STRUCTURE AND WRITTEN EXPRESSION

 Structure (part 2)

What is mainly tested in this section?

sentence structure  incomplete independent clauses
 incomplete adjective clauses
 incomplete/missing participial phrases
 incomplete/missing appositives
 incomplete noun clauses
 incomplete adverb clauses
 incomplete/missing prepositional phrases
word order  word order items
verbs verb problems
incomplete/missing infinitive and gerund phrases
proper style parallel structures
misplaced modifiers
word choice incomplete/missing comparisons
missing conjunctions
missing negative words

SENTENCE STRUCTURE
-INCOMPLETE ADVERB CLAUSES

 An adverb clause consists of a connecting word, called an adverb clause marker (or subordinate
conjunction), and at least a subject and a verb.
 Example: The demand for economical cars increases when gasoline becomes more
expensive.
In this example, the adverb clause marker when joins the adverb clause to the main clause. The
adverb clause contains a subject (gasoline) and a verb (becomes).

 An adverb clause can precede the main clause or follow it. When the adverb clause comes first, it is
separated from the main clause by a comma.
 When gasoline becomes more expensive, the demand for economical cars increases.
The following markers are commonly seen in the Structure section:

Adverb clause use Example

marker
because cause Because the speaker was sick, the program was canceled.
since cause Since credit cards are so convenient, many people use them.
although opposition Although he earns a good salary, he never saves any money.
even though opposition Even though she was tired, she stayed up late.
while contrast Some people arrived in taxis while others took the subway.
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 if condition If the automobile had not been invented, what would people use for
basic transportation?
unless condition I won't go unless you do.
when time Your heart rate increases when you exercise
while time Some people like to listen to music while they are studying
as time One train was arriving as another was departing.
since time We haven't seen Professor Hill since she returned from her trip.
until time Don't put off going to the dentist until you have a problem.
once time Once the dean arrives, the meeting can begin.
before time Before he left the country, he bought some traveler's checks.
after time She will give a short speech after she is presented with the award.

**Reduced Adverb Clauses

When the subject of the main clause and the subject of the adverb clause are the same person or thing,
the adverb clause can be reduced (shortened). Reduced adverb clauses do not contain a main verb or a
subject. They consist of a marker and a participle (either a present or a past participle) or a marker and an
adjective.
'When astronauts are orbiting the earth, they don't feel the force of gravity. (full adverb clause)
'When orbiting the earth, astronauts don't feel the force of gravity. (reduced clause with present
participle)

Although it had been damaged, the machine was still operational. (full adverb clause)
Although damaged, the machine was still operational. (reduced clause with a past participle)

Although he was nervous, he gave a wonderful speech. (full adverb clause)

Although nervous, he gave a wonderful speech. (reduced clause with an adjective)

 You will most often see reduced adverb clauses with the markers although, while, if, when, before,
after, and until. Reduced adverb clauses are NEVER used after because.

Sample items

1. No one knows what color dinosaurs were ______ no 1. Choice (A) is incorrect; because of can only be used
sample of their skin has survived. before nouns or pronouns. In choice (B), that is
(A) because of unnecessary. In (C), the phrase it is is used
(B) because that unnecessarily.
(C) it is because
2. Choice (A) creates two clauses, but there is no
(D) because connecting word to join them. (C) creates a sentence
with a main clause and an adjective clause, but the main
2. _____ rises to the surface of the earth, a volcano is clause has two subjects (liquid magma and a volcano).
formed. (D) creates a noun clause. In a correct sentence, when
(A) Liquid magma a noun clause begins a sentence, the clause itself is the
(B) Whenever liquid magma subject of the verb in the main clause, but this sentence
(C) Liquid magma, which already has a subject (volcano).

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 (D) That liquid magma 3. The best answer completes a reduced adverb clause.
In choice (A), the adverb clause lacks a subject and is
3. ______ invisible to the unaided eye, ultraviolet light can not a correct reduction because it contains a verb. In
be detected in a number of ways. choice (B), despite cannot be used with an adjective
(only with a noun phrase or pronoun). (C) does not
(A) Although is
supply a verb for the adverb clause and is not a correct
(B) Despite reduction because it contains a subject.
(C) Even though it
(D) Although 4. Choice (A) lacks a subject in the adverb clause.
Choice (B), a noun, could only be used with because of;
4. Because ______ , alabaster can be easily carved. In (D), because of is followed by an adjective; to be
(A) is soft correct, it must be followed by a noun phrase or pronoun.
(B) softness
(C) of its softness
(D) of soft

INCOMPLETE/MISSING PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES

A prepositional phrase consists of a preposition (in, at, with, for, until and so on) followed by a noun
phrase or pronoun which is called the prepositional object. Prepositional phrases often describe
relationships of time and location.

