RIZAL TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY

HUMAN RESOURCE DEPARTMENT MANAGEMENT

JOB ANALYSIS AND DESIGN

REVIEWER FOR 2nd Year HRDM Students

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION TO JOB ANALYSIS AND DESIGN

JOB ANALYSIS is a systematic study how job discover its specifications, skills requirements,
etc. for wage-setting, recruitment, training or job simplification purposes. It is the procedure firms
use to determine the tasks, duties, and responsibilities of each job, and the human attributes (in terms
of knowledge, skills, and abilities) required to perform it. Job analysis is not a study of workers, but of
their activities and the requirements to perform them. This is done by a specialist called Job Analyst.
Where there are no human resource department, all employee related matters are handled by
individual managers who already should know the characteristics, standards and human abilities
required for each job. Once this information has been gathered, it is used for developing job
descriptions (what the job entails; list of a job’s duties, responsibilities, reporting, relationships,
working conditions and supervisory responsibilities) and job specifications (lists of a job’s human
requirements; skills, personality, etc). The procedure for determining the duties and skill
requirements of a job and the kind of person who should be hired for it. In general, it means the
gathering, evaluating, and recording of accurate, objective, and complete job data. Job analysis
identifies and describes, in a systematic and comprehensive but concise manner:

What the worker does - in terms of activities or functions.

How the work is done - the methods, techniques, or processes involved, and the work devices
used.

Results of the work - the goods produced, services rendered, or materials used.

Worker characteristics - the knowledge, skills, abilities, and adaptabilities needed to

accomplish the tasks involved.

Context of the work - in terms of environmental and organizational factors, and the nature of
the worker's discretion, responsibility, or accountability.

The supervisor or human resources specialist normally collects one or more of the following
types of information via the job analysis:

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 1. Work activities. Information about the jobs actual work activities, such as cleaning,
selling, teaching, or painting are collected. This list may also include how, why, and
when the worker performs each activity.
2. Human behaviors. Information about human behaviors the job requires, like sensing,
communicating, lifting weights, or walking long distances.
3. Machines, tools, equipment, and work aids. Information regarding tools used,
materials processed, knowledge dealt with or applied (such as finance or law), and
services rendered (such as counseling or repairing).
4. Performance standards. Information about the jobs performance standards (in terms
of quantity or quality levels for each job duty, for instance).
5. Job context. Information about such matters as physical working conditions, work
schedule, incentives, and, for instance, the number of people with whom the
employee would normally interact.
6. Human requirements. Information such as knowledge or skills (education, training,
work experience) and required personal attributes (aptitudes, personality, interests).

JOB AS A CONCEPT

Jobs are the core of every organization’s productivity. If they are not well designed and done
right, productivity suffers, profit galls and the organization is less able to meet the demands of society,
customers, employees and other stakeholders. An important concept of Job Analysis is that the
analysis is conducted of the Job, not the person.

For human resource department to be effective, its members have a clear understanding of the
jobs found throughout the organization. Without this information base, the human resource
department would less able to redesign jobs, recruit new employees, train present employees,
determine appropriate compensation and perform many other human resource functions.

A job consists of a group of related activities and duties. It could be a single position or a group
of positions, at one establishment, whose major work activities and objectives are similar in terms of
worker actions, methodologies. materials, products, and/or worker characteristics; and whose array of
work activities differs significantly from those of other positions. The collection of task and
responsibilities performed by an individual employee is called a position.

While Job Analysis data may be collected from incumbents through interviews or
questionnaires, the product of the analysis is a description or specifications of the job, not a description
of the person. As an analyst gathers data on the work activities associated with the various positions at
an establishment, the activities are at that point not yet identifiable as tasks or jobs. It is only after the
data are collected, analyzed, and synthesized that the analyst is able to circumscribe jobs and their
component tasks. This process is not based on an exact science, but rather on a series of judgments and
estimates on the part of the analyst. Consequently, different analysts studying the same positions may
identify the tasks differently.

Element, task, and job are relative concepts; that is, an activity that is an element in one job, could be a
task in another job, and could conceivably be a job in and of itself. Figure 1 illustrates this point. "Slices

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cold meats and cheese" is an element of a Short Order Cook, a task of a Sandwich Maker, and the total
job of a Deli Cutter-Slice.

JOB ANALYSIS PROCESS

Job Analysis is the procedure for determining the duties and skill requirements of a job and the
kind of person who should be hired for it.

Phase 1: Preparation for Job Analysis

a) Familiarization with the Organization and the jobs

b) Determination of uses of Job Analysis
c) Identification of jobs to be analyzed

Phase 2: Collection of Job Analysis Information

a) Determine sources of job data - non human and human sources see book page 3
b) Data collection and instrument design
c) Choice of method for data collection

Phase 3: Uses of Job Analysis Information

a) Job Description
b) Job Specification
c) Job Performance Standards
d) Job Design

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 e) Formulation of HR Strategies

USES OF JOB ANALYSIS INFORMATION

JOB ANALYSIS

JOB DESCRIPTION &

JOB SPECIFICATION

RECRUITMENT & PERFORMANCE JOB EVALUATION & TRAINING

SELECTION APPRAISAL COMPENSATION

Job Analysis is the procedure for determining the duties and skill requirements of a job and
the kind of person who should be hired for it. Job analysis is important because managers use it to
support just about all their human resource management activities such as:

a) RECRUITMENT AND SELECTION.

