Operant conditioning (sometimes referred to as instrumental conditioning) is a method of

learning that occurs through rewards and punishments for behavior. Through operant conditioning,
an association is made between a behavior and a consequence for that behavior.1

For example, when a lab rat presses a blue button, he receives a food pellet as a reward, but when
he presses the red button he receives a mild electric shock. As a result, he learns to press the blue
button but avoid the red button.

But operant conditioning is not just something that takes place in experimental settings while
training lab animals; it also plays a powerful role in everyday learning. Reinforcement and
punishment take place almost every day in natural settings as well as in more structured settings
such as the classroom or therapy sessions.

Let's take a closer look at how operant conditioning was discovered, the impact it had on
psychology, and how it is used to change old behaviors and teach new ones.

Verywell / Joshua Seong

The History of Operant Conditioning

Operant conditioning was coined by behaviorist B.F. Skinner,1 which is why you may occasionally
hear it referred to as Skinnerian conditioning. As a behaviorist, Skinner believed that it was not
really necessary to look at internal thoughts and motivations in order to explain behavior. Instead,
he suggested, we should look only at the external, observable causes of human behavior.

Through the first part of the 20th-century, behaviorism had become a major force within
psychology. The ideas of John B. Watson dominated this school of thought early on. Watson
focused on the principles of classical conditioning,2 once famously suggesting that he could take
any person regardless of their background and train them to be anything he chose.

Where the early behaviorists had focused their interests on associative learning, Skinner was more
interested in how the consequences of people's actions influenced their behavior.

Skinner used the term operant to refer to any "active behavior that operates upon the environment
to generate consequences." In other words, Skinner's theory explained how we acquire the range
of learned behaviors we exhibit each and every day.

His theory was heavily influenced by the work of psychologist Edward Thorndike, who had
proposed what he called the law of effect.3 According to this principle, actions that are followed
by desirable outcomes are more likely to be repeated while those followed by undesirable
outcomes are less likely to be repeated.

Operant conditioning relies on a fairly simple premise - actions that are followed by reinforcement
will be strengthened and more likely to occur again in the future. If you tell a funny story in class
and everybody laughs, you will probably be more likely to tell that story again in the future. If you
raise your hand to ask a question and your teacher praises your polite behavior, you will be more
likely to raise your hand the next time you have a question or comment. Because the behavior was
followed by reinforcement, or a desirable outcome, the preceding actions are strengthened.

Conversely, actions that result in punishment or undesirable consequences will be weakened and
less likely to occur again in the future. If you tell the same story again in another class but nobody
laughs this time, you will be less likely to repeat the story again in the future. If you shout out an
answer in class and your teacher scolds you, then you might be less likely to interrupt the class
again.

Types of Behaviors

Skinner distinguished between two different types of behaviors

 Respondent behaviors are those that occur automatically and reflexively, such as pulling
your hand back from a hot stove or jerking your leg when the doctor taps on your knee.
You don't have to learn these behaviors, they simply occur automatically and involuntarily.
 Operant behaviors, on the other hand, are those under our consciouscontrol. Some may
occur spontaneously and others purposely, but it is the consequences of these actions that
then influence whether or not they occur again in the future. Our actions on the environment
and the consequences of that action make up an important part of the learning process.

While classical conditioning could account for respondent behaviors, Skinner realized that it could
not account for a great deal of learning. Instead, Skinner suggested that operant conditioning held
far greater importance.

Skinner invented different devices during his boyhood and he put these skills to work during his
studies on operant conditioning.

He created a device known as an operant conditioning chamber, most often referred to today as
a Skinner box. The chamber was essentially a box that could hold a small animal such as a rat or
pigeon. The box also contained a bar or key that the animal could press in order to receive a reward.

In order to track responses, Skinner also developed a device known as a cumulative recorder. The
device recorded responses as an upward movement of a line so that response rates could be read
by looking at the slope of the line.

Components of Operant Conditioning

There are several key concepts in operant conditioning.

Reinforcement in Operant Conditioning

Reinforcement is any event that strengthens or increases the behavior it follows. There are two
kinds of reinforcers:

1. Positive reinforcers are favorable events or outcomes that are presented after the behavior.
In situations that reflect positive reinforcement, a response or behavior is strengthened by
the addition of something, such as praise or a direct reward. For example, if you do a good
job at work and your manager gives you a bonus.
2. Negative reinforcers involve the removal of an unfavorable events or outcomes after the
display of a behavior. In these situations, a response is strengthened by the removal of
something considered unpleasant. For example, if your child starts to scream in the middle
of the grocery store, but stops once you hand him a treat, you will be more likely to hand
him a treat the next time he starts to scream. Your action led to the removal of the
unpleasant condition (the child screaming), negatively reinforcing your behavior.