Examples:
In the autumn, maple leaves turn red.
Beacon Hill is one of the most famous neighborhoods in Boston.
With luck, there won't be any more problems.
This house was built by John's grandfather.

Often, prepositional phrases come at the beginning of sentences, but they may appear in other parts
of the sentence as well.

You may see prepositions in distractors, especially before the subject of a sentence. Remember, the
object of a preposition cannot correctly be the subject of a sentence, as in these examples:
*In the autumn is my favorite season.
*Without a pencil is no way to come to a test.

Sample items

1.______ the unaided eye can see about 6,000 stars. 1. Choice (A) is incorrect because there is no connector
(A) A clear night to join the noun phrase a clear night to the rest of the
sentence. Choice (B) consists of an independent
(B) It's a clear night clause, but there is no connector to join it to the other
(C) On a clear night clause. (D) seems to form a subordinate clause, but the
(D) When a clear night clause lacks a verb.

2. ______ all the field crops grown in the United States 2. Choices (A) and CD) are incorrect because the
subject of a sentence (all the field crops) cannot be the
are harvested with machines called combines. object of a preposition (of). Choice (C) creates a noun
(A) Of nearly clause, but the noun clause lacks a verb.
(B) Nearly
(C) That nearly
(D) Nearly of

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 WORD ORDER ITEMS

 All of the answer choices for a Structure item involving word order contain more or less the
same words, but they are arranged in four different orders. The word order is "scrambled" in
three choices: one is correct. Most items consist of three or four words.
A special type of word order problem involves inversions. This type of sentence uses question word
order even though the sentence is not a question.
When are inversions used?
 When the negative words listed below are placed at the beginning of a clause for
emphasis:

not only never

not until seldom
not once rarely
at no time scarcely
by no means no sooner
nowhere

Examples:
- Not once was he on time.
- Seldom have I heard such beautiful music.
- Not only did the company lose profits, but it also had to layoff workers.

 When the following expressions beginning with only occur at the beginning of a sentence
(with these expressions, the subject and verb in that clause are inverted)

only in (on, at, by, etc.)

only once
only recently

Examples:
- Only in an emergency should you use this exit.
- Only recently did she return from abroad.
- Only by asking questions can you learn.

 When the following expressions beginning with only occur at the beginning of a sentence
(with these expressions the subject and verb of the second clause are inverted)

only if
only because
only until
only when
only after

Examples:
- Only if you have a serious problem should you call Mr. Franklin at home.

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 - Only when you are satisfied is the sale considered final.

 When clauses beginning with the word so + an adjective or participle occur at the beginning
of a sentence.

Example:
-So rare is this coin that it belongs in a museum.
-So confusing was the map that we had to ask a police officer for directions.

 When clauses beginning with expressions of place or order occur at the start of a sentence
(in these cases, the subject and main verb are inverted since auxiliary verbs are not used as
they would be in most questions)

-In front of the museum is a statue.

-Off the coast of California lie the Channel Islands.
-First came a police car, then came an ambulance.

Sample items

1.Andromeda is a galaxy containing millions of individual 1. Only choice (A) involves the correct word order
stars, but it is ______ Earth that it looks like a blurry patch for this sentence. Choices (B) and (D) are incorrect
word orders in any sentence. Choice (C) could be
of light. correct in certain sentences, but is not correct in the
context of this sentence.
(A) so far away from
(B) away so far from 2. Only choice (A) correctly uses question word
(C) from so far away order after not on(y. Choices (B) and (C) do not use
an auxiliary verb, which is required after not only.
(D) away from so far Choice (D) does not follow the correct word order:
auxiliary + adjective + main verb.
2. Not only ______ shade and beauty, but they also reduce
carbon dioxide.
(A) do trees provide
(B) trees provide
(C) provide trees
(D) trees do provide