I. Universe and Solar System 3.

Pulsating Theory (Oscillating or Cyclic Model)

 The universe or cosmos contains all galaxies, stars and planets. o Universe undergoes a cycle of inflation and contraction
 Our solar system is located in the Milky Way galaxy; consists of and inflates again like it did at the start of the Big Bang.
an average star, which is our Sun, and the planets. It also o Proponents: Paul Steinhardt, Neil Turok, Roger Penrose
includes the satellites of the planets, numerous comets, asteroids
and meteoroids. B. Alternative Theories to standard models on the origin of the
 Cosmology is the branch of science that studies the origin and universe
evolution of the universe.
Theory Description
Ekpyrotic Theory Parallel universe exist and
A. Origin of the Universe (Standard Models)
occasionally interact with each other
1. Big Bang Theory
o Proposed by a Belgian priest Georges Lemaitre, who Black Holes Light absorbed by black holes
claimed that the universe may have begun from a resurfaces in a portal to a different
primordial atom, which described as the cosmic egg. space where they become the seeds
o Primordial atom – a singularity, a tiny speck of substance for a new universe
under tremendous pressure, temperature and density.
Matrix Theory Universe is a computer simulation
o Two discoveries supported this theory:
 Edwin Hubble’s observation that galaxies are Creation of worlds by Many universes exist which are
speeding away from us at an increasing velocity. Quantum Theory consequences of the constant
 Arno Penzias & Robert Wilson discovered the branching and divergence of realities
cosmic microwave background radiation (CMBR);
after the initial quick inflation of the universe light C. Origin of the Solar System
burst into space and the wavelength of this light has 1. Solar Nebular Theory (Nebular Theory, Nebular Hypothesis)
stretched to the length of microwaves. The o The formation of the solar system began with a large
continued expansion of the universe has the effect spherical cloud of hydrogen and helium gases and cosmic
of elongating light’s wavelength; this phenomenon dust. This cloud is called nebula – 70% hydrogen & 28%
is called redshifting. helium, the rest are trace elements of lithium, carbon,
nitrogen and oxygen.
2. Steady State Theory o A powerful cosmic event (Supernova) agitated the nebula;
o Universe is the same at any time and at any place in space. shock wave and tiny debris thrown out by a supernova
o Universe has no beginning or ending. seeded the nebula with additional matter, creating dense
o Proponents: Fred Hoyle, Herman Bondi, Thomas Gold, regions within the nebula.
Albert Einstein o Through the force of gravity, dense regions began to
collapse into themselves and gases gathered around them,
thus increasing the mass.