Job Analysis can be used in selection procedures to identify or develop:
a) job duties that should be included in advertisements of vacant positions;
b) appropriate salary level for the position to help determine what salary should be
offered to a candidate;
c) minimum requirements (education and/or experience) for screening applicants;
d) interview questions;
e) selection tests/instruments (e.g., written tests; oral tests; job simulations);
f) applicant appraisal/evaluation forms;
g) orientation materials for applicants/new hires

Matching job applicants with job requirements. Information about what duties the job entails
and what human characteristics are required to perform these activities helps managers
decide what sort of people to recruit and hire.

b) PERFORMANCE APPRAISAL.

A performance appraisal compares each employee actual performance with his or her duties
and performance standards. Managers use job analysis to learn what these duties and
standards are. Thus, a fair and accurate appraisal of employee performance will be achieved.
Also, efforts to improve employee productivity levels require thorough study of jobs.

c) COMPENSATION

Job Analysis can be used in compensation to identify or determine:

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 a) skill levels
b) compensable job factors
c) work environment (e.g., hazards; attention; physical effort)
d) responsibilities (e.g., fiscal; supervisory)
e) required level of education (indirectly related to salary level)

Job analysis information is also essential for determining the relative value of and appropriate
compensation for each job. To give a fair and equitable compensation to employee,
compensation (such as salary and bonus) usually depends on the jobs required skill and
education level, safety hazards, degree of responsibility, and so on all factors you assess
through job analysis. A well-defined compensation management policy helps organization
retain. Information about the actual job duties is also necessary to determine whether a job
qualifies for overtime pay and for maximum-hours purposes, as specified in employment
standards legislation.

d) PERFORMANCE APPRAISAL

Performance appraisal compares each employee’s actual performance with his or her
performance standard Management use job analysis to determine the job’s specific activities
and performance standards

e) TRAINING.

The job description shows the activities and skills and therefore the training the job requires.
Job Analysis can be used in training/"needs assessment" to identify or develop:
a) training content
b) assessment tests to measure effectiveness of training
c) equipment to be used in delivering the training
d) methods of training (i.e., small group, computer-based, video, classroom...)

Identification of training needs of employee. The job description lists the jobs specific duties
and requisite skills and therefore the training that the job requires. Job analysis is important
in helping employers execute their overall strategic plans.

f) RESTRUCTURING. Job design and redesigning. Job analysis is useful for ensuring that all of the
duties that need to be done have actually been assigned and for identifying areas of overlap
within duties. Also, having an accurate description of each job may lead to the identification
of unnecessary requirements that may cause discrimination in employment, areas of conflict
or dissatisfaction, or health and safety concerns that can be eliminated through job redesign
or restructuring.

JOB DESIGN

Job design is identification of job duties, characteristics, competencies, and sequences taking
into consideration technology, work force, organization’s character and environment. The aim of a job

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design is to improve job satisfaction, to improve through-put, to improve quality and to reduce
employee problems (e.g., grievances, absenteeism).

Job design principles can address problems such as:

 Work overload
 Work underload
 Repetitiveness
 Limited control over work
 Isolation
 Shiftwork
 Delays in filling vacant positions
 Excessive working hours
 Limited understanding of the whole job process
Job design can be used to accommodate the abilities and diversity of individuals, including those
returning to work following injury or illness. For example, job design is sometimes considered as a way to
help deal with stress in the workplace.

Job design is the process of systematically organizing work into the tasks that are required to
perform a specific job. An organization’s strategy and structure influence the ways in which jobs are
designed. In bureaucratic organizations, for example, because a hierarchical division of labor exists, jobs
are generally highly specialized. In addition, effective job design also takes into consideration human and
technological factors. In the twenty-first century, the traditional meaning of a “job” as a set of well-defined
and clearly delineated responsibilities has changed. Companies are grappling with challenges such as rapid
product and technological change, global competition, deregulation, political instability, demographic
changes, and the shift to a service economy. This has increased the need for firms to be responsive,
flexible, and much more competitive. In turn, the organizational methods that managers use to
accomplish this have helped weaken the traditional definition of a “job.” Requiring employees to limit
themselves to narrow jobs runs counter to the need to have them willingly switch from task to task as
jobs and team assignments change. All these changes have led to work becoming more cognitively
complex, more team-based and collaborative, more dependent on social skills, more dependent on
technological competence, more time pressured, more mobile, and less dependent on geography.2 This
situation has led some organizations to focus on personal competencies and skills in job analysis, hiring,
and compensation management, rather than on specific duties and tasks.

CONSIDERATIONS

1. ORGANIZATIONAL CONSIDERATION FOR JOB DESIGN

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 The overall organizational mission is accomplished through a series of interrelated tasks or activities.
If the organization is to remain successful and grow, these tasks and activities should be performed
in a timely, effective and efficient manner. This involves focus on two interrelated concepts:
EFFICIENCY and WORK FLOW.

1.1 Efficiency – achieving maximum output with minimum expenditure of time, effort or other
resources.

1.2 Work Flow – the sequence of and balance between jobs in an organization needed to
produce the firm’s goods and services. It is strongly influenced by the nature of the products or
services. The products or services usually suggests the sequence of and balance between jobs if the
work is to be done efficiently.

2. ERGONOMIC CONSIDERATION

Ergonomics is the study of relationships between physical attributes of workers and their work
environment to reduce physical and mental strain and increase productivity and quality of work life.

