JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL

AND INSTRUCTIONAL STUDIES

IN THE WORLD

August 2013

Volume 3 Issue 3

ISSN: 2146-7463

http://www.wjeis.org
 JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL AND INSTRUCTIONAL STUDIES
IN THE WORLD
August 2013, Volume: 3 Issue: 3 ISSN: 2146-7463

Contact Addresses

Prof. Dr. Zeki Kaya, Gazi Üniversitesi, Gazi Eğitim Fakültesi, Eğitim Bilimleri
Bölümü
06500 Teknikokullar Ankara/Türkiye
E. Mail: [email protected] Phone: +903122028230 Fax: +903122228483

Prof. Dr. Uğur Demiray, Anadolu Üniversitesi, İletişim Bilimleri Fakültesi,

Yunusemre Kampüsü, 26470 Eskişehir/Türkiye
E. Mail: [email protected] Phone: +905422322167

Assist. Prof. Dr. Ilknur Istifci, Anadolu Üniversitesi, Yabancı Diller Yüksek Okulu,
İki Eylül Kampusü, 26470 Eskişehir/Türkiye
E. Mail: [email protected] Phone: +902223350580

Sponsors

Abstracting & Indexing

WJEIS is listed in;

Editors
Prof. Dr. Zeki Kaya, Gazi University, Turkey
Prof. Dr. Uğur Demiray, Anadolu University, Turkey

Associate Editor
Assist. Prof. Dr. Ilknur Istifci, Anadolu University, Turkey

COPYRIGHT @ JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL AND INSTRUCTIONAL STUDIES IN THE WORLD i

 JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL AND INSTRUCTIONAL STUDIES
IN THE WORLD
August 2013, Volume: 3 Issue: 3 ISSN: 2146-7463

Editorial Board
Prof. Dr. Abdul Hakim Juri, University of Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
Prof. Dr. Ahmet Mahiroğlu, Gazi University, Turkey
Prof. Dr. Alan Smith, The University of Southern Queensland, Australia
Prof. Dr. Ali H. Raddaoui, University of Sfax, Tunisia
Prof. Dr. Ali Şimşek, Anadolu University, Turkey
Prof. Dr. Augustyn Bańka, Nicolaus Copernicus University, Poland
Prof. Dr. Boriss Misnevs, Transport and Telecommunication Institute, Latvia
Prof. Dr. Cevat Celep, Kocaeli University, Turkey
Prof. Dr. Coşkun Bayrak, Anadolu University, Turkey
Prof. Dr. Emine Demiray, Anadolu University, Turkey
Prof. Dr. Esmahan Ağaoğlu, Anadolu University, Turkey
Prof. Dr. Francis Glasgow, Guyana University, South America
Prof. Dr. H. Güçlü Yavuzcan, Gazi University, Turkey
Prof. Dr. Jim Flood, Open University, United Kingdom
Prof. Dr. K. M. Gupta, Motilal Nehru National Institute of Technology, India
Prof. Dr. Mehmet Durdu Karslı, Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University, Turkey
Prof. Dr. Mehmet Kesim, Anadolu University, Turkey
Prof. Dr. Modafar Ati, Abu Dhabi University, United Arab Emirates
Prof. Dr. Mohamed Ziad Hamdan, Modern Education House, Syria
Prof. Dr. Müfit Kömleksiz, Cyprus International University,TRNC
Prof. Dr. Paul Kawachi, Bejing Normal University, China
Prof. Dr. Ramesh C. Sharma, Indira Gandhi National Open University, India
Prof. Dr. Rozhan M. Idrus, School of Distance Education, University Sains, Malaysia
Prof. Dr. Santosh Panda, Indira Gandhi National Open University, India
Prof. Dr. Sharif H. Guseynov, Transport and Telecommunication Institute, Latvia
Prof. Dr. Tamar Lominadze, Georgian Technical University, Georgia
Prof. Dr. Tayyip Duman, Gazi University, Turkey
Prof. Dr. Tony Townsend, University of Glasgow, United Kingdom
Prof. Dr. Valentina Dagiene, Institute of Mathematics and Informatics, Lithuania
Prof. Dr. Yoav Yair,The Open University of Israel, Israel
Prof. Dr. Yüksel Kavak, Hacettepe University, Turkey
Prof. Dr. Zdena Lustigova, Chareles University, Czech Republic
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Antonis Lionarakis, Hellenic Open University, Greece
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Gonca Telli Yamamoto, Okan University, Turkey
Assoc. Prof. Dr. I. Hakki Mirici, Akdeniz University, Turkey
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Natalija Lepkova, Vilnius Gediminas Technical University, Lithuania
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Nedim Gürses, Anadolu University, Turkey
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Shivakumar Deene, Karnataka State Open University, India
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Steve Wheeler, University of Plymouth, United Kingdom
Assist. Prof. Dr. Irfan Yurdabakan, Dokuz Eykul University, Turkey
Assist. Prof. Dr. Katherine Sinitsa, International Research and Training Center, Ukrania
Assist. Prof. Dr. Roxana Criu, Cuza University, Romania
Dr. Hisham Mobaideen, Mu'tah University, Jordan
Dr. Simon Stobart, University of Teesside, United Kingdom

COPYRIGHT @ JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL AND INSTRUCTIONAL STUDIES IN THE WORLD ii

 JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL AND INSTRUCTIONAL STUDIES
IN THE WORLD
August 2013, Volume: 3 Issue: 3 ISSN: 2146-7463

CONTENTS……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….……iii

From Editors………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….v

01. THE VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY OF TURKISH VERSION OF THE RELATIONAL SELF-ESTEEM SCALE
Ahmet Akin, Okan Bilgin, Adem Gunes, Zeynep Akkus, Taner Demir- TURKEY…………………………………………….1-4

02. ENGAGING UNDERGRADUATES IN RESEARCH

Samuray B. Ozay- AUSTRALIA…………………………………………………………………………………………………………….……….5-9

03. INVESTIGATION OF READING TEXTS IN B1 LEVEL IN FRENCH LANGUAGE TEACHING

Senem Seda Sahenk Erkan- TURKEY…………………………………………………………………………………………………..……10-16

04. THE VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY OF TURKISH VERSION OF THE SELF-FOCUSED ATTENTION SCALE
Ahmet Akin, Taner Demir, Zeynep Akkus, Okan Bilgin, Adem Günes- TURKEY…………………………………………17-20

05. ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR AND CROSSCULTURAL UNDERSTANDING

IN INTERNATIONAL EDUCATION ADMINISTRATION
Selin Yildiz Nielsen- TURKEY……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………21-29

06. THE QUALITY OF EDUCATION FOR STUDENTS WITH DISABILITIES

Sanja Selimović, Amila MuJezinović -BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA , Stanko Blatnik- SLOVENIA……………….30-33

07. COMPARISON OF SOCIAL – PSYCHOLOGICAL INTERACTION BETWEEN PARENTS

OF MENTALLY – RETARDED CHILDREN AND PARENTS OF NORMAL CHILDREN
Hossain Jenaabadi- IRAN.……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………....34-39

08. THE VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY OF TURKISH VERSION OF THE SITUATIONAL SELF-AWARENESS SCALE
Ahmet Akin, Adem Gunes, Okan Bilgin, Zeynep Akkus- TURKEY………………………………………………………………40-43

