 101/102 keys, but now keyboards with 104
keys or 108 keys are also available for Windows and Internet.
The keys on the keyboard are as follows:
Keys Description
Typing These keys include the letter keys (A-Z) and digit keys (0-9) which generally
Keys give same layout as that of typewriters.
Numeric It is used to enter numeric data. Generally, it consists of a set of 17 keys that
Keypad are laid out in the same configuration used by most adding machines and
calculators.
Function The twelve function keys are present on the keyboard which is arranged in
Keys a row at the top of the keyboard. Each function key has unique meaning and
is used for some specific purpose.
Control These keys provide cursor and screen control. It includes four directional
keys arrow keys. Control keys also include Home, End, Insert, Delete, Page Up,
Page Down, Control(Ctrl), Alternate(Alt), Escape(Esc).
Special Keyboard also contains some special purpose keys such as Enter, Shift, Caps
Purpose Lock, Num Lock, Space bar, Tab, and Print Screen.
Keys

Mouse
 Mouse is most popular pointing device. It is a very famous cursor-control device
having a small palm size box with a round ball at its base which senses the
movement of mouse and sends corresponding signals to CPU when the mouse
buttons are pressed.
 Generally it has two buttons called left and right button and a wheel is present
between the buttons. Mouse can be used to control the position of cursor on screen,
but it cannot be used to enter text into the computer.
Advantages
 Easy to use
 Not very expensive
 Moves the cursor faster than the arrow keys of keyboard.

Scanner
 Scanner is an input device which works more like a photocopy machine.
 It is used when some information is available on a paper and it is to be transferred
to the hard disc of the computer for further manipulation.
  Scanner captures images from the source which are then converted into the digital
form that can be stored on the disc. These images can be edited before they are
printed.
 It converts hard copy into soft copy.

Output unit:
Following are few of the important output devices which are used in a computer
 Monitors
 Graphic Plotter
 Printer

Monitor
Monitors, commonly called as Visual Display Unit (VDU), are the main output
device of a computer. It forms images from tiny dots, called pixels that are arranged in a
rectangular form. The sharpness of the image depends upon the number of pixels. There
are two kinds of viewing screen used for monitors.
 Cathode-Ray Tube (CRT)
 Flat- Panel Display (LED, LCD)

Printers:
It is one of the output device which convert text which displays on the screen into paper
sheets, which means it converts soft copy into hard copy.
Types of printers:
1. Dot matrix printers
2. Ink jet printers
3. Laser printers
4. Poster printers

Speakers:
 It is a kind of output device which convert electrical signal into sound.
 It may be inbuilt or externally attached.
 The sound card and audio driver should be attached to the computers to produce
audio output.

MEMORY UNIT
Memory is primarily of three types
 Primary Memory/Main Memory
 Secondary Memory
 Internal processing memory/Cache Memory
The memory unit of the computer is used to store the following,
 Data
 Instructions required for processing the data
 Intermediate results of processing
 Final processed results
Primary Memory
Primary memory holds only those data and instructions on which computer is currently
working. It has limited capacity and data is lost when power is switched off. It is generally
made up of semiconductor device. These memories are not as fast as registers. The data
and instruction required to be processed reside in main memory. It is divided into two
subcategories RAM and ROM.

RAM(Random Access Memory) ROM(Read-only memory)

RAM is a form of data storage that can be ROM is also a form of data storage that cannot
accessed randomly at any time be easily altered or reprogrammed.
It allows reading and writing. It only allows reading.
RAM is volatile i.e. its contents are lost It is non-volatile i.e. its contents are retained
when the device is powered off. even when the device is powered off.
It is used as main memory of a It is used to store BIOS (Basic input output
computer. system) of a computer.

Characteristics of Main Memory

 These are semiconductor memories.
 Usually volatile memory.
 Data is lost in case power is switched off.
 It is working memory of the computer.
  Faster than secondary memories.
 A computer cannot run without primary memory.

Secondary Memory
This type of memory is also known as external memory or non-volatile. It is slower than
main memory. These are used for storing data/Information permanently. CPU directly
does not access these memories instead they are accessed via input-output routines.
Contents of secondary memories are first transferred to main memory, and then CPU can
access it. For example: disk, CD-ROM, DVD etc.