ERGO meaning work and NOMOS meaning laws. ERGONOMICS means law of work

3. EMPLOYEE CONSIDERATION
3.1 Autonomy refers to assuming responsibility for what one does. It is the freedom to control
one’s response to the environment. The absence of autonomy can cause employee apathy
or poor performance because they develop an indifferent attitude because they believe
they have no control over their job.
3.2 Variety – An attribute of jobs wherein the worker has the opportunity to use different skills
and abilities or perform different activities.
3.3 Task Identity – The feeling of responsibility and pride that results from doing an entire piece
of work, not just a small part of it. Employees feel that they are making an identifiable
contribution, thus, job satisfaction may be increased significantly.
3.4 Feedback – Information that helps evaluate the success or failure of an action or system
3.5 Task Significance – knowing that the work one does, is important to others in the
organization or to outsiders.

4. GLOBAL COMPETITION

Fast technology obsolescence, changing workers profile and rapid increases in knowledge requires
for various jobs have made accurate and timely job description difficult. For successfully executing
the corporate strategies, all employees may be expected to possess all competencies, though to
varying degrees. Thus, an engineer may be expected to have high technical expertise and medium
problem solving abilities, while a manager is the other way around. Although both are expected to
have good communication skills.

Definition:

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Job Analysis The procedure for determining the duties and skill requirements of a job and the kind of person who
should be hired for it.

Job Descriptions A list of a jobs duties, responsibilities, reporting relationships, working conditions, and supervisory
responsibilities one product of a job analysis.

Job Specifications A list of a jobs human requirements, that is, the requisite education, skills, personality, and so on
another product of a job analysis.

Work Activities: The physical actions and mental processes by which workers achieve an establishment's
objectives.

Position: The work activities performed by one worker at one establishment.

Job: Consist of a group of related activities and duties. It could be a single position or a group of positions, at one
establishment, whose major work activities and objectives are similar in terms of worker actions, methodologies.
materials, products, and/or worker characteristics; and whose array of work activities differs significantly from
those of other positions.

Occupation: A group of jobs, found at more than one establishment, having work activities that are identical or
related in terms of combinations of similar methodologies, materials, products, worker actions, and/or worker
characteristics.

Task: A grouping of the elements and work activities of a job that have a common purpose, and are closely related
in terms of methodologies, materials, products, services, and types and sequences of worker actions.

Element: The smallest step into which it is practicable to subdivide a work activity for purposes of a job
description. It is the component of a task, but more comprehensive than individual motions of the worker.

CHAPTER 2: PLANNING THE JOB ANALYSIS

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Planning is a systematic process of establishing a need and then working out the best way to
meet the need, within a strategic framework that enables you to identify priorities and
determines your operational principles.
OBJECTIVES OF JOB ANALYSIS
One of a manager’s first important task is to identify objectives, which are the practical
statements that indicate how a work or a job will proceed. Objectives come from multiple
sources, which means that the product managers need to collect and redefine them for the
work team to understand and carry out. One way to identify objective is to first examine a
project’s goal. Goals or aims are the long term result of the project. Objectives are the short
term, practical routes in achieving goals.
ESTABLISHING OBJECTIVES, PERFORMANCE STANDARDS AND GOALS
1. PERFOFRMANCE GOALS AND OBJECTIVES – Statement of results and how to get there.
Describe the condition that will exist when the desired outcome has been achieved.
2. COMMUNICATE RESPONSIBILITIES, GOALS AND OBJECTIVES – by communicating
performance standards, you will be able to obtain desired results, improve an employee
performance, and develop new skills. Be sure to discuss the expectations with the
employee and confirm that the employee understands the tasks and responsibilities of
the position.
3. PERFORMANCE STANDARD – the work responsibilities and the task of an employee is
expected to perform. Performance standard has to be SMARTS. Specific, Measurable,
Attainable, Reasonable, Time based and Stretch: challenging to achieve beyond the
current level.
4. OBTAIN TOP MANAGEMENT SUPPORT
5. SURVEY THOSE INVOLVED
6. GIVE THEM A CHOICE
7. FIT INTO THEOIR GOALS

CHAPTER 3: PREPARING, INTRODUCING AND CONDUCTING JOB ANALYSIS

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There are six steps in doing a job analysis, as follows.
STEP 1: DECIDE HOW YOU’LL USE THE INFORMATION This will determine the data you collect.
Some data collection techniques like interviewing the employee are good for writing job
descriptions. Other techniques, like the position analysis questionnaire we describe later,
provide numerical ratings for each job; these can be used to compare jobs for compensation
purposes.
STEP 2: REVIEW RELEVANT BACKGROUND INFORMATION SUCH AS ORGANIZATION CHARTS,
PROCESS CHARTS, AND JOB DESCRIPTIONS. Research the assigned industry and become familiar
with its terminology, processes, work methods, materials, products, machines, equipment. and
key occupations.
When possible, obtain copies of establishment job descriptions; employee training manuals;
employee handbooks; union contracts; product samples and catalogs; company pamphlets and
annual reports; organization, workflow, and plant-layout charts; blank or completed copies of
key forms, such as work orders, production reports, product specification sheets, job guides,
and instructions; and departmental work schedules. These documents are used in preparing the
establishment organization and workflow charts and the narrative report.
Organization and workflow charts provide information about the establishment in concise and
graphic format. They supplement job data and add perspective in order to better describe the
interrelationships among individual jobs. The narrative report and charts contain occupational
and industrial information which is not included in the job analysis reports. They serve to
present data about the establishment as a whole that would otherwise remain fragmented or
unreported.
Review Job description in case of adding new tasks to the functional role, changing natural task
of the role or in case of dismantling or merging functional roles resulting from amendments in
the organizational structure of the organization or departments.
STEP 3: SELECT REPRESENTATIVE POSITIONS
The next step involves the selection of representative positions and jobs to be analyzed. This
selection is necessary when there are many incumbents in a single job and when a number of
similar jobs are to be analyzed, because it would be too time-consuming to analyze every
position and job. Whether or not the manager decides to redesign jobs via workforce analysis,
process redesign, or job redesign, he or she must at some point select which positions to focus
on for the job analysis. For example, it is usually unnecessary to analyze the jobs of 200
assembly workers when a sample of 10 jobs will do.
STEP 4: ACTUALLY ANALYZE THE JOB BY COLLECTING DATA ON JOB ACTIVITIES, WORKING
CONDITIONS, AND HUMAN TRAITS AND ABILITIES NEEDED TO PERFORM THE JOB