09. THE SECONDARY EDUCATION STUDENTS’ PERCEPTIONS REGARDING PEACE EDUCATION

AND HUMAN RIGHTS
Gulay Bedir, Mehmet Arslan- TURKEY…………………………………………………………………………………………………….44-55

10. TEACHERS’ ATTITUDES TOWARDS THE “DYNED” IN PRIMARY EDUCATION IN TURKEY

Alptekin Muhammed Yigit- TURKEY………………………………………………………………………………………………………..56-65

11. IS TEACHER LEADERSHIP A FANTASY OR REALITY? A REVIEW

Sumera Khan, Sufiana Khatoon Malik- PAKISTAN………..………………………………………………………………………….66-72

12. ENSURING AND PROMOTING THE PEDAGOGICAL COMPETENCE

OF UNIVERSITY LECTURERS IN AFRICA
Michael Olalekan Olatunji- BOTSWANA…………………………………………………………………………………………………73-85

13. OPEN EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO BIOLOGY TEACHING

AND RESEARCH AID IN ETHIOPIA
Sanjoy Kumar Pal, Manas Ranjan Panigrahi- ETHIOPIA……………………………………………………………………………86-93

14. INVESTIGATING ROLES OF THE HEALTHY EYES DURING PROBLEMATIC READING

Behnam Behfrouz- IRAN…………………………………………………………………………………………………………….…………94-100

COPYRIGHT @ JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL AND INSTRUCTIONAL STUDIES IN THE WORLD iii

 JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL AND INSTRUCTIONAL STUDIES
IN THE WORLD
August 2013, Volume: 3 Issue: 3 ISSN: 2146-7463

Dear WJEIS Readers,

WJEIS appears on your screen now as Volume 3, Number 3. In this issue it publishes 14 articles.

Colleagues that are in editorial board worked hard to determine the articles of this issue. There are also some
th
articles that were presented in “4 International Conference on New Trends in Education and Their
Implications” that took place between 25-27 April 2013 with the contribution of 28 countries. Articles are
evaluated by the referees that are either in editorial board or outside the board.

Although WJEIS is a new journal, it has been welcomed with interest. A lot of journals from various universities
are in the evaluation process. We would like to thank cordially our colleagues who work hard in editorial board
to evaluate the articles, writers who contribute to our journal and all readers.
st
1 August, 2013

Best regards

Prof. Dr. Zeki Kaya

Prof. Dr. Uğur Demiray

COPYRIGHT @ JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL AND INSTRUCTIONAL STUDIES IN THE WORLD v

 JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL AND INSTRUCTIONAL STUDIES
IN THE WORLD
August 2013, Volume: 3 Issue: 3 Article: 01
ISSN: 2146-7463

THE VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY OF TURKISH VERSION

OF THE RELATIONAL SELF-ESTEEM SCALE

Ahmet Akin
Sakarya Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi
TURKEY
[email protected]

Okan Bilgin
TURKEY
[email protected]

Adem Güneş
TURKEY
[email protected]

Zeynep Akkuş
TURKEY
[email protected]

Taner Demir
TURKEY
[email protected]

Abstract
The aim of this study is to examine validity and reliability of the Turkish version of the Relational Self-esteem
Scale (Du, King, & Chi 2012). The sample of this study consisted of 335 undergraduate students. The results of
confirmatory factor analysis indicated that the uni-dimensional relational self-esteem model (7 items) was well
fit (x²= 21.01, df= 12, p= .05028, RMSEA= .047, CFI= .98, IFI= .98, GFI= .98, AGFI= .96, and SRMR= .031). The
internal consistency reliability coefficient of the scale was .77. The corrected item-total correlations ranged
from .41 to .63. Overall findings demonstrated that this scale had high validity and reliability scores.

Key Words: Relational self-esteem, validity, reliability, factor analysis.

INTRODUCTION

According to the Brewer and Gardners’ (1996) three-dimensional model of the self, the self consists of three
aspects: personal, relational, and collective. The first dimension, personal self, indicates the differentiated and
individuated self-concept which emphasizes one’s uniqueness. While the second dimension, relational self,
refers to self-concept which is formed in connection with significant others (e.g. family and best friends), the
third dimension, the collective self, represents to self-concept that is built on relationships with social groups
(e.g. nationality and ethnicity) (Du, King & Chi, 2012).

Although a plethora of research on self-esteem have been constructed, most of them have focused on personal
self-esteem which stemmed from Rosenberg’ studies. These research demonstrated that self-esteem is
positively associated with mental health, happiness, and one’s capacity for creative and productive work
(Bolognini, Plancherel, Bettschart, & Halfon, 1996; Furnham & Cheng, 2000; Zuckerman, 1989).

COPYRIGHT @ JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL AND INSTRUCTIONAL STUDIES IN THE WORLD 1

 JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL AND INSTRUCTIONAL STUDIES
IN THE WORLD
August 2013, Volume: 3 Issue: 3 Article: 01
ISSN: 2146-7463

Furthermore, nowadays studies on self-esteem, have also underlined the importance of collective self-esteem
(Crocker & Luhtanen, 1990; Luhtanen & Crocker, 1992) which means to how people perceive themselves with
respect to the value they place on their social group. Research generally indicated that collective self-esteem
associated positively with psychological well-being (Crocker, Luhtanen, Blaine, & Broadnax, 1994).

Recently, Du, King, and Chi (2012) have attempted to distinguish the function of relational self-esteem from
personal self-esteem and suggested that relational self-esteem has a different function from personal self-
esteem. In this context they developed a measure of relational self-esteem which assesses individuals’
membership in the circle of family and best friends would be helpful in advancing theory and research on the
motivational aspects of the self. This scale consists of two basic dimensions: (1) association with family and best
friends as significant others and (2) one’s value in relationships with significant others and the value of
significant others.

The purpose of this study is to adapt into Turkish and to examine the validity and reliability of Relational Self-
Esteem Scale (Du et al., 2012).

METHOD

Participants
Participants were 335 university students (137 were male, 198 were female) who were enrolled in mid-size
state University, in Turkey.

Measures
Relational Self-Esteem Scale. The Relational Self-Esteem Scale (Du et al., 2012) is a self-report questionnaire
with 7 items rated on a 4-point scale. The possible range of scores is from 7 to 28. High scores indicate higher
levels of relational self-esteem. Results of confirmatory factor analysis indicated that the uni-dimensional
model was well fit (x²= 29.73, df= 19, p= .006, RMSEA= .06, CFI= .94, IFI= .95, GFI= .96, AGFI= .92). The internal
consistency reliability coefficient of the scale was .69. The corrected item-total correlations ranged from .45 to
.78.

Procedure
Translation of the Relational Self-esteem Scale into Turkish was based on the recommendations of Hambleton
and Kanjee (1995). As the first step two specialists who were a native Turkish speaker fluent in English
translated English version into Turkish. Discrepancies in initial translations were addressed with the assistance
of a third independent translator. The Turkish version of the Relational Self-esteem Scale was then translated
back into English by two English-speaking language specialists who were blinded to the original scale and the
objective of the study. The differences between translated versions were evaluated and a satisfactory
compliance with the original scale was achieved by consensus of the translators. The completed Turkish version
was evaluated for cultural appropriateness by three academicians from department of English Language and
Literature, controversial items were determined and necessary modifications were done. The updated version
was reevaluated by the original group of expert reviewers, to finalize the Turkish version used in this study.