Characteristic of Secondary Memory

 These are magnetic and optical memories.
 It is known as backup memory.
 It is non-volatile memory.
 Data is permanently stored even if power is switched off.
 It is used for storage of data in a computer.
 Computer may run without secondary memory.
 Slower than primary memories.

Cache Memory
Cache memory is a very high speed semiconductor memory which can speed up CPU. It
acts as a buffer between the CPU and main memory. It is used to hold those parts of data
and program which are most frequently used by CPU. The parts of data and programs
are transferred from disk to cache memory by operating system, from where CPU can
access them.
The advantages of cache memory are as follows
 Cache memory is faster than main memory.
 It consumes less access time as compared to main memory.
 It stores the program that can be executed within a short period of time.
 It stores data for temporary use.
The disadvantages of cache memory are as follows
 Cache memory has limited capacity.  It is
very expensive.

CPU (CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT)

CPU is considered as the brain of the computer. CPU performs all types of data processing
operations. It stores data, intermediate results and instructions (program).It controls the
operation of all parts of computer.

CPU performing following four main operations:

 Fetching instructions from memory.
 Decoding the instructions to decide what operations are to be performed.
 Executing the instructions.
  Storing the results back to the memory.
CPU itself has following three components
1. ALU(Arithmetic Logic Unit)
2. CU (Control Unit)
3. Registers

ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit)

This unit consists of two subsections namely
 Arithmetic section
 Logic Section
Arithmetic Section
Function of arithmetic section is to perform arithmetic operations like addition,
subtraction, multiplication and division. All complex operations are done by making
repetitive use of above operations.
Logic section
 Function of logic section is to perform logic operations such as comparing,
selecting, matching and merging of data.
 It will perform 6 operations like AND,OR,NOT, >,<… etc
Control Unit:
 It maintains the sequence of operations being performed by CPU.
 It guides ALU about which operations to be performed.
 It uses two registers namely Program counter registers and status registers.
Registers:
 Register is a small storage area inside the CPU from where the data is retrieved
faster than any other storage device.
 They are high speed memory locations used for holding data, instructions, and
intermediate results.
Types of registers:
1. PC – Program counter
2. IR – Instructions registers
3. MAR – Memory Address registers
4. MBR – Memory Buffer registers
5. MDR – Memory Data registers
6. ACC - Accumulator

NUMBER SYSTEM:
Number system will be having following two values.
1. Base value
2. Position value
(Base position)
Types of number system:
1. Decimal number system
2. Binary number system
3. Octal number system
4. Hexadecimal number system

Decimal number system (10position)

 It consists of 10 digits 0-9.
 All number should be represented as a combination of 0-9. Ex: 5895
Position will differ as following
3 2 1 0 . -1 -2 -3
103 102 101 100 10-1 10-2 10-3
Binary number system (2position)
 It consists of 10 digits 0-1.
 All number should be represented as a combination of 0 and 1. Ex: 01110
Position will differ as following
3 2 1 0 . -1 -2 -3
23 22 21 20 2-1 2-2 2-3
Octal number system (8position)
 It consists of 10 digits 0-7.
 All number should be represented as a combination of 0-7. Ex: 70564
Position will differ as following
3 2 1 0 . -1 -2 -3
83 82 81 80 8-1 8-2 8-3

Hexadecimal number system (16position)

 It consists of 10 digits 0-15.
 0-9 and A, B, C, D, E, F
 All number should be represented as a combination of these 16 digits. Ex: 3AB