ORIGIN & STRUCTURE OF EARTH EARTH & LIFE SCIENCE 11 – FIRST QUARTER
 o At the center of the nebula atoms collided with increasing carbon, nitrogen, oxygen and metals such as iron & nickel;
frequency, converting their kinetic energy into heat; the the erupted matter stayed within the gravitational field of
center became hotter than the surrounding disk. For 100, the sun and began to orbit it.
000 years the combined effect of gravity, pressure, o The erupted matter also cooled and condensed; under the
magnetic field, extreme temperature and rotation caused influence of gravity formed clumps of debris called
the nebula to flatten into a swirling disk, forming a Planetesimals. Overtime, it coalesced to form bigger
protostar. masses of matter and in the span of 50 million years,
o For the next 50 million years, pressure and temperature planets were born.
build up at the core of the protostar, until it will reach a
critical point – nuclear fusion took place and the birth of a 4. Tidal Theory (Near Collision Theory, Encounter Theory)
true star, our Sun. o Two stars nearly collided to each other; the transit of one
of the star exerted a gravitational force on our Sun,
2. Condensation Theory (Dust-Cloud Theory, Protoplanets drawing huge amounts of matter from the Sun. It affected
Theory) the Sun in the same way the Sun influences the movement
o It proposes that our solar system began from a nebula: a of oceans in our planet which results to tides.
dense cloud of gas, dust and icy particles. o Due to the approaching star, matter from the Sun was
o For million years, gases condensed, dust and icy particles thrown out in space and these substances condensed and
formed lumps of bigger masses which eventually became came to form planets.
planets (protoplanets); while undergoing transformation,
similar transformation happened at the center of the 5. Capture Theory
nebula. o The Sun captured stellar matter from a nearby but a
o As the center of the nebula increased in mass, it attracted smaller star or a protostar.
more gases and dust; the movement of matter into the o The captured stellar matter began to orbit the Sun and
center of an emerging protostar resulted in increased through condensation and accretion eventually became
rotation of the emerging solar system. planets.
o Overtime, a critical point was reached with the combined
effect of temperature, pressure magnetic field and density D. Latest Discoveries about the Solar System
resulted in nuclear fusion at the core of the protostar, a star 1. Living organisms may have been flourishing in Mars in the
was born. past.
o Data from Mars Global Surveyor (MGS), discovered
3. Planetesimals Theory (Collision Theory) liquid water could exist below the surface of the planet.
o It proposes that the beginning of the solar system began Water in frozen state was also found to be present at the
from a cataclysmic event; how planets and other space Martian poles; these places are good places to search for
objects orbiting our sun did. evidence of life.
o A nearby star collided with the sun and ejected massive
quantities of debris into space: gas, dust, trace elements of
ORIGIN & STRUCTURE OF EARTH EARTH & LIFE SCIENCE 11 – FIRST QUARTER
 o Mar’s atmosphere contains 92% of CO2; the presence of 3. The Sun, with its solar storms and sun spots could
CO2 supports the possibility of life, because carbon is the significantly disrupt life on Earth.
fundamental building block of life on Earth. o Solar flares, a sudden flash of brightness near the sun’s
o The theory panspermia suggests life from Mars may have surface, emit high energy particles, which are harmful to
provided the seeds of life for Earth. Billions of years ago, living organisms and known to have an effect on radio
living things thrived in Mars, but a giant asteroid crashing signals which disrupt wireless communication.
into it caused a cataclysm which threw out huge pieces of o Sunspots, dark patches on the Sun’s surface, regions of
Martian rocks into outer space and some of these debris intense magnetic field that give rise to solar flares and
carried single-celled organisms. scientists believe that the frequency of sunspots follows a
o Those rocks tugged by the Earth’s gravity causing them to cycle which reaches a peak of 11 years and believed to
crash into the Earth as meteors. Martian organisms affect Earth’s climate and a driver of global warming.
survived and became the ancestors of living things for
Earth. 4. Saturn’s moon, Enceladus, was discovered to have a
o As of March 2014, of the 61,000 meteorites that have been saltwater ocean below its frozen surface.
found on Earth, 132 were found to be Martian origin. o April 13, 2017, NASA announced that an underground
ocean exists in Enceladus, a large body of water beneath
2. Asteroids orbiting our Sun could impact Earth, leading to an its frozen surface.
extinction event for our planet. o Linda Spilker said Enceladus has almost ingredients to
o Earth faces a potentially catastrophic encounter with support life and Cris Glein also said that Enceladus’s
asteroids which orbit the Sun. Asteroids struck our planet underground ocean contained a potential chemical feasts
in the past and caused massive extinction of living things. for microbes.
o In geologic history, Cretaceous Paleogene extinction
event, which obliterated many species of giant reptiles II. Earth as the Living Planet
(dinosaurs) from a huge asteroid that slammed into the  Six general classifications of space objects orbiting the Sun:
region near the Gulf of Mexico 65 million years ago. Terrestrial planets, Jovian planets, dwarf plants, moons,
o The possibility of another asteroid that will collide in our thousands of asteroids found in Kuiper belt and icy particles.
planet is not entirely remote because the surface of the
moon itself reveals telltale evidence of frequent asteroid Conditions that support life on Earth:
impacts in Earth’s neighborhood. For Earth, evidences of A. Circumstellar habitable zone
these impacts had been covered by water, soil and o An orbital region which receives a right range of radiant
vegetation. energy so that water in planet stays in liquid form
o NASA’s Near Earth Object (NEO) program listed 15,000 o Based on stellar luminosity and stellar flux
near-Earth asteroids; the most recent asteroid tracked by o Water in liquid form is essential for the functioning of
NEO was 2014 JO25 which flew past Earth on April 18, biological systems
2017 at a distance of about 1.8 million kilometers. o Human body – 60% water, Earth’s surface – 71%