Permission for participation of students was obtained from related chief departments and students voluntarily
participated in research. Completion of the scales was anonymous and there was a guarantee of
confidentiality. The scales were administered to the students in groups in the classrooms. Prior to
administration of scales, all participants were told about purposes of the study. In this study confirmatory
factor analysis (CFA) was executed to confirm the original scale’s structure in Turkish culture and Cronbach’
Alpha reliability coefficient was calculated to examine the reliability. Data were analyzed using LISREL 8.54 and
SPSS 15 package programs.

COPYRIGHT @ JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL AND INSTRUCTIONAL STUDIES IN THE WORLD 2

 JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL AND INSTRUCTIONAL STUDIES
IN THE WORLD
August 2013, Volume: 3 Issue: 3 Article: 01
ISSN: 2146-7463

RESULTS

Construct Validity
Confirmatory factor analysis demonstrated that the model was well fit (x²= 21.01, df= 12, p= .05028, RMSEA=
.047, CFI= .98, IFI= .98, GFI= .98, AGFI= .96, SRMR= .031). Factor loads of items belonging Turkish version of
Relational Self-Esteem Scale are presented in Figure 1.

M1

.40
M2
.47
M3 Relational
.54
.74
Self-Esteem
M4

M5 .50

.55
M6
.68
M7

Figure 1: Factor loading for the Turkish version of the Relational Self-Esteem Scale

Item Analysis and Reliability

The internal consistency reliability coefficient of the scale was .77. Findings demonstrated that item-total
correlations ranged from .41 to .63.

DISCUSSION

The purpose of this study was to translate Relational Self-esteem Scale into Turkish and to examine its
psychometric properties. Overall findings demonstrated that this scale had acceptable validity and reliability
scores. Further studies that will examine the convergent validity of the Relational Self-esteem Scale are
important for its measurement force. Also the temporal stability of the Relational Self-esteem Scale may be
calculated using test re-test method.
th
WJEIS’s Note: This article was presented at 4 International Conference on New Trends in Education and Their
Implications - ICONTE, 25-27 April, 2013, Antalya-Turkey and was selected for publication for Volume 3 Number
3 of WJEIS 2013 by WJEIScientific Committee.

REFERENCES

Bolognini, M., Plancherel, B., Bettschart, W., & Halfon, O. (1996). Self-esteem and mental health in early
adolescence: Development and gender differences. Journal of Adolescence, 19, 233-245.

Brewer, M. B., & Gardner, W. (1996). Who is this “we”? Levels of collective identity and self representations.
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 71, 83-93.

Crocker, J., & Luhtanen, R. (1990). Collective self-esteem and ingroup bias. Journal of Personality and Social
Psychology, 58, 60-67.

COPYRIGHT @ JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL AND INSTRUCTIONAL STUDIES IN THE WORLD 3

 JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL AND INSTRUCTIONAL STUDIES
IN THE WORLD
August 2013, Volume: 3 Issue: 3 Article: 01
ISSN: 2146-7463

Crocker, J., Luhtanen, R., Blaine, B., & Broadnax, S. (1994). Collective self-esteem and psychological well-being
among White, Black and Asian college students. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 20, 503-513.

Du, H., King, R. B., & Chi, P. (2012). The development and validation of the Relational Self-Esteem Scale.
Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 53, 258-267.

Furnham, A., & Cheng, H. (2000). Perceived parental behaviour, self-esteem, and happiness. Social Psychiatry
and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 35, 463-470.

Hambleton, R. K., & Kanjee, A. (1995). Increasing the validity of cross-cultural assessments: Use of improved
methods for test adaptations. European Journal of Psychological Assessment, 11, 147–157.

Luhtanen, R., & Crocker, J. (1992). A collective self-esteem scale: Self-evaluation of one’s social identity.
Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 18, 302-318.

Zuckerman, D. M. (1989). Stress, self-esteem, and mental health: How does gender make a difference? Sex
Roles, 20, 429-444.

COPYRIGHT @ JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL AND INSTRUCTIONAL STUDIES IN THE WORLD 4

 JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL AND INSTRUCTIONAL STUDIES
IN THE WORLD
August 2013, Volume: 3 Issue: 3 Article: 02
ISSN: 2146-7463

ENGAGING UNDERGRADUATES IN RESEARCH

Samuray B. Ozay
The University of Sydney
Faculty of Arts, NSW, AUSTRALIA
[email protected]

Abstract
Undergraduate students are exposed to a variety of disciplinary content, which forms a general cluster of
knowledge, but many students graduate without obtaining the skills associated with research and inquiry. This
article is based on the premise that undergraduate students need to be empowered to construct their own
knowledge as potential producers rather than mere consumers of knowledge. It provides a synthesis of cross-
disciplinary perspectives and educational debates that support the argument for, and benefits of, providing
research-enriched learning for undergraduate students. The article adopts a framework for the dimensions of
research in undergraduate learning. The different models presented aim to illustrate the various ways that
research can be integrated with teaching to benefit learning.

Key Words: Teaching-research nexus; undergraduate research.

INTRODUCTION

Undergraduates are exposed to substantive information in a variety of areas and disciplines, which forms a
general cluster of knowledge, but they graduate without acquiring the skills associated with research and
inquiry. The teacher-centred information transmission approach is still observed to be the dominant approach
to teaching in higher education (Kember, 2009). When students are treated as the audience for research in
their undergraduate years, they become more concerned with the cues and information from the research
literature rather than the processes involved in the research itself.

Figure 1: Knowledge Accumulation vs Research Skills

TEACHING CONCEPTIONS & APPROACHES TO TEACHING

Kember (1997) reviewed 13 independent articles on teaching conceptions. His findings showed that
conceptions of teaching could be classified under one or more of five categories, which are:
1. Imparting information (Teacher-centred/ Content-oriented)
2. Transmitting structured knowledge (Teacher-centred/ Content-oriented)
3. Student–teacher interaction/apprenticeship; (this category is situated in between the two orientations to
teaching)

COPYRIGHT @ JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL AND INSTRUCTIONAL STUDIES IN THE WORLD 5

 JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL AND INSTRUCTIONAL STUDIES
IN THE WORLD
August 2013, Volume: 3 Issue: 3 Article: 02
ISSN: 2146-7463

4. Facilitating understanding (Student-centred/ Learning-oriented)

5. Conceptual change/ intellectual development (Student-centred/ Learning-oriented)

Figure 2: Teaching Approach vs Learning Approach

There is ample evidence to suggest that content-oriented approaches to teaching foster a surface learning
approach while learning-oriented approaches foster a deeper learning approach (See: Trigwell, Prosser, &
Waterhouse, 1999; Prosser & Trigwell, 1999; Ramsden, 2003).

THE TEACHING-RESEARCH NEXUS

Economic interests, largely imposed by what governments consider relevant to wealth creation, are a major
cause for the separation of research and teaching (Williams, 1991). Evidently, when research and teaching are
evaluated separately in contexts other than learning, there is no evidence of causal relationships between the
two activities (See: Centra, 1983; Ramsden & Moses, 1992; Hattie & Marsh 1996). There does not, however,
appear to be a divide between research and teaching when viewed in the context of learning (Brew & Boud,
1995).

Figure 3: Traditional model of the relationship between teaching and research (Source: Brew, 2003).