Position will differ as following

3 2 1 0 . -1 -2 -3
163 162 161 160 16-1 16-2 16-3 Summary:
Number system Base Digit Largest digit
Decimal 10 0-9 9
Binary 2 0,1 1
Octal 8 0-7 7
Hexadecimal 16 0-9, A, B, C, D, E, F
F
Conversion table:
Decimal Binary Octal Hexadecimal
0 0000 0 0
1 0001 1 1
2 0010 2 2
3 0011 3 3
4 0100 4 4
5 0101 5 5
6 0110 6 6
7 0111 7 7
8 1000 10 8
9 1001 11 9
10 1010 12 A
11 1011 13 B
12 1100 14 C
13 1101 15 D
14 1110 16 E
15 1111 17 F
Types of Conversion:
1. Decimal to Binary
2. Decimal to Octal
3. Decimal to Hexadecimal
4. Binary to Decimal
5. Octal to Decimal
6. Hexadecimal to Decimal
7. Binary to Octal
8. Binary to Hexadecimal
9. Octal to Binary
10. Hexadecimal to Binary
11. Octal to Hexadecimal
12. Hexadecimal to Octal
Decimal to Binary
1. 147 = 10010011
2. 94 =1011110
3. 675 =1010100011
4. 94.2345 =1011110.0011
 5. 150.64 =10010110.1010
6. 24.14 =11000.0010
7. 4064.865 =100000110000.11011 Decimal to
Octal:
1. 147 =223
2. 675 =1243
3. 22.33 =26.2507
4. 4064.865 =7740.6727 Decimal to Hexadecimal:
1. 675 =2A3
2. 4064.865 =F40.DD70A
Binary to Decimal
1. 1011 =11
2. 1010100010=675
3. 10010110 =150
4. 1011.1101 =11.8125
5. 11000.0010=24.125
Octal to Decimal
1. 62 =50
2. 24.36 =20.46875
3. 226.5075 =150.6398
4. 30.1075 =24.1398
5. 26.250 =22.3281
Hexadecimal to Decimal
1. 2A3 =675
2. 96.A70A =150.6525
Binary to Octal:
1. 1110101100110 =16546
2. 100111011 =473
3. 1010111010011 =12723 Binary to Hexadecimal:
1. 1110101100110 =1D66
2. 100111011 =13B
3. 1010111010011 =15D3 Octal to Binary:
1. 16546 =1110101100110
2. 6314 =110011001100 Hexadecimal to Binary:
1. 1D66 =1110101100110
2. 2A3 =001010100011
3. FAE1 =1111101011100001
Octal to Hexadecimal:
1. 365 =F5
2. 1243 =2A3
Hexadecimal to Octal:
1. F5 =365
2. 18 =30
Gray code to Binary (add with results):
1. 11010011 =10011101
Binary to gray code (add with previous value):
1. 10011101 =11010011

PROBLEM SOLVING TECHNIQUES:

1. Algorithm
2. Flow chart
3. pseudo code

Algorithm
 The solution to any computing problem involves executing a series of actions in a
specific order.
 A procedure for solving a problem in terms of the actions to be executed, and the
order in which these actions are to be executed is called an algorithm.
 Correctly specifying the order in which the actions are to be executed is important.
 Algorithm is an ordered sequence of finite, well-defined, Unambiguous
instructions for completing a task.
 It is a step by step procedure for solving a task or problem.
 Algorithm helps a programmer in breaking down the solution of a problem into a
no of sequential steps.
 Corresponding to each step a statement is written in a programming language.

Characteristics of algorithm:
 Each and every instruction should be simple.
 Instructions should not repeat infinity.
 Algorithm should ultimately terminate.
 It should be in sequence.
 It should be in normal English.
 Derived results should be obtained only after the algorithm terminates.
 Example:

Add two numbers:

Step 1: Start
Step 2: Read values num1 and num2.
Step 3: Add num1 and num2 and assign the result to sum.
sum←num +num
Step 4: Display sum
Step 5: Stop
Greatest of three numbers:
Step1: Start
Step2: Read three numbers A, B, C
Step3: Compare A with B
Step4: If A is larger compare it with C
Step5: If A is larger than C then A is the largest otherwise C is the largest.
Step6: If A is smaller than or equal to B in the first step then B is compared with C. Step7:
If B is larger than C then B is the largest number otherwise C is the largest number.
Step8: Stop

Flow chart
Flow chart is defined as graphical representation of the logic for problem solving
The purpose of flowchart is make the logic of the program clear in a visual form

Advantages of flowchart:
1. Communication: - Flowcharts are better way of communicating the logic of a
system to all concerned.
2. Effective analysis: - With the help of flowchart, problem can be analyzed in more
effective way.
 3. Proper documentation: - Program flowcharts serve as a good program
documentation, which is needed for various purposes.
4. Efficient Coding: - The flowcharts act as a guide or blueprint during the systems
analysis and program development phase.
5. Proper Debugging: - The flowchart helps in debugging process.
6. Efficient Program Maintenance: - The maintenance of operating program
becomes easy with the help of flowchart. It helps the programmer to put efforts
more efficiently on that part.