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Various qualitative and quantitative techniques are used to collect information about the
duties, responsibilities, and requirements of the job; the most important ones will be discussed
in this section. In practice, when the information is being used for multiple purposes, ranging
from developing recruitment criteria to making compensation decisions, several techniques
may be used in combination. Collecting job analysis data usually involves a joint effort by an HR
specialist, the incumbent, and the jobholder’s supervisor. The HR specialist (an HR manager, job
analyst, or consultant) might observe and analyze the work being done and then develop a job
description and specification. The supervisor and incumbent generally also get involved,
perhaps by filling out questionnaires. The supervisor and incumbent typically review and verify
the job analyst’s conclusions regarding the job’s duties, responsibilities, and requirements.
Methodology 1: Job Analysis Interview
The Job Analysis Interview is probably the most widely used method for determining the duties
and responsibilities of a job. It ranges from completely unstructured interviews (Tell me about
your job) to highly structured ones containing hundreds of specific items to check off.
Three types of interviews are used to collect job analysis data:
1. individual interviews with each employee;
2. group interviews with employees who have the same job; and
3. supervisory interviews with one or more supervisors who are thoroughly knowledgeable
about the job being analyzed.
Managers may conduct individual interviews with each employee, group interviews with groups
of employees who have the same job, and/or supervisor interviews with one or more
supervisors who know the job. The group interview is used when a large number of employees
are performing similar or identical work, and it can be a quick and inexpensive way of learning
about the job. As a rule, the immediate supervisor attends the group session; if not, the
supervisor should be interviewed separately to get that person’s perspective on the duties and
responsibilities of the job.
The most fruitful interviews follow a structured or checklist format. It follows a systematic
approach where employees are interviewed accurately and consistently following a present
format It includes a series of detailed questions regarding such matters as the general purpose
of the job; responsibilities and duties; the education, experience, and skills required; physical
and mental demands; and working conditions. A structured guide or checklist that lists
questions and provides spaces for answers should be used. Using a form ensures that crucial
questions are identified ahead of time, that complete and accurate information is gathered,
and that all interviewers (if there is more than one) glean the same types of data, thereby
helping to ensure comparability of results. However, leeway should also be permitted by
including some open-ended questions, such as “Is there anything that we didn’t cover with our
questions? When duties are not performed in a regular manner—for instance, when the
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incumbent doesn’t perform the same tasks or jobs over and over again many times a day—the
incumbent should be asked to list his or her duties in order of importance and frequency of
occurrence. This will ensure that crucial activities that occur infrequently—like a nurse’s
occasional emergency room duties—aren’t overlooked. After completing the interview, review
the information with the worker’s immediate supervisor and with the interviewee.
In a structured interview, you typically see that:
- All interviewees are asked the same questions in the same order.
- Interviewers records, compare and evaluate answers against standardized criteria.
- The interview process remains the same even if the interviewer changes.
- Due to its consistency, structured interview has a high level of reliability and validity.
Unstructured interview is carried out as a conversation with no specific questions predefined.
The interviewer should make the purpose and focus on the interview clear to the employees.
That the purpose of the interview is to understand their job role better in order to improve or
modify their role. In an unstructured interview, you may see that:
- Interviewees may receive different questions or the same questions may be asked in
different order.
- Interviewers don’t always use standardized criteria for recording, comparing and
evaluating answers.
- The interview process varies depending on the interviewer.
The following are some examples of questions which may help make sure that complete data
are collected:
What is the job being performed? What are the major duties of your position? What exactly do
you do? What physical locations do you work in? What are the education, experience, skill, and
[where applicable] certification and licensing requirements? In what activities do you
participate? What are the jobs responsibilities and duties? What are the basic accountabilities
or performance standards that typify your work? What are your responsibilities? What are the
environmental and working conditions involved? What are the jobs physical demands? The
emotional and mental demands? What are the health and safety conditions? Are you exposed
to any hazards or unusual working conditions?
Regarding work orders, instructions, and reports: Do you get your work orders and
instructions? What kind of forms or records do you use or keep? Can you show me the forms
and indicate which entries you make? What do you do with the completed forms?
Machines, equipment, tools, and work aids: What do you do when the machines or equipment
develop mechanical trouble? What do you do with the machines or equipment at the start and