COPYRIGHT @ JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL AND INSTRUCTIONAL STUDIES IN THE WORLD 6

 JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL AND INSTRUCTIONAL STUDIES
IN THE WORLD
August 2013, Volume: 3 Issue: 3 Article: 02
ISSN: 2146-7463

BLENDING RESEARCH AND TEACHING TO BENEFIT LEARNING

Universities all over the world are adopting the integration of research and teaching, and this trend is not
limited to research-intensive universities. (Brew, 2007; Gonzales, 2001). There is also a growing amount of
evidence that engaging students with research and inquiry is beneficial to their learning. (Healey, 2000; Jenkins,
2000; Brew, 2001; Healey & Jenkins, 2009; Kift, 2009; Nguyen, 2007; Saracevic, 2007). Not only should students
be engaged in the production of knowledge, they must also develop the skills associated with research and
inquiry, which is required to cope with the risks, uncertainties, and general complexities of the modern world
(Scott, 2002).

A commonly cited framework for engaging undergraduates with research and inquiry was posited by Griffiths
(2004), later revised by Healey (2005) and Healey and Jenkins (2009), and further developed by Ozay (2012).
The framework posits four practicable models for engaging undergraduates with research and inquiry, and has
one centric model representing an overarching approach to teaching, which is considered to be the necessary
foundation from which the four ‘engaging’ models can be employed (Ozay, 2012).

Figure 4: Dimensions of Research in Undergraduate Learning. (Source: Ozay, 2012; adapted from Healey &
Jenkins, 2010)

A key assertion is that the models are not independent to one another. They can be applied progressively
throughout the course of a unit of study and “curricula should contain elements of all of them” (Healey &
Jenkins, 2009, p. 7). The research-informed model represents a student-centred approach to teaching whereby
the educator reflects on their practice through student evaluations, collaborates with peers, and searches for
tried and new methods of improving learning outcomes.

The research-led approach involves learning about current research in the discipline, which helps to familiarise
students with the relevant body of knowledge (emphasis on content). The research-oriented approach
compliments the learning by focusing on research and inquiry methods and techniques (emphasis on
processes). Once the student has been introduced to the content and skills, they are given opportunities to
participate. The research-based approach involves students undertaking research and inquiry (emphasis on
processes). The research-tutored approach is proposed to deepen the learning by discussing the ins and outs of
the research experience (emphasis on content).

COPYRIGHT @ JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL AND INSTRUCTIONAL STUDIES IN THE WORLD 7

 JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL AND INSTRUCTIONAL STUDIES
IN THE WORLD
August 2013, Volume: 3 Issue: 3 Article: 02
ISSN: 2146-7463

th
WJEIS’s Note: This article was presented at 4 International Conference on New Trends in Education and Their
Implications - ICONTE, 25-27 April, 2013, Antalya-Turkey and was selected for publication for Volume 3 Number
3 of WJEIS 2013 by WJEIScientific Committee.

REFERENCES

Brew, A., & Boud, D. (1995). Teaching and research: Establishing the vital link with learning. Higher Education,
29, 261-273.

Brew, A. (2001). The Nature of Research: Inquiry in Academic Contexts. London: Routledge Falmer.

Brew, A. (2007). Integrating research and teaching: Understanding excellence International Perspectives on
Teaching Excellence in Higher Education: Improving knowledge and practice. London: Routledge.

Centra, J. (1983). Research productivity and teaching effectiveness. Research in Higher Education, 18.

González, C. (2001). Undergraduate Research Graduate Mentoring, and the University's Mission.American
Association for the Advancement of Science, 293(5535), 1624–1626.

Griffiths, R. (2004). Knowledge production and the research-teaching nexus: the case of the built environment
disciplines. Studies in Higher Education, 29, 709-726.

Hattie, J., & Marsh, H. W. (1996). The Relationship between Research and Teaching: A Meta-Analysis. Review of
Educational Research, 66, 507-542.

Healey, M. (2000). Developing the Scholarship of Teaching in Higher Education: a discipline-based approach.
Higher Education Research & Development, 19.

Healey, M. (2005). Linking research and teaching exploring disciplinary spaces and the role of inquiry-based
learning Reshaping the university: new relationships between research, scholarship and teaching (pp. 30-42).
Maidenhead:: McGraw-Hill/Open University Press.

Healey, M., & Jenkins, A. (2009). Developing Undergraduate Research and Inquiry. Heslington, York, England:
Higher Education Academy.

Jenkins, A. (2000). The Relationship between Teaching and Research: where does geography stand and deliver?
Journal of Geography in Higher Education, 24, 325-351.

Kember, D. (1997). A reconceptualisation of the research into university academics' conceptions of teaching.
Learning and Instruction, 7(3), 255-275.

Kember, D. (2009). Promoting student-centred forms of learning across an entire university. Higher Education,
58, 1-13.

Kift, S. (2009). Articulating a transition pedagogy to scaffold and to enhance the first year student learning
experience in Australian higher education: Queensland University of Technology.

Nguyen, P. N. (2007, 2007). Teaching/learning and Research nexus in Higher Education.

Ozay, S. B. (2012). The dimensions of research in undergraduate learning. Teaching in Higher Education, 17(4),
453-464.

COPYRIGHT @ JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL AND INSTRUCTIONAL STUDIES IN THE WORLD 8

 JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL AND INSTRUCTIONAL STUDIES
IN THE WORLD
August 2013, Volume: 3 Issue: 3 Article: 02
ISSN: 2146-7463

Prosser, M., & Trigwell, K. (1999). Relational Perspectives on Higher Education Teaching and Learning in the
Sciences. Studies in Science Education, 33, 31-60.

Ramsden, P., & Moses, I. (1992). Associations between Research and Teaching in Australian Higher Education.
Higher Education, 23, 273-295.

Ramsden, P. (2003). Learning to Teach in Higher Education. London: Routledge Falmer.

Saracevic, T. (2007). Linking research and teaching. American Documentation, 19, 398-403.

Scott, P. (2002). We are all researchers now. And we can no longer separate research from teaching, The
Guardian. Retrieved from http://dd8gh5yx7k.search.serialssolutions.com/

Trigwell, K., Prosser, M., & Waterhouse, F. (1999). Relations between teachers' approaches to teaching and
students' approaches to learning. Higher Education, 37(1), 57-70.

Williams, R. J. P. (1991). Science in universities: Teaching, research and autonomy. Studies in Higher Education,
16, 15-22.

COPYRIGHT @ JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL AND INSTRUCTIONAL STUDIES IN THE WORLD 9

 JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL AND INSTRUCTIONAL STUDIES
IN THE WORLD
August 2013, Volume: 3 Issue: 3 Article: 03
ISSN: 2146-7463

INVESTIGATION OF READING TEXTS IN B1 LEVEL IN FRENCH LANGUAGE TEACHING

Lectr. Dr. Senem Seda Şahenk Erkan

Marmara University
İstanbul, TURKEY
[email protected]

Abstract
Today, in teaching of French as a foreign language in our country, the appropriate texts must be selected
considering the students’ vocabulary knowledge, grammar levels, interests and needs in B1 level reading
instruction like in other levels, Reading instruction in B1 level, determined by the criteria established by the
Common European Framework, can include texts with events mentioned in personal letters, texts about
feelings and thoughts and texts with words used frequently in work or daily life. In this study reading texts used
in B1 level French language teaching will be exemplified. Literature review will be used in tihs study. For
example, reading texts with the topics such as work life, an article from Le Figaro newspaper, airport security
and film review can be used in the reading instruction. The type of questions that can be asked and how the
texts can be examined during the teaching of these texts are explained.

Key Words: Teaching French, B1 language level, Reading studies.