Disadvantages of flow chart:

1. Complex logic: - Sometimes, the program logic is quite complicated. In that case,
flowchart becomes complex and clumsy.
2. Alterations and Modifications: - If alterations are required the flowchart may
require re-drawing completely.
3. Reproduction: - As the flowchart symbols cannot be typed, reproduction of
flowchart becomes a problem.
4. The essentials of what is done can easily be lost in the technical details of how it is
done.
Pseudo code:
 Pseudocode is an artificial and informal language that helps you develop
algorithms.
 Pseudocode is similar to everyday English; it’s convenient and user friendly
although it’s not an actual computer programming language.
 Pseudocode programs are not executed on computers.
 It gives us the sketch of the program before actual coding.
 There is no standard syntax for pseudo code.
Preparing pseudo code:
 Standards used for representing various action are,
 Input: INPUT, GET, READ
 Output: OUTPUT, PRINT, DISPLAY
 Calculation: COMPUTE, CALCULATE, ADD, SUB, MUL..
Advantages:
 It can be easily in any word processor.
 It can be easily modified as compared to flowchart.
 Its implementation is very useful in structured design elements.
 It can be written easily.
 It can be read and understood easily.
 Converting a pseudo code to programming language is very easy as compared with
converting a flowchart to programming language.
Disadvantages:
 It is not visual.
 We do not get a picture of the design.
 There is no standardized style or format, so one pseudo code may be different from
another.
 For a beginner, It is more difficult to follow the logic or write pseudo code as
compared to flowchart.
Example:
BEGIN
INPUT num 1,num 2
SUM = num 1 + num 2
DISPLAY total
END
Algorithm Flowchart Pseudo code
An algorithm is a sequence It is a graphical It is a language
of instructions used to solve representation of algorithm representation of
a problem algorithm.
User needs knowledge to not need knowledge of Not need knowledge of
write algorithm. program to draw or program language to
understand flowchart understand or write a
pseudo code.
Program Control Structures:
Flow of control through any given function is implemented with three basic types of
control structures:
1. Sequential Control Structure
2. Selection Control Structure
3. Repetition Control Structure
1. Sequential:
This is the default logic used by every compiler. In this logic the program
instructions are executed in the order in which they appeared in the program. The
compiler scans the program, instruction by instruction and run the instruction one by
one from top to bottom. This is also called linear logic. Sequential execution of code
statements (one line after another) -- like following a recipe.

2. Selection (Decision Making):

Selection used for decisions, branching -- choosing between 2 or more alternative
paths. In C, these are the types of selection statements:
if
if/else
switch
3. Repetition (Loops):
Repetitions are used for looping, i.e. repeating a piece of code multiple times in a
row. In C, there are three types of loops:
while
do/while
for
The function construct, itself, forms another way to affect flow of control through a
whole program.

*Detailed explanation of Program Controls with examples will be explained in Unit II.

Programming Paradigms:
A programming paradigm is a way or style of how computer programs are written.
There are three fundamentally different programming paradigms:

 Procedural Programming Paradigm

 Object-Oriented Programming Paradigm
 Flow Programming

1. The procedural programming paradigm

The procedural programming paradigm (also called imperative

programming) is concerned with defining a linear procedure or sequence of
programming statements. A key feature of the paradigm is the partitioning of
functionality into small discrete re-usable modules called procedures (subroutines
or functions) that act like small programs themselves with their own scope, inputs
and outputs. A procedural code example is executed from a single point of control
 or entry point which calls out into declared procedures, which in turn may call
other procedures.

Procedural programming was an early so-called 'high-level programming

paradigm' (compared to lower-level machine code) and is the most common and
well understood form of programming. Newer paradigms (such as Object-Oriented
programming) and modern businesses programming languages (such as C++, Java
and C#) are built on the principles of procedural programming.