ORIGIN & STRUCTURE OF EARTH EARTH & LIFE SCIENCE 11 – FIRST QUARTER
 B. Magnetic field III. Earth Subsystems
o Produced by the rotation of the planet’s core and rotation of A. Atmosphere
Earth itself o The thin gaseous layer that envelopes the geosphere.
o A molten core, largely made of iron and nickel is in o The present atmosphere is composed of 78% nitrogen (N), 21%
crystallized form turned into solid by extreme pressure, is in oxygen (O2), 0.9% argon, and trace amount of other gases.
constant motion due to thermal convection produced by heat o One of the most important processes by which the heat on the
and combined with Earth’s rotation, produces a magnetic Earth's surface is redistributed is through atmospheric
field circulation.
o Without magnetic field, solar wind is capable of sweeping o There is also a constant exchange of heat and moisture between
away Earth’s atmosphere the atmosphere and the hydrosphere through the hydrologic
cycle.
C. Atmosphere
o 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen, argon, carbon dioxide, methane B. Geosphere
o Nitrogen, oxygen, hydrogen, carbon and phosphorus are o Largest of the four spheres
constituent elements of biological molecules: carbohydrates, o Includes the land surface and the interior of the Earth
proteins, lipids and nucleic acid o Not uniform in its composition, based on the characteristic of
o Act as the layer of protection against Sun’ harmful radiations matter that occupies each layer
o Gas molecules absorb and deflect harmful UV rays and X- o Layers of the Earth:
rays and ozone layer absorbs most of the Sun’s UV-B  Crust – thinnest beneath the oceans and thickest beneath
radiation the continents
o Rayleigh scattering, scatters high frequency light waves,  Mantle – thickest of the layers, upper mantle contains
reducing the intensity when they reaches the Earth’s molten rock and lower mantle contains rocky materials
biosphere  Core – outer core composed of iron and nickel in viscous
liquid form; inner core contains solid metal of iron and
D. Stable climate and temperature nickel
o Average temperature of Earth’s surface, 20°C in Baguio City
o Relative stability of climate and temperature is important for C. Biosphere
the formation of biological molecules o The set of all life forms on Earth.
o Venus temperature is 453°C, any trace of water would o It covers all ecosystems—from the soil to the rainforest, from
evaporate quickly mangroves to coral reefs and from the plankton-rich ocean
o Mars temperature is -55°C, any aqueous solution contained surface to the deep sea.
in a cell would have frozen, destroying the cell’s membrane o For the majority of life on Earth, the base of the food chain
leading to the death of the cell itself comprises photosynthetic organisms. During photosynthesis,
CO2 is sequestered from the atmosphere, while oxygen is
released as a byproduct. The biosphere is a CO2 sink and
therefore, an important part of the carbon cycle.
ORIGIN & STRUCTURE OF EARTH EARTH & LIFE SCIENCE 11 – FIRST QUARTER
 o Structural organization of the biosphere is arranged from B. Charles Lyell
smallest unit of living things to the largest: atom, molecules, o Laid down the modern principles of geology
organelles, cells, tissues, organs, organ systems, organism, o Uniformitarianism – geological processes that shape earth
population, community, ecosystem, biomes and biosphere are the same through time
o Gradualism – large scale effects are the consequences of tiny
D. Hydrosphere changes that accumulated over long periods of time
o About 70% of the Earth is covered with liquid water and much o Catastrophism – large scale effects are result of quick and
of it is in the form of ocean water sudden, violent geological events (volcanic eruption, floods,
o Only 3% of Earth's water is fresh: two-thirds are in the form of earthquakes)
ice, and the remaining one-third is present in streams, lakes, and o “the present is the key to the past”
groundwater.
o The oceans are important sinks for CO2 through direct exchange C. Charles Darwin
with the atmosphere and indirectly through the weathering of o Theory of Evolution
rocks. o Natural Selection – nature selects the traits that will flourish
o Heat is absorbed and redistributed on the surface of the Earth in an environment; specific species of organism will survive
through ocean circulation. o Genetic mutation – random mutation in the gene happen
o Cryosphere – the frozen part of hydrosphere which give some organisms an advantage for survival over
o Groundwater – underground water found in aquifers and wells others
o Clouds and fog – water in the air
D. Alfred Wegener
Scientists and their Contributions in the Study of earth Subsystems: o First proponent of the Continental Drift Theory
A. Alexander von Humboldt o Continents changed positions with the passing time and there
o Founder of modern geography was a point when all continents were once lumped together
o Explorer and naturalist whose holistic view of nature was as one the supercontinent, Pangaea - All-lands or All-Earth
inspired by his explorations in Central and South America,
which brought him a vast collection of data about physical E. James Ephraim Lovelock
geography, meteorology, flora and fauna of various forests, o Inventor and worked at NASA as consultant in their
plains and mountains planetary explorations
o Unity in Nature: the physical conditions of an environment o Develop sensitive instruments to analyze extraterrestrial
affect the distribution of plants and animals atmosphere and planetary surfaces
o Laid down the foundations for the modern science of o Electron capture detector – a device used to discover the
climatology effect of CFCs on the ozone layer
o Humboldtian Science – a quantitative approach for studying o Gaia Hypothesis – living and nonliving parts of the Earth
nature form a complex interacting system such that Earth itself
functions as single organism

ORIGIN & STRUCTURE OF EARTH EARTH & LIFE SCIENCE 11 – FIRST QUARTER