INTRODUCTION

French is spoken in 47 countries between all countries worldwide. Approximately 200 millions of citizens know
French around the world. 128 millions of people speak French as main or secondary language and it is known
and spoken by 72 millions of people in 54 countries. French is spoken in Canada, Belgium, Switzerland, Africa,
Luxembourg, and Monaco and especially in France. Besides it is the official language in 29 countries. According
to the data of European Union, 129 millions of people in 27 member countries (26% of 497.198.740) and 65
millions of these (12%) speak it as main language and 69 millions of these (14%) speak it as secondary
language. According to these data, French is the third most spoken language after English and German inside
European Union (tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frans%C4%B1zca, 2013). Because of the reasons counted above, as well
as the struggles on globalization in the present time, apart from English, education, teaching and importance of
French as foreign language increase rapidly.

Besides, “Common European Framework of Reference for Languages” which were approved by “European
Council” member countries and effective all around the world is taken into attention for foreign language
education. Language skills are separated in 5 according to “CEF Self-Assessment Grid” (Council of Europe,
2000): i) listening, ii) reading, iii) spoken interaction, iv) spoken production and v) writing.

Besides 6 language levels, which are appropriate according to “Common European Framework”, are shown on
the table below:

COPYRIGHT @ JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL AND INSTRUCTIONAL STUDIES IN THE WORLD 10

 JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL AND INSTRUCTIONAL STUDIES
IN THE WORLD
August 2013, Volume: 3 Issue: 3 Article: 03
ISSN: 2146-7463

PROFICIENT Mastery

PROFICIENT USER
C LEVEL Effective Operational Proficiency
SKILL LEVELS

B2 Vantage

B INDEPENDENT USER
B2 Vantage (İleri Düzey)
Threshold
A2 Waystage

A LEVEL BASIC USER

A1 Breakthrough
BASIC
Figure 1: European Language Levels (Little et al., 2001)

As shown on the table above, there are 6 language levels according to “Common European Framework”. A level
which is defined as the “Basic User” divides into 2 parts within itself: A1 “Breakthrough Level” and A2
“Waystage Level”. B level which is named as “Independent User” also divides into 2 parts within itself: B1
“Threshold” and B2 “Vantage Level”. And C level which known as “Proficient User” divides into 2 parts: C1
“Effective Operational Level” and C2 “Mastery Level”.

4 main language levels, which take place in foreign language education, are: (i) listening, (ii) reading, (iii)
speaking and (iv) writing. Reading skill supports speaking and writing skills’ improvement. The basic on reading
studies on foreign language education is that the students understand what they read. The matters to take care
of when choosing text for reading activities are vocabulary, grammar level, interest and needs. These gains of
students are the subject with reading activities on foreign language education: spelling skills, vocabulary
knowledge, grammar information, cultural information.

Studies on the text which contain event, feeling and wishes defined in individual letters or which are
occupational or most used in daily life at the reading studies on B1 level which were created by “Common
European Framework.” Examples from different texts will be given in this study of “B1 Threshold Level” French
language teaching.

Basic Features of B1 Language Level that was determined by Europe Common Language Criteria
B1 level which takes its place between 6 language level that were determined by “Common European
Framework” is inside “Independent Users” group (Independent User-Utilisateur Indépendant: B1-B2)). B1
language level is also named as (Threshold, Niveau Seuil). The skills, which are expected from the ones who
learn in this language level, are shown on the table below:

COPYRIGHT @ JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL AND INSTRUCTIONAL STUDIES IN THE WORLD 11

 JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL AND INSTRUCTIONAL STUDIES
IN THE WORLD
August 2013, Volume: 3 Issue: 3 Article: 03
ISSN: 2146-7463

Table 1: Expansions of Five Main Language Skills that are expected to be had in B1 Threshold Level
B1 Threshold Level (Niveau Seuil)
Listening I can understand the main points of clear standard speech on familiar matters
regularly encountered in work, school, leisure, etc. I can understand the main point
of many radio or TV programs on current affairs or topics of personal or
professional interest when the delivery is relatively slow and clear.
Reading I can understand texts that consist mainly of high frequency everyday or job-
related language. I can understand the description of events, feelings and wishes in
personal letters.
Spoken Interaction I can deal with most situations likely to arise whilst travelling in an area where the
language is spoken. I can enter unprepared into conversation on topics that are
familiar, of personal interest or pertinent to everyday life (e.g. family, hobbies,
work, travel and current events)
Spoken Production I can connect phrases in a simple way in order to describe experiences and events,
my dreams, hopes and ambitions. I can briefly give reasons and explanations for
opinions and plans. I can narrate a story or relate the plot of a book or film and
describe my reactions.
Writing I can write simple connected text on topics which are familiar or of personal
interest. I can write personal letters describing experiences and impressions
(www.pearsonlongman.com/ae/cef/cefguide.pdf, 2013).

Improving Reading Skills in French Language Teaching

The definition of reading can be given before explaining the reading skill’s improving in French language
teaching: “reading is converting various written symbols into verbal symbols by resolving” (Nunan, 1996,
quoted in Yardımoğlu, 2007).

Improvement of reading skill in foreign language education is directly related to the individual’s reading habit
and sufficiency in his/her own language. The activities to be made before, after and during reading in other
foreign language studies are vitally important in French language teaching.

When teaching French as a foreign language, 3 main targets are subject on gaining the students the reading
progress (Etienne, 1999):
1) The proper articles should be chosen by taking the students’ interest and knowledge levels into attention,
2) Group studies should be arranged in reading study progress,
3) The articles which were processed before on the same subject should be examined as a whole when
processing a reading text.
3 different progresses are subject on reading an article in foreign language teaching (Cicurel, 1991):
1) Pre-reading contains a target in two ways: directing the knowledge of learners and render them active,
2) Reading activity realizes within the target(s) which the teacher suggested. At same time, reading supports
different entries to the article,
3) The activities after reading allow the learners to give reaction to the article and provide them to connect
with their old knowledge.
The activities, to be made before reading in foreign language teaching, can be explained like below (Demirel,
1999):
-Understanding the subject and the main opinion of article from the title of reading text,
-Making interpretations about the people, the environment where the story passes and time by moving from
the pictures given together with reading texts,
-General information about the biography and works of the writer of the reading text can be given.
Then the activities, that can be made during reading study in foreign language teaching, like below (Demirel,
1999):
-The reading text is read by the teacher,
-Than some of the students read the same text,

COPYRIGHT @ JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL AND INSTRUCTIONAL STUDIES IN THE WORLD 12

 JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL AND INSTRUCTIONAL STUDIES
IN THE WORLD
August 2013, Volume: 3 Issue: 3 Article: 03
ISSN: 2146-7463

-Spelling mistakes are corrected when necessary,

-The meaning of words are made discovered,
-Grammar knowledge is improved.
As results, the studies, to be made after reading activity in foreign language teaching, are like below (Demirel,
1999):
-Various questions can be asked about subject, environment, time and heroes of the reading text,
-Writing study can be made by moving from the subject of reading text,
-A discussion subject can be produced by moving from the subject of reading text.

METHOD

Literature review method is used in this study. This research give examples using Common European
Framework in foreign language teaching . For example this study contain three texts written in B1 Threshold
Level. The investigation of these texts are explained in this tudy.