All algorithms in this book were implemented using a procedural programming

paradigm in the Ruby Programming Language. A procedural representation was
chosen to provide the most transferrable instantiation of the algorithm
implementations. Many languages support the procedural paradigm and
procedural code examples are expected to be easily ported to popular paradigms
such as object-oriented and functional.

2. Object-oriented Programming

The Object-Oriented Programming (OOP) paradigm is concerned with modeling

problems in terms of entities called objects that have attributes and behaviors
(data and methods) and interact with other entities using message passing (calling
methods on other entities). An object developer defines a class or template for the
entity, which is instantiated or constructed and then may be used in the program.
Objects can extend other objects, inheriting some or all of the attributes and
behaviors from the parent providing specific modular reuse. Objects can be treated
as a parent type (an object in its inheritance tree) allowing the use or application
of the objects in the program without the caller knowing the specifics of the
behavior or data inside the object. This general property is called polymorphism,
which exploits the encapsulation of attributes and behavior within objects and
their capability of being treated (viewed or interacted with) as a parent type.
Organizing functionality into objects allows for additional constructs such as
abstract types where functionality is only partially defined and must be completed
by descendant objects, overriding where descending objects re-define behavior
defined in a parent object, and static classes and behaviors where behavior is
executed on the object template rather than the object instance.
There are common ways of solving discrete problems using object-oriented
programs called patterns. They are organizations of behavior and data that have
been abstracted and presented as a solution or idiom for a class of problem. The
Strategy Pattern is an object-oriented pattern that is suited to implementing an
algorithm. This pattern is intended to encapsulate the behavior of an algorithm as
 a strategy object where different strategies can be used interchangeably on a given
context or problem domain. This strategy can be useful in situations where the
performance or capability of a range of different techniques needs to be assessed
on a given problem (such as algorithm racing or bake-offs). Additionally, the
problem or context can also be modeled as an interchangeable object, allowing
both algorithms and problems to be used interchangeably. This method is used in
object-oriented algorithm frameworks.
3. Flow Programming
Flow, data-flow, or pipeline programming involves chaining a sequence of smaller
processes together and allowing a flow of information through the sequence in
order to perform the desired computation. Units in the flow are considered black-
boxes that communicate with each other using message passing. The information
that is passed between the units is considered a stream and a given application
may have one or more streams of potentially varying direction. Discrete
information in a stream is partitioned into information packets which are passed
from unit-to-unit via message buffers, queues or similar data structures.
A flow organization allows computing units to be interchanged readily. It also
allows for variations of the pipeline to be considered with minor reconfiguration.
A flow or pipelining structure is commonly used by software frameworks for the
organization within a given algorithm implementation, allowing the specification
of operators that manipulate candidate solutions to be varied and interchanged.

Generations of Programming Language

• The first generation languages, or 1GL, are low level languages that are machine
language.
• The second generation languages, or 2GL, are also low-level languages that
generally consist of assembly languages.
• The third generation languages, or 3GL, are high level languages such as C.
The fourth generation languages, or 4GL, are languages that consist of statements
similar to statements in a human language. Fourth generation languages are
commonly used in database programming and scripts.
• The fifth generation languages, or 5GL, are programming languages that contain
visual tools to help develop a program. A good example of a fifth generation
language is Visual Basic.
Types of Programming Language
There are three types of programming language:
1. Machine language (Low-level language)
2. Assembly language (Low-level language)
3. High-level language

1. Machine Language:
Low-level languages are closer to the language used by a computer, while high-
level languages are closer to human languages.
• Machine language is a collection of binary digits or bits that the computer reads
and interprets.
• Machine languages are the only languages understood by computers.
• While easily understood by computers, machine languages are almost impossible
for humans to use because they consist entirely of numbers.

2. Assembly language (Low-level language)

A program written in assembly language consists of a series of instructions

mnemonics that correspond to a stream of executable instructions, when
translated by an assembler, that can be loaded into memory and executed.
 Assembly languages use keywords and symbols, much like English, to form a
programming language but at the same time introduce a new problem. The
problem is that the computer doesn't understand the assembly code, so we need a
way to convert it to machine code, which the computer does understand. Assembly
language programs are translated into machine language by a program called an
assembler.
Example:
Machine language : 10110000 01100001
Assembly language : mov a1, #061h
Meaning:
Move the hexadecimal value 61 (97 decimal) into the processor register named
"a1".
High Level Language
High-level languages allow us to write computer code using instructions
resembling everyday spoken language (for example: print, if, while) which are then
translated into machine language to be executed.
Programs written in a high-level language need to be translated into machine
language before they can be executed. Some programming languages use a
compiler to perform this translation and others use an interpreter.
Examples of High-level Language:
• ADA
•C
• C++
• JAVA
• BASIC
• COBOL
• PASCAL
• PHYTON
Language Translator
Language translators convert programming source code into language that the
computer processor understands.
Programming source code has various structures and commands, but the
computer processors understand only machine language.
 Language Translator are of three types:
1. Assembler
2. Compiler
3. Interpreter

1. COMPILER
A computer program that translates source code into object code.
Source code: - High-level language version of the program.
Object code: -The resulting machine code program.
Primary reason for compiling source code is to create an executable program.
It checks all kinds of limits, ranges, errors etc. before executing it completely but the
disadvantage is that when an error in a program occurs it is difficult to pin-point its
source in the original program.

Fig. COMPILER
2. Interpreter:
An interpreter is closely related to a compiler, but takes both source program and input
data. The basic purpose of interpreter is same as that of complier but it can’t create a
executable file like compiler.
 Fig. Interpreter
3. Assembler
Assembler is software or a tool that translates Assembly language to machine code.
 Assembly is a human readable language but it typically has a one to one relationship
with the corresponding machine code. Therefore, an assembler is said to perform
isomorphic (one to one mapping) translation.

Fig. Assembler
Characteristic of A Good Programming Language

There are various factors, why the programmers prefer one language over the another.
And some of very good characteristics of a good programming language are,

1) Clarity, Simplicity And Unity: A Programming language provides both a

conceptual framework for Algorithm planning and means of expressing them. It
should provide a clear, simple and unified set of concepts that can be used as
primitives in developing algorithms.
 It should have

•It has minimum number of different concepts

•with Rules for their combination being
•Simple and regular.

This attribute is called conceptual integrity.

2) Orthogonality: It is one of the most important feature of PL orthogonality is the

property that means " Changing A does not change B".

If I take Real world example of an orthogonal system Would be a radio, where changing
the station does not change the volume and vice versa.

When the features of a language are orthogonal, language is easier to learn and
programs are easier to write because only few exceptions and special cases to be
remembered.

3) Support for Abstraction:- There is always found that a substantial gap remaining
between the abstract data structure and operations that characterize the solution to a
problem and their particular data structure and operations built into a language.

4) Programming Environment: An appropriate programming environment adds an

extra utility and make language to be implemented easily like

The availability of- Reliable- Efficient - Well documentation

Speeding up creation and testing by-special Editors- testing packages

Facility- Maintaining and Modifying- Multi Version of program software

product.
 5) Ease of program verification: -

Reusability:

The reusability of program written in a language is always a central concern. A

program is checked by various testing technique like

Formal verification method Desk checking Input output test checking.

We verify the program by many more techniques. A language that makes program
verification difficult maybe far more troublesome to use. Simplicity of semantic and
syntactic structure is a primary aspect that tends to simplify program
verification.

6) portability of programs: Programming language should be portable means it

should be easy to transfer a program from which they are developed to the other
computer.

A program whose definition is independent of features of a Particular machine forms

can only support Portability. Example: Ada, FORTRAN, C, c++, Java.
Practical Component: Drawing Flowcharts using Lucid Chart& Writing pseudo code(in
latex optional) for the following problems

(i) Greatest of three numbers

(ii) Sum of N numbers

(iii) Computation of nCr

Computation of nCr

 Also called Combinations

 The combination is a method of selecting several items or symbols out of a larger

group or a data set, where an order does not matter.