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end of your work day? When do you use the calipers I see in your short pocket? Who uses the
oilcan, wrench, and rags / see on the machine ledge? When is that idle machine used and who
uses it? What other tools do you use?
Supplies, materials, and finished products: How do you get the supplies and materials to your
jobsite? What do you do with your finished work?
In work activities and time percentages: What other work do you do that I haven't seen, such as
the things you do once in a while? How does your work vary from week to week? Would you
please explain what you just did? Would you repeat your activities, limit 'more slowly, so I can
follow your motions? How often dining the day do you perform this part of your job? How long
does it take to complete that task?
Training and education: Asked of establishment official or supervisor: What type of various
experience does the worker need to qualify for this job? What type and length of training does
the new worker receive before you consider the worker capable of performing all required
activities? Which level of education is required? Why?
Asked of the worker: I-low are your previous jobs similar to this job? How were you trained for
this job? How long does the training last?
Physical demands and environmental conditions: Although mitch of this information is gathered
during the establishment and observation of the worker, specific data must be obtained
through such quest ions as: flow often do you lift that? How much does it weigh? How far do
you (any it? How many times a day do you climb those steps? How do you know what color
item to select?
Worker's use of judgment: It is crucial that the basis of worker judgment is fully understood
(e.g., knowledge, sensory input, memorized data) and is reflected in the written job description.
This information can usually be obtained by interview rather than observation. Ask questions
like what circumstances do you use one tool or piece of equipment rather than another? What
do you need to know in order to perform that activity? How do you know when the finished
item doesn't meet standards? How do you know when you can take care of a problem rather
than ask for assistance? How do you know what part of the machine needs adjustment? How
much of your work do you perform from memory and to what extent do you refer to written
instructions and manuals? What specifically do you need to know rewarding the physical
properties of the materials and the machines, equipment and tools that you use? How can you
tell by observation or feel that the product is ready? Why did you do that at that time?
The interviews method is a simple and quick way to collect information, including information
that might not appear on a written form. For instance, a skilled interviewer can unearth
important activities that occur only occasionally, or informal contacts that wouldn’t be obvious
from the organization chart. The employee can also vent frustrations that might otherwise go
unnoticed. Distortion of information is the main problem whether due to outright falsification

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or honest misunderstanding. Job analysis is often a prelude to changing a jobs pay rate. As
noted, employees therefore may legitimately view the interview as a sort of efficiency
evaluation that may affect their pay. They may then tend to exaggerate certain responsibilities
while minimizing others. In one study, researchers listed possible job duties either as simple
task statements ( record phone messages and other routine information ) or as ability
statements ( ability to record phone messages and other routine information ). Respondents
were more likely to include and report the ability-based versions of the statements. There may
be a tendency for people to inflate their jobs importance when abilities are involved, to impress
the perceptions of others. Employees will even puff up their job titles to make their jobs seem
more important. Obtaining valid information can thus be a slow process, and prudent analysts
get multiple inputs.
Methodology 2: Job Analysis Questionnaire
Having employees or supervisors fill out questionnaires to describe job-related duties and
responsibilities is another good method of obtaining job analysis information. Prepared
questionnaires are administered to numbers of workers to compile information on the various
work activities performed. Preparation of questionnaire items requires the analyst to have
considerable knowledge about the activities of the establishment and its jobs. There are two
major decisions around questionnaires: how structured it will be and who will complete it. In
practice, a typical job analysis questionnaire often falls between the two extremes of structured
and open-ended.
In practice, the best questionnaire often falls between these two extremes. A typical job
analysis questionnaire might include several open-ended questions (such as What is the jobs
overall purpose?) as well as structured questions (concerning, for instance, education required).
Multiple choice, checklist or a mix of all of them can also be used. All questionnaires have pros
and cons. A questionnaire is a quick and efficient way to obtain information from a large
number of employees; its less costly than interviewing hundreds of workers, for instance.
However, developing the questionnaire and testing it (perhaps by making sure the workers
understand the questions) can be time consuming. And as with interviews, employees may
distort their answers.
Questionnaires used for job analysis collect data about all aspects that influence how a job is
completed, including both internal and external factors. These are the most common areas that
questionnaires focus on:
- Knowledge, skills, experience, and qualifications
- Duties performed daily
- Equipment and materials used for duties
- Time spent on different job duties