Texts that may be investigated by Reading on B1 Threshold Level

1. Work Life in Company- (Travail en Entreprise)
Work Life in Company- (Travail en Entreprise)
French Text (Original Text) English Translation
Joëlle Joëlle
L’année dernière, j’ai fait deux stages en entreprise. I made two company trainings last year. At first, I
D’abord, j’ai travaillé chez un photographe au centre- worked in a photograph studio in city center. I
ville. Je n’aimais pas tellement être vendeuse, mais je wouldn’t like to be seller but I had to try to sell
devais essayer de vendre toutes sortes d’appareils various photograph machines to customers. There
photo aux clients. Il y avait des modèles à des prix were models with fair price! And the days which I
fantastiques! Ce que je préférais, c’étaient les jours où loved most are the ones when my boss taught me
le patron me montrait comment on développe les how to take photographs. It was great. Of course
films. C’était extraordinaire. Bien sûr, comme j’étais la the duty of preparing the coffee was mine because
plus jeune, je devais également préparer le café, mais I was the youngest one but I think that this is
ça c’est normal, je suppose. Enfin, c’était pas mal normal. After that, I passed my 7 days in a big
comme première expérience. Ensuite, j’ai passé sept area- in a quite wide shopping center outside the
jours dans une grande surface – un vaste hypermarché city. Firstly, I was made work in offices. I
en dehors de la ville. D’abord, on m’a fait travailler answered the calls, called the customers for the
dans les bureaux. Je répondais aux téléphones, boss, edited the files and welcomed customers.
j’appelais des clients pour le patron, j’organisais les After that I worked in different sections
fichiers et j’accueillais les clients. Puis j’ai travaillé un everywhere: bakery, fisher, charcuterie… However
peu partout dans les rayons: boulangerie, poissonnerie I didn’t have the right to work in alcohol section.
(oh, que ça piquait!), charcuterie… mais je n’avais pas Even they did not let me work in cash point.
le droit de travailler dans le rayon alcool! On ne m’a Happily, the customers didn’t like to wait in queue
pas permis non plus de travailler à la caisse. and I was not fast enough.
Heureusement, parce que les clients n’aiment pas faire
la queue et moi je ne suis pas assez rapide
(platea.pntic.mec.es/cvera/hotpot/lisons/travail_e
n_ entreprise.htm, 2013).

COPYRIGHT @ JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL AND INSTRUCTIONAL STUDIES IN THE WORLD 13

 JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL AND INSTRUCTIONAL STUDIES
IN THE WORLD
August 2013, Volume: 3 Issue: 3 Article: 03
ISSN: 2146-7463

Work Life in Company- (Travail en Entreprise) Questions about the Text

French Questions English Questions
Quel est le type du texte? What is the kind of text?
Séparez ce texte en sous-parties Separate the text into sections
Enumérez les expériences professionnelles de Joëlle Put Joëlle’s occupational experiences in an order
Quels sont les temps de verbes utilisés dans ce texte? What are tenses of verbs used in the text?
Quels sont les fonctions des temps du passé dans ce Why were the verbs conjugated in past tense in
texte? the text?

2. The Column Quoted from Le Figaro Newspaper: Airways Security

The Column Quoted from Le Figaro Newspaper: Airways Security
French Text (Original Text) English Translation
Depuis le crash des avions suicides aux Etats-Unis, The airway companies have been disrupted as of the
les compagnies aériennes connaissent certains suicide planes landed on USA lands. Going calendars
bouleversements. Outre l’application du contrôle are often changed as well as the luggage control got
renforcé des bagages, elles doivent souvent modifier hard.
les calendriers de départ. Attention on forbidden objects. All objects that may
Attention aux objets interdits. Lors du filtrage, après be weapon are examined after ticket and identity
la vérification des billets et des pièces d’identité, check: jackknife, scissors, screwdriver etc… These
sont détectés tous les objets pouvant devenir une objects are levied at the moment when they arrived
arme: canif, couteau, ciseaux, tournevis, etc…Ils at the airport.
seront confisqués au mieux placés dans une Only a single cabin luggage is foreseen. Another
enveloppe et rendus à l’arrivée. toleration which is foreseen with the target of not
Prévoir un seul bagage de cabine. Autre tolérance expanding the crowded times allow to put only one
qui disparait pour ne pas allonger les temps de hand luggage to the cabin.
fouille, un seul bagage à main est désormais autorisé Identity card is checked. Identity controls are made
en cabine. more often even including Europe domestic flights.
Prévoir une pièce d’identité. Les contrôles d’identité One should come early to the airport. How early to
vont devenir plus fréquents, même pour les vols come before the flight should be learnt from the
intérieurs européens. airway company.
Arriver un peu plus tôt à l’aéoroport. Consulter sa It is suggested to come to Paris Airport earlier than
compagnie pour savoir à quelle heure il convient de accustomed by taking obliged controls into
se présenter a l’aéoroport. attention.
La direction d’aéoroport de Paris suggère de venir un American companies want the passengers to come
peu plus tôt que d’habitude, compte tenu des to the airport 3 hours before the taking off.
contrôles renforcés. One should be careful when carrying luggage. Don’t
Les compagnies américaines souhaitent que leurs ever leave your luggage when carrying.
passagers arrivent trois heures avant le décollage. On holidays
Surveiller ses bagages. A aucun moment, ils ne The tourists will definitely change their future travel
doivent être laissés sans surveillance. plans after the rape crimes in USA. They will look for
Vacances security and affinity before everything.
Apres les attentats perpétrés aux Etats-Unis, les (Quoted from Le Figaro)
touristes changeront certainement leurs prochains
plans de voyages. Ils vont rechercher avant tout
sécurité et proximité
(www.xtec.cat/~sgirona/fle/hot
pot/vocabulaire/vocab8.htm, 2013).
(Extrait de “Le Figaro”)

COPYRIGHT @ JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL AND INSTRUCTIONAL STUDIES IN THE WORLD 14

 JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL AND INSTRUCTIONAL STUDIES
IN THE WORLD
August 2013, Volume: 3 Issue: 3 Article: 03
ISSN: 2146-7463

The Column Quoted from Le Figaro Newspaper: Airways Security

French Questions English Questions
Quel est le type du texte? What is the kind of text?
D’où est tiré ce texte? Where was the text quoted from?
Quels sont les types de discours dans ce texte What are the speech kinds used in the text. Give
Donnez des exemples Justifiez-les examples. Verify these.
Quels autre objets peuvent etre dangereux dans les What are the other tools that may be dangerous in
avions ou dans d’autres transports en commun? planes and other public transport vehicles?
Dans l’avion, aux toilettes, derrière des fauteuils on What kinds of suggestions are placed in the planes,
voit des consignes sous quelle forme? toilets, behind the seats?

3. Movie Revision: Critique de Film

Critique de Film: Movie Revision
French Text (Original Text) English Translation
La vache et le président de Philippe Muyl President Philippe Muyl’s Cow
C'est une histoire toute simple, pleine de tendresse et écrite This story is quite basic and it was written
pour les enfants. Les adultes y trouveront cependant leur plaisir. for children. Meanwhile adults will like
Il est question d'une jeune vache qui vit à l'écart de son this movie. In this movie, a cow which is
troupeau et qui est devenue la compagne de jeux du jeune fils far from its drove and lives together with
d'un fermier. Le jour où la maladie de la vache folle menace, le son of a farmer is shown. This cow gets
vétérinaire décide de l'abattre et l'enfant va tenter de la sauver. sick of mad-cow disease one day,
Il arrive jusqu'à Paris où il va demander la grâce pour sa veterinary decides to cut it because of its
protégée au président de la République, d'où le titre du film. illness and its owner wants to save it. He
Les péripéties de nos héros rendent cette histoire joyeuse et wants the mayor in Paris to save his cow.
agréable. Le spectateur se laisse prendre au jeu. The name of film was given like this
Le mérite en revient à la manière dont Philippe Muyl mène because of this reason. Cheerful story of
l'histoire qui nous amuse tout en nous faisant réfléchir the heroes renders the play much more
(http://www.didieraccord.com/exercices/index.php?ex=2.3.2.7., attractive. The audience got quite
2013). effected from the play.
Ability of Philippe Muyl makes us both
think and enjoy.