 It's usually represented by nCr

 Used to find different number of combinations C(n,r) of n distinct objects taken

r at a time

 The Formula to find nCr, is:

A factorial is the result of multiplying a given number of consecutive integers from 1

to the given number. It is written with the exclamation sign: n! and it is defined as

0! = 1

1! = 1

2! = 2 x 1 = 2

3! = 3 x 2 x 1 = 6

4! = 4 x 3 x 2 x 1 = 24

5! = 5 x 4 x 3 x 2 x 1 = 120 and so on.!

Assignment questions:
1. write the total configuration of your PC
2. Compare and contrast all generations of computers.
3. Assignment on Number system and conversions.
4. Assignment on algorithm, flowchart and pseudo code.
TWO MARKS

1. Define Computer.

2. What are the components of a computer?

3. What are the applications of a computer?

4. What are the characteristics of a computer?

5. Why computer is known as data processing system?

6. What is Data and Information?

7. Compare Computer with calculator

8. Differentiate analog and digital computers?

9. List down the hardware terms in all 5 generations of computers?

10. What are the languages used in computer generations?

11. Define high level language?

12. Define machine level language?

13. What is GUI?

14. What are the Classifications of computers?

15. List down the basic 4 units of computers?

16. What is the need of memory?

17. Difference between volatile and non volatile memory?

18. What are the primary memory available and its types?

19. Write short note on cache memory?

20. Define secondary memory with example?

21. Difference between RAM and ROM?

22. What are the 4 operations done by CPU?

23. What is the use of ALU and CU?

24. Write about functionalities of Control unit in CPU

25. What is meant by register and write different types register?
26. Why we need number system?

27. Write about input units and its types?

28. Write about output units and its types?

29. Expand the following: SSI, MSI, LSI, VLSI

30. Give the expansion for following: UNIVAC, ENIAC, EDVAC

31. Expand COBOL, BASIC, FORTRON and IBM
32. Define Clients and Servers?

33. Define Software and hardware?

34. What are the tasks performed by a processor unit in a computer?

35. What is an IC? How does it help in reducing the size of computers?

36. What are the positional Number systems?

37. Define Flowchart?

38. List down the flowchart symbols?

39. What are the rules available for drawing a flowchart?

40. What are the advantages and disadvantages of flowchart?

41. Differentiate algorithm, flowchart and pseudo code?

42. Mention the characteristics of algorithm?

43. Write an algorithm for calculating simple interest?

44. Write a Pseudo code for to check even or odd number?

45. Draw a flow chart for biggest of two numbers?

 46. Find the decimal equivalent of hexadecimal number 4D.6F

47. Convert the number binary number 1101100111 to octal.

48. Write the binary and octal equivalent of hexadecimal number 7BD?

49. Convert hexadecimal number into binary equivalent of EBC.

50. Define Object Oriented Programming.

51. Define Logical Programming.
52. Define Procedural Programming.
53. Write about Low Level Language.
54. Write about High Level Language.
55. Write about Assembly Language.

8 MARKS:
1. Explain the characteristics of computer?

2. Draw a flowchart to find whether a given number is Armstrong or noT.

3. Draw a flowchart to find the sum of first 100 natural numbers.

4. Write an algorithm, flowchart and pseudo code for to check given number is
palindrome or not

5. Write an algorithm, flowchart and pseudo code to find factorial of a number.

6. Explain the various types of computer memory

7. Explain about Flow Programming
8. Write briefly on Control Structures.
9. Explain about Object Oriented Programming
10. Write in brief on Generation of Programming Languages.
16 MARKS
1. Explain the Generations of computers in detail?

2. Explain in detail about evolution of computer?

3. Explain the classifications of computers?

4. Explain about Organization of Computers with neat block diagram?

5. Write an algorithm, flowchart and pseudo code to solve the quadratic Equation.

6. Write an algorithm, flowchart and pseudo code to find factorial of a number.

7. Explain the need for an algorithm and highlight its advantages. Write an algorithm
to find the greatest among three numbers?

8. Convert the following:

a) Convert (6245.14)8 to its decimal equivalent.

b) Convert (111001.101)2 to its decimal equivalent.

c) Convert the following numbers into their binary equivalent.

 (59.6825)10

 (EBC)16

 (654)8
9. Explain in detail on Programming Paradigms.
10. With Examples write in detail on Programming Control Structures.
11. With Examples write characteristics of good programming languages.