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- Physical and emotional input
- Level of job satisfaction
- Salary and compensation
- Work conditions
- Additional comments
An example of a widely used pre-established questionnaire is the Position Analysis
Questionnaire (PAQ) developed by McCormick at Purdue University. The procedure for use of
the PAQ requires familiarization with the job through prior knowledge. interview. and/or
observation; it is used primarily for job evaluation and for aiding in the development of aptitude
requirements of jobs.
Also, Functional Job Analysis (FJA) is also a regularly used pre-established questionnaire that
rates a job on responsibilities for data, people, and things from simple to complex. For example,
working with “things” literally means the physical interaction with tangibles such as desktop
equipment (pencils, paper clips, telephone), groceries, luggage, or a bus. Physical involvement
with tangibles such as a telephone may not seem very important in tasks primarily concerned
with data (such as data analysis) or people (such as nursing), but its importance is quickly
apparent for a worker with a disability. This technique also identifies performance standards
and training requirements. Thus, FJA allows the analyst to answer the question: “To do this task
and meet these standards, what training does the worker require?”
Methodology 3: Observation
Observation involves watching employees perform their work and recording the frequency of
behaviors or the nature of performance. This can be done using information that is prepared in
advance (structured), or in real time with no advance information provided to the observer
(unstructured), or a combination of the two. Direct observation is especially useful when jobs
consist mainly of observable physical activities. Jobs like those of a janitor, assembly-line
worker, and accounting clerk are examples. Third-party observation focuses more on reality
than perception. As a result, third-party observation is often viewed as having more credibility,
since there is minimal incentive to distort the results. A challenge in using this job analysis
method is that observations can influence job behavior. Additionally, observation is usually not
appropriate when the job entails a lot of immeasurable mental activity (e.g., lawyers or design
engineers). Nor is it useful if the employee engages in important activities that might occur only
occasionally, such as compiling year-end reports. Often, direct observation and interviewing are
used together.
Methodology 4: Other Methods
Review of other Documents such as Participant Diary/Logs Another method is to ask workers to
keep a diary/log of what they do during the day. For every activity engaged in, the employee
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records the activity (along with the time) in a log. Some firms give employees pocket dictating
machines and pagers. Then at random times during the day, they page the workers, who
dictate what they are doing at that time. This approach can avoid relying on workers to
remember what they did hours earlier when they complete their logs at the end of the day.
Internet-Based Job Analysis Methods such as questionnaires and interviews can be time-
consuming. And collecting the information from geographically dispersed employees can be
challenging. Conducting the job analysis via the Internet is an obvious solution. Most simply, the
human resource department can distribute standardized job analysis questionnaires to
geographically disbursed employees via their company intranets, with instructions to complete
the forms and return them by a particular date. Of course, the instructions should be clear, and
its best to test the process first. Without a job analyst actually sitting there with the employee
or supervisor, there’s always a chance that the employees won’t cover important points or that
misunderstandings will cloud the results.
Using multiple sources of Job Analysis information
Job analysis information can be obtained from individual workers, groups, supervisors, or
observers. Interviews, observations, or questionnaires can be used. Some firms use a single
approach, but one study suggests that using only one source is not wise, because each
approach has drawbacks. For example, in a group interview, some group members may feel
pressure to go along with the group’s consensus, or an individual employee may be careless
about how he or she completes a questionnaire. Thus, since collecting job analysis data from
only one source may lead to inaccurate conclusions, job analysis data should be collected from
several sources whenever possible.

STEP 5: VERIFY THE JOB ANALYSIS INFORMATION WITH THE WORKER PERFORMING THE JOB
AND WITH HIS OR HER IMMEDIATE SUPERVISOR This will help confirm that the information is
factually correct and complete and help to gain their acceptance.
The job analysis information should be verified with any workers performing the job and with
the immediate supervisor. This corroboration will help to confirm that the information is
factually correct and complete, and it can also help gain the employees’ acceptance of the job
analysis data. The knowledge that information will be verified increases the reliability and
validity of the results in two ways. First, areas of inconsistency or concern can be further
probed to develop awareness as to why the inconsistency exists and what should be done
about it. Second, knowing that they may later be held accountable for their contributions,
participants in the data collection techniques will be more honest and consistent.

STEP 6: DEVELOP A JOB DESCRIPTION AND JOB SPECIFICATION

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The most important product of job analysis is the job description. A job description is a written
statement of what the worker actually does, how he or she does it, and what the jobs working
conditions are. You use this information to write a job specification; this lists the knowledge,
abilities, and skills required to perform the job satisfactorily. There is no standard format for
writing a job description. However, most descriptions contain sections that cover:
1. Job identification
2. Job summary
3. Responsibilities and duties
4. Authority of incumbent
5. Standards of performance
6. Working conditions
7. Job specification

GATHERING JOB ANALYSIS DATA

1. Duties and tasks – The basic unit of a job is the performance of specific tasks and duties.
Information to be collected may include frequency, duration, effort, skills, complexity,
equipment, standards, etc.
2. Environment – This may have a significant impact on the physical requirement to be
able to perform the job. May also include unpleasant environment such as offensive
ambiance, conditions and temperature extremes. fumes, radioactive, etc.
3. Tools and equipment – include protective clothing
4. Relationships – supervision given and received. Relationship with internal and external
people.
5. Requirements- KSA

CHAPTER 4: DEVELOPING JOB DESCRIPTION AND SPECIFICATION

DRAFT JOB DESCRIPTION AND SPECFICATION

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This guide provides the basic of writing a job description and covers the following sections of
the job description.

 Position details
 Job duties (what you do)
 Performance standard (how you do it)
 Job factors
Position Details contains general information about the job-current or requested classification,
working title, pay range, exemption status, department name and number, position number,
percentage of effort, job description summary, comparable position, etc.
Working title specifies the title of the job, such as vice-president, marketing manager, recruiter,
or inventory control clerk. It should be based upon the main function or role of the job. Create a
working title that appropriately describe both the level of responsibility and the role of the job.

Good Working Titles Working Titles that need improvement

Program Director Director of the XYZ Program at the School of AB
Administrative Assistant Assistant to the Director of ABC Dept
Help Desk Support Analyst Systems Programmer II
Business Manager Administrator III

The department and location are also indicated, along with the title of the immediate
supervisor—in this case under the heading reports to.
Date is the date the job description was actually approved. There may also be a space to
indicate who approved the description and perhaps a space showing the location of the job in
terms of its facility/division and department.
This section might also include the immediate supervisor s title and information regarding
salary and/or pay scale. There might also be space for the grade/level of the job, if there is such
a category. For example, a firm may classify programmers as programmer II, programmer III,
and so on.

Position/Job Summary
The position/job summary should be prepared after the body of the job description is written. It
summarizes the general nature of the job, stating only its major functions or activities. It should
reflect the worker's relationship, if significant, to data, people, and things and the levels of

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worker functions, as well as the assigned work fields. In some cases, work devices and the work
setting, such as work locations and type of establishment, should also be reflected. Most jobs
can be summarized in a concise, general way, such as: "Supervises and coordinates activities of
workers engaged in assembly of typewriters."
Finally, make it clear in the summary that the employer expects the employee to carry out his
or her duties efficiently, attentively, and conscientiously.
For example, for the job of materials manager, the summary might state that he or she will
“purchase economically, regulate deliveries of, store, and distribute all materials necessary on
the production line,” while the summary for a mailroom supervisor might indicate that he or
she will “receive, sort, and deliver all incoming mail properly, and he or she will handle all
outgoing mail, including the accurate and timely posting of such mail.”
The position/job description summary:
* Contains 1 - 3 paragraphs
* Summarizes the main points of the job description which may include key responsibilities,
functions, and duties; education and experience requirements; and any other pertinent
information (i.e. scheduling requirements, travel, etc.)
* Is used in job postings
* Concise and brief description why the position exists, why the company needs the position.
* Provide a brief summary of the scope, objective or role, and key responsibilities (typically
three to four) of the position.
* Describe how the position supports, contributes, or is linked to organization’ or program’s
mission. If the position supports research, briefly describe objective of project.
* It may be helpful to write a position summary after defining the essential responsibilities
(functions) of the position.
Example:
Department Head:
This position is responsible for setting departmental strategic goals and initiatives and
managing departmental resources to achieve required business results in accordance with the
University’s Strategic Plan.
Client Services Representative:
This position is responsible for providing front-line customer service in support of Departmental
goals, objectives and day-to-day operations.

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Job duties is the foundation of job description. It conveys the complexity, scope, and level of
responsibility of the job.
Duties and Responsibilities
This section presents a detailed list of the job’s major duties and responsibilities. Each of the
job’s major duties should be listed separately and described in a few sentences. Typical duties
of jobs might include maintaining balanced and controlled inventories, making accurate
postings to accounts payable, maintaining favorable purchase price variances, or repairing
production line tools and equipment. Most experts state unequivocally that “one item
frequently found that should never be included in a job description is a ‘cop-out clause’ like
‘other duties, as assigned.’” This phrase leaves open the nature of the job and the people
needed to staff it, and it can be subject to abuse.

 This section (duties and responsibilities) should use action statements of key work
activities to achieve the position objective.

 Limit this section to current essential duties and responsibilities each of which accounts
for more than 5 percent of the position.

 Use clear and concise language; the goal is to ensure the reader can easily understand
what the position is required to do; closely related duties should be grouped together
in one responsibility statement.

 Avoid gender-based language.

 Use action verbs in the present tense. For example, use “writes job descriptions” rather
than “wrote job descriptions.” (see: action verb)

 Do not base the content of the job description on the qualifications, capabilities, skills,
and interests of a person(s) who currently holds the position, but rather on what you
would require from anyone doing the job.

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  Summarize the accountabilities of the position accurately, do not understate or
overstate them; closely related duties should be grouped together in one responsibility
statement.

 Describe the position, as it exists today, not how it was in the past, or how it will be in
the future. The only exception to this rule is if there are imminent changes under way to
the position.

 If you must use acronyms or abbreviations, use the full term the first time followed by
the acronym or abbreviation in brackets before using the abbreviation in the rest of the
document. For example, “Rizal Technological University (RTU)”.

 Keep the content of the job description to a manageable length. The length of a job
description does not indicate the importance of the job.

This section of the Job Description is comprised of three main elements:

1. Key Accountabilities
The main areas of responsibility within a job, or “buckets of work.” A job description
usually contains three to five Key Accountabilities.
2. Duty Statements
Sentences that provide additional information about the tasks associated with the Key
Accountability.
3. Percentage of Time Estimates the portion of the job that is spent on a particular Key
Accountability.

Job Duties Writing Methods

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When the Job Duties are well written and organized, they can accurately convey the
complexity, scope, and level of responsibility of a job. To assist in the organization and
writing of the Job Duties, two writing methods have been developed:
Method # 1:
1. Think of the job in terms of its Key Accountabilities, or main responsibilities/functions.
Typically, a job will have 3 - 5 major Key Accountabilities. Here are some examples:

 Budget Management
 Executive Support
 Event Coordination
2. After establishing the Key Accountabilities, generate specific job duties associated with
each. These are the individual tasks or duties that correspond to the Key Accountability. For
example, specific Budget Management duties might include:

 Prepare budgetary reports

 Analyze expenditures
 Monitor levels
3. Condense the specific job duties into two to three concise “Duty Statements,” beginning
each statement with an action verb (see page 8 for a list)

Method # 2:
1. Brainstorm a list of all the duties required to perform the job. These are the individual
tasks completed on a daily, weekly, monthly or annual basis. Below is an example of a
task list:

 Arrange for catering

 Compose and types correspondence
 Coordinate logistical support for meetings, seminars, and departmental events
 Determine and secures the event location
 Make travel arrangements
 Monitor levels
 Prepare budgetary reports

2. Review the list and group the duties based upon the specific functions and responsibilities
of the position, also known as Key Accountabilities.

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 3. Establish the Key Accountabilities. For this group, the Key Accountabilities may include:
Event Coordination, Administrative Support, and Budget Administration.
4. Condense the specific job duties into two to three concise “Duty Statements,” beginning
each statement with an action verb.