Critique de Film: Movie Revision

French Questions English Questions
Quel est le type du texte? What is the kind of text?
Quel est l’objectif du cinéaste? What is the aim of producer?
A qui s’adresse-t-il ce film? What is the audience of this movie?
Séparez ce texte en sous-parties Separate the text into sections
Résumez le film Summarize the movie

CONCLUSION

Primarily these points must be considered on reading studies made in foreign language education (Rost, 1993,
quoted in Alderson, 2001):
1) Interest and needs of students (which subjects they are interested in),
2) Students’ levels in foreign language (beginning, intermediate, advanced),
3) Students’ history (for example vocabulary knowledge and grammar),
4) Length of text,
5) How the text will be processed with the students.

COPYRIGHT @ JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL AND INSTRUCTIONAL STUDIES IN THE WORLD 15

 JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL AND INSTRUCTIONAL STUDIES
IN THE WORLD
August 2013, Volume: 3 Issue: 3 Article: 03
ISSN: 2146-7463

As shown in the text, “who?”; “where?”; “when?” questions which test if the text is generally understood can
be asked when processing reading texts on B1 language level in French education. After that, many questions,
which are shown if the reading text is understood with details, can be asked.
th
WJEIS’s Note: This article was presented at 4 International Conference on New Trends in Education and Their
Implications - ICONTE, 25-27 April, 2013, Antalya-Turkey and was selected for publication for Volume 3 Number
3 of WJEIS 2013 by WJEIScientific Committee.

REFERENCES

Alderson, J. C. (2001). Assessing Reading. USA: Cambridge University Press.

Berger, D. (.....). Accord. (version online). France: Editions Didier. Rédiger une Critique du Film (1). Retrieved in
January 31, 2013 from http://www.didieraccord.com/exercices/index.php?ex=2.3.2.7.

C.E.F. (....). .A Teacher’s Guide to the Common European Framework. USA: Pearson Longman, Retrieved in
March 3, 2013 from http://www.pearsonlongman.com/ae/cef/cefguide.pdf.

Cicurel, F. (1991). Lectures interactives en langues étrangères. France: Paris, Hachette.

Demirel, Ö. (1999). İlköğretim Okullarında Yabancı Dil Öğretimi. Ankara: MEB.

Etienne, S. (1999). Regard sur des Méthodes pour Enseigner/Apprendre le Français aux Adultes. Les Actes de
Lecture, n° 68, December 1999, 96-100.

Fransızca. Retrieved in January 24, 2013 from http://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frans%C4%B1zca

Little, D. et al. (2001). Preparing teachers to Use European Language Portfolio. Strasbourg: Council of Europe.

Sécurité Aérienne. Retrieved in January 31, 2013 from http://www.xtec.cat/~sgirona/fle/hotpot/vocabulaire/

vocab8.htm

Travail en Entreprise. Retrieved in January 31, 2013

from http://platea.pntic.mec.es/cvera/hotpot/lisons/travail_en_ entreprise.htm

Yardımoğlu, K. (2007). İngilizce Okuma Öğretiminde Örgütleme Stratejilerinin Erişiye ve Tutuma Etkisi.
Yayınlanmamış Yüksek Lisans Tezi. Ankara: Hacettepe Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Eğitim Bilimleri
Anabilim Dalı Eğitim Programları ve Öğretim Bilim Dalı.

COPYRIGHT @ JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL AND INSTRUCTIONAL STUDIES IN THE WORLD 16

 JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL AND INSTRUCTIONAL STUDIES
IN THE WORLD
August 2013, Volume: 3 Issue: 3 Article: 04
ISSN: 2146-7463

THE VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY OF TURKISH VERSION

OF THE SELF-FOCUSED ATTENTION SCALE

Ahmet Akın
Sakarya Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi
TURKEY
[email protected]

Taner Demir
TURKEY
[email protected]

Zeynep Akkuş
TURKEY
[email protected]

Okan Bilgin
TURKEY
[email protected]

Adem Güneş
TURKEY
[email protected]

Abstract
The aim of this study is to examine validity and reliability of the Turkish version of the Self-Focused Attention
Scale (Kiropulos & Klimidis, 2006). The sample of this study consisted of 323 undergraduate students. The
results of confirmatory factor analysis indicated that the 17 items and four-dimensional self-focused attention
model (public body consciousness, private self-consciousness, public self-consciousness, private body
consciousness) was well fit (x²= 273.94, df= 105, RMSEA= .069, GFI= .91, AGFI= .87, and SRMR= .079). The
internal consistency reliability coefficients of the scale were .67, .57, .68, .63 for four subscales, respectively.

Key Words: Self-focused attention, validity, reliability, factor analysis.

INTRODUCTION

Self-focused attention is the attention focused internally on aspects of the self, such as, own arousal, behavior,
thoughts, emotions, or appearance (Bogels & Mansell, 2004). Theories concur that self-focus can produce or
intensify negative affect in certain situations. This process may occur by making current–ideal discrepancies
more apparent (Duval & Wiclund, 1972), making individuals aware of a insufficient progress toward goals
(Carver & Scheier, 1981), making individuals feel conspicuous (Buss, 1980), or through making individuals
aware of negative self-referent information (Ingram, 1990).

The construct of self-focused attention has been implicated in theoretical and emprical contributions to the
areas of attitudes, attributions and perspective taking (Bernstein & Davis, 1982; Cohen, Dowling, Bishop, &
Maney, 1985; Stephenson & Wicklund, 1983). Self-focused attention has been linked to perceptions of control

COPYRIGHT @ JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL AND INSTRUCTIONAL STUDIES IN THE WORLD 17

 JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL AND INSTRUCTIONAL STUDIES
IN THE WORLD
August 2013, Volume: 3 Issue: 3 Article: 04
ISSN: 2146-7463

(Mikulincer, Gerber, & Weisenberg, 1990), alcohol consumption (Hull, 1981), belief perseverance (Davies,
1982), group interaction (Mullin, 1991), and prosocial behavior (Gibbons & Wicklund, 1982).
The purpose of this study is to adapt into Turkish and to examine the validity and reliability of the Self-focused
Attention Scale (Kiropulos & Klimidis, 2006).

METHOD

Participants
Participants were 315 university students (130 were male, 185 were female) who were enrolled in mid-size
state University, in Turkey.

Measures
Self-focused Attention Scale. The Self-focused Attention Scale is a self-report questionnaire with 17 items rated
on a 4-point scale. The scale has four sub-dimensions: public body consciousness (5 items), private self-
consciousness (4 items), public self-consciousness (4 items), private body consciousness (4 items). Results of
exploratory factor analysis indicated that the four subscales have explained 49% of total variance. Factor
loadings ranged from .83 to .49. The Cronbach alpha internal consistency reliability coefficients of the scale
were .68, .70, .63, and .54 for four subscales, respectively.