In both of these cases of reinforcement, the behavior increases.

Reinforcement in Conditioning Behavior

Punishment in Operant Conditioning

Punishment is the presentation of an adverse event or outcome that causes a decrease in the
behavior it follows. There are two kinds of punishment:

1. Positive punishment, sometimes referred to as punishment by application, presents an

unfavorable event or outcome in order to weaken the response it follows. Spanking for
misbehavior is an example of punishment by application.
2. Negative punishment, also known as punishment by removal, occurs when a favorable
event or outcome is removed after a behavior occurs. Taking away a child's video game
following misbehavior is an example of negative punishment.

In both of these cases of punishment, the behavior decreases.

Punishment and its Influence on Behavior

Reinforcement Schedules
Reinforcement is not necessarily a straightforward process and there are a number of factors that
can influence how quickly and how well new things are learned. Skinner found that when and how
often behaviors were reinforced played a role in the speed and strength of acquisition. In other
words, the timing and frequency of reinforcement influenced how new behaviors were learned and
how old behaviors were modified.

Skinner identified several different schedules of reinforcement that impact the operant
conditioning process:4

1. Continuous reinforcement involves delivery a reinforcement every time a response

occurs. Learning tends to occur relatively quickly, yet the response rate is quite low.
Extinction also occurs very quickly once reinforcement is halted.
2. Fixed-ratio schedules are a type of partial reinforcement. Responses are reinforced only
after a specific number of responses have occurred. This typically leads to a fairly steady
response rate.
3. Fixed-interval schedules are another form of partial reinforcement. Reinforcement occurs
only after a certain interval of time has elapsed. Response rates remain fairly steady and
start to increase as the reinforcement time draws near, but slow immediately after the
reinforcement has been delivered.
4. Variable-ratio schedules are also a type of partial reinforcement that involve reinforcing
behavior after a varied number of responses. This leads to both a high response rate and
slow extinction rates.
5. Variable-interval schedules are the final form of partial reinforcement Skinner described.
This schedule involves delivering reinforcement after a variable amount of time has
elapsed. This also tends to lead to a fast response rate and slow extinction rate.

Reinforcement Schedules and How They Work

Examples of Operant Conditioning

We can find examples of operant conditioning at work all around us. Consider the case of children
completing homework to earn a reward from a parent or teacher, or employees finishing projects
to receive praise or promotions.
Some more examples of operant conditioning in action:

 If your child acts out during a shopping trip, you might give him a treat to get him to be
quiet. Because you have positively reinforced the misbehavior, he will probably be more
likely to act out again in the future in order to receive another treat. (positive reinforcement)
 After performing in a community theater play, you receive applause from the audience.
This acts as a positive reinforcer inspiring you to try out for more performance roles.
(positive reinforcement)
 You train your dog to fetch by offering him praise and a pat on the head whenever he
performs the behavior correctly.
 A professor tells students that if they have perfect attendance all semester, then they do not
have to take the final comprehensive exam. By removing an unpleasant stimulus (the final
test) students are negatively reinforced to attend class regularly.
 If you fail to hand in a project on time, your boss becomes angry and berates your
performance in front of your co-workers. This acts as a positive punisher making it less
likely that you will finish projects late in the future.

 A teen girl does not clean up her room as she was asked, so her parents take away her
phone for the rest of the day. This is an example of a negative punishment in which a
positive stimulus is taken away.

In some of these examples, the promise or possibility of rewards causes an increase in behavior,
but operant conditioning can also be used to decrease a behavior. The removal of a desirable
outcome or negative outcome application can be used to decrease or prevent undesirable behaviors.
For example, a child may be told they will lose recess privileges if they talk out of turn in class.
This potential for punishment may lead to a decrease in disruptive behaviors.

A Word From Verywell

While behaviorism may have lost much of the dominance it held during the early part of the 20th-
century, operant conditioning remains an important and often utilized tool in the learning and
behavior modification process. Sometimes natural consequences lead to changes in our behavior.
In other instances, rewards and punishments may be consciously doled out in order to create a
change.
Operant conditioning is something you may immediately recognize in your own life, whether it is
in your approach to teaching your children good behavior or in training the family dog to stop
chewing on your favorite slippers. The important thing to remember is that with any type of
learning, it can sometimes take time. Consider the type of reinforcement or punishment that may
work best for your unique situation and assess which type of reinforcement schedule might lead to
the best results.