Here is an example of a well written and organized Key Accountability Section in a Job
Description:
Key Accountability Event Coordination
Duty Statements
Coordinate all Dean’s Office events. This includes securing the event location, scheduling
presenters, coordinating the production of event marketing materials and programs,
maintaining the RSVP list, and making all catering arrangements. At the event,
supervise the event staff and greet the guests.
Percentage of Time 15%

Performance Standards/Indicators
This section is typically completed by either the supervisor, hiring manager, or designated
administrator in the department. There is a Performance Standards section associated with
each Key Accountability which provides information about the performance expectations of
that particular area of responsibility.
Some job descriptions also contain a performance standards/indicators section, which indicates
the standards the employee is expected to achieve in each of the job description’s main duties
and responsibilities. It conveys the expectation of the job. Setting standards is never easy. Most
managers soon learn, however, that just telling employees to “do their best” doesn’t provide
enough guidance to ensure top performance. One straightforward way of setting standards is
to finish the statement “I will be completely satisfied with your work when . . .” This sentence, if
completed for each duty listed in the job description, should result in a usable set of
performance standards.
Some examples would include the following:
Duty: Accurately Posting Accounts Payable

 All invoices received are posted within the same working day.
 All invoices are routed to the proper department managers for approval no later
than the day following receipt.

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  No more than three posting errors per month occur, on average.
 The posting ledger is balanced by the end of the third working day of each month.
Duty: Meeting Daily Production Schedule

 Work group produces no fewer than 426 units per working day.
 No more than 2 percent of units are rejected at the next workstation, on average.
 Work is completed with no more than 5 percent overtime per week, on average.

Authority
This section of a job description should define the limits of the jobholder’s authority, including
his or her decision-making authority, direct supervision of other employees, and budgetary
limitations. For example, the vice-president of human resources may have the authority to
approve all budgeted non- capital expenditures and budgeted capital expenditures up to $100
000; approve expense accounts for subordinates; hire and fire subordinates; and exercise line
authority over direct reporting positions.
Relationships
There may be a relationships statement that shows the jobholders relationships with others
inside and outside the organization. For a human resource manager, such a statement might
look like this:
Reports to: Vice president of employee relations.
Supervises: Human resource clerk, test administrator, labor relations director, and one
secretary.
Works with: All department managers and executive management.
Outside the company: Employment agencies, executive recruiting firms, union representatives,
state and federal employment offices, and various vendors.
Working Conditions and Physical Environment
The job description should also list the general working conditions involved in the job. This
section generally includes information about noise level, temperature, lighting, degree of
privacy, frequency of interruptions, hours of work, amount of travel, and hazards to which the
incumbent may be exposed.

Inherent Hazards:

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Exposure to Weather; Moving Mechanical Parts; Extreme Cold; Electric Shock; Extreme Heat;
High Exposed Places; Wet and/or Humid; Radiant Energy; Noise; Explosives; Vibration; Toxic
Chemicals

JOB SPECIFICATIONS Writing the job specification involves examining the duties and
responsibilities of the job and answering the question, “What human traits and experience are
required to do this job?” Much of this information can be obtained from the job analysis
questionnaire. The job specification clarifies what kind of person to recruit and which qualities
that person should be tested for. It is sometimes included with the job description. Complying
with human rights legislation means keeping a few pointers in mind:
• All listed qualifications are bona fide occupational requirements based on the current
job duties and responsibilities.
• Unjustifiably high educational or lengthy experience requirements can lead to systemic
discrimination.
• The qualifications of the current incumbent should not be confused with the minimum
requirements, since he or she might be underqualified or overqualified.
• For entry-level jobs, identifying the actual physical and mental demands is critical. For
example, if the job requires detailed manipulation on a circuit-board assembly line, finger
dexterity is extremely important and is something for which candidates should be tested. A
physical demands analysis—which identifies the senses used and the type, frequency, and
amount of physical effort involved in the job—is often used to supplement the job specification.
Having such detailed information is particularly beneficial when determining accommodation
requirements. The mental and emotional demands of a job are typically missing from job analysis
information. They should be specified so that the mental and emotional competencies of job
applicants can be assessed and any need for accommodation can be identified. Identifying the
human requirements for a job can be accomplished through a judgmental approach (based on
educated guesses of job incumbents, supervisors, and HR managers) or statistical analysis (based
on the relationship between some human trait or skill and some criterion of job effectiveness).
Basing job specifications on statistical analysis is more legally defensible. For example, the
Personality-Related Position Requirements Form (PPRF) is a survey instrument designed to assist
managers in identifying potential personality-related traits that may be important in a job.
Identifying personality dimensions is difficult when using most job analysis techniques, because
they tend to be much better suited to unearthing human aptitudes and skills—such as manual
dexterity. The PPRF uses questionnaire items to assess the relevance of such basic personality
dimensions as agreeableness, conscientiousness, and emotional stability to the job under study.
The relevance of these personality traits can then be assessed through statistical analysis.17

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Completing the Job Specification Form once the required human characteristics have been
determined, whether using statistical analysis or a judgmental approach, a job specification
form should be completed.

REVIEW DRAFTS WITH MANAGERS AND EMPLOYEES

1. Job description review process
2. Special Process Fiscal Year End
3. Appeals
4. Finalize job description and recommendation

CHAPTER 5: MAINTAINING AND UPDATING JOB DESCRIPTION AND JOB SPECIFICATION

The following are the key reasons why companies should establish a good practice of
maintaining up to date and relevant job descriptions.
1. Quality Recruitment
2. Establishing expectations
3. Employee accountability
4. Promoting Productivity
5. Limiting Liability
Update Job Description and Job Specification as Organization Change
Areas of Organizational Change
Resistance to Change
Techniques for Managing Change Effectively
Periodically review all jobs.

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