Procedure
Translation of the Self-focused Attention Scale into Turkish was based on the recommendations of Hambleton
and Kanjee (1995). As the first step two specialists who were a native Turkish speaker fluent in English
translated English version into Turkish. Discrepancies in initial translations were addressed with the assistance
of a third independent translator. The Turkish version of the Self-focused Attention Scale was then translated
back into English by two English-speaking language specialists who were blinded to the original scale and the
objective of the study. The differences between translated versions were evaluated and a satisfactory
compliance with the original scale was achieved by consensus of the translators. The completed Turkish version
was evaluated for cultural appropriateness by three academicians from department of English Language and
Literature, controversial items were determined and necessary modifications were done. The updated version
was reevaluated by the original group of expert reviewers, to finalize the Turkish version used in this study.

Permission for participation of students was obtained from related chief departments and students voluntarily
participated in research. Completion of the scales was anonymous and there was a guarantee of
confidentiality. The scales were administered to the students in groups in the classrooms. Prior to
administration of scales, all participants were told about purposes of the study. In this study confirmatory
factor analysis (CFA) was executed to confirm the original scale’s structure in Turkish culture and Cronbach’
Alpha reliability coefficient was calculated to examine the reliability. Data were analyzed using LISREL 8.54 and
SPSS 15 package programs.

RESULTS

Construct Validity
Confirmatory factor analysis demonstrated that the four-dimensional Self-focused Attention model was well fit
(x²= 273.94, df= 105, RMSEA= .069, GFI= .91, AGFI= .87, and SRMR= .079). Factor loads of items belonging
Turkish version of Self-focused Attention Scale are presented in Figure 1.

COPYRIGHT @ JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL AND INSTRUCTIONAL STUDIES IN THE WORLD 18

 JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL AND INSTRUCTIONAL STUDIES
IN THE WORLD
August 2013, Volume: 3 Issue: 3 Article: 04
ISSN: 2146-7463

M1

M2
.67
.80
M3 Public body
.70
consciousness
M4 .49
M5 .36

.29
M6 .37 .20
Private self-
M7 .49 consciousness
.76
M8
.34
M9 .88

M 10 .76 Public self- .47

consciousness
M 11 .85
.67 .48
M 12
.33
M 13
.29

M 14 .43 Private body

.51 consciousness
M 15
.48
M 16
.61
M 17

Figure 1: Factor loading for the Turkish version of the Self-focused Attention Scale

Item analysis and Reliability

The Cronbach alpha internal consistency reliability coefficients of the Turkish form were .67, .57, .68, .63 for
four subscales, respectively. The corrected item-total correlations ranged from .29 to .64.

DISCUSSION

The purpose of this study was to translate Self-focused Attention Scale into Turkish and to examine its
psychometric properties. Overall findings demonstrated that this scale had acceptable validity and reliability
scores. Further studies that will examine the convergent validity of the Self-focused Attention Scale are
important for its measurement force. Also the temporal stability of the Self-focused Attention Scale may be
calculated using test re-test method.
th
WJEIS’s Note: This article was presented at 4 International Conference on New Trends in Education and Their
Implications - ICONTE, 25-27 April, 2013, Antalya-Turkey and was selected for publication for Volume 3 Number
3 of WJEIS 2013 by WJEIScientific Committee.

REFERENCES

Bernstein, W., & Davis, M. (1982). Perspective-taking, self consciousness, and accuracy in person perception.
Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 3, 1-19.

COPYRIGHT @ JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL AND INSTRUCTIONAL STUDIES IN THE WORLD 19

 JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL AND INSTRUCTIONAL STUDIES
IN THE WORLD
August 2013, Volume: 3 Issue: 3 Article: 04
ISSN: 2146-7463

Bogels, S., & Mansell, W. (2004). Attention processes in the maintenance and treatment of social phobia:
Hypervigilance, avoidance, and self-focused attention. Clin Psychol Rev, 24(7), 827-856.

Buss, A. (1980). Self-consciousness and social anxiety. San Fransisco: Freeman.

Carver, C., & Scheier, M. (1981). Attention and self-regulation: A control-theory approach to human behaviour.
New York: Springer-Verlag.

Cohen, J., Dowling, N., Bishop, G., & Maney, W. (1985). Casual atrributions: Effects of self focused attentiveness
and self-esteem feedback. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 19, 369-378.

Davies, M. (1982). Self-focused attention and belief perseverance. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology,
585-605.

Duval, T., & Wiclund, R. (1972). A theory of objective self-awareness. New York: Academic Press.

Gibbons, F., & Wicklund, R. (1982). Self-focused attention and helping behaviour. Journal of Personality and
Social Psychology, 43, 462-474.

Hambleton, R. K., & Kanjee, A. (1995). Increasing the validity of cross-cultural assessments: Use of improved
methods for test adaptations. European Journal of Psychological Assessment, 11, 147–157.

Hull, J. G. (1981). A self awareness model of the causes and effect of alcohol consumption. Journal of Abnormal
Psychology, 90, 586-600.

Ingram, R. (1990). Self-focused attention in clinical disorders: Review and a conceptual model. Psychological
Bulletin, 107, 156-176.

Kiropulos, L., & Klimidis, S. (2006). A Self-focused Attention Scale: Factor structure and psychometric
properties. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 30(3), 297-306.

Mikulincer, M., Gerber, H., & Weisenberg, M. (1990). Judgment of control and depressions: The role of self-
esteem and self focused attention. Cognitive Therapy and Research, (14), 589-608.

Mullin, B. (1991). Group composition, salience, and cognitive representations: The phenomenology of being in
a group. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, (27), 297-323.

Stephenson, B., & Wicklund, R. (1983). Self-directed attention and taking the other's perpective. Journal of
Experimental Social Psychology, (19), 58-77.

COPYRIGHT @ JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL AND INSTRUCTIONAL STUDIES IN THE WORLD 20

 JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL AND INSTRUCTIONAL STUDIES
IN THE WORLD
August 2013, Volume: 3 Issue: 3 Article: 05
ISSN: 2146-7463

ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR AND CROSSCULTURAL UNDERSTANDING

IN INTERNATIONAL EDUCATION ADMINISTRATION

Assist. Prof. Dr. Selin Yıldız Nielsen

Zirve University
Gaziantep, TURKEY
[email protected]

Abstract
The need for crosscultural administration of schools is most valid in international education programs.
International people who study in another country over the years could be considered a highly underrated
advantage to foreign policy. To educate international students is to have an opportunity to shape the future
leaders who will guide the political and economic development of their countries. In order to help people gain
an in-depth exposure to the values in our educational system, we must first create an environment where
people understand and appreciate each other’s cultural values. This review of literature will attempt to show
the importance of crosscultural understanding in International education administration and its implications on
organizational theory.

Key Words: Crosscultural communication, power, authority, organizational behavior.

INTRODUCTION

The science of administration, as developed in this century, shows insensitivity to culture and its implications.
The science of administration, and much of organizational theory, has really been a science of management:
how managers handle technical procedures to increase performance and motivation of employees. This type of
administration is not adequate for social institutions such as schools that have a tremendous social impact on
individuals’ lives (Foster, 1986). Immigrants are changing the face of American society. Foreign-born experts
pace America's scientific leadership. The American workforce is now multicultural. These realities help fuel U.S.
development, but they also create new needs, both for administrators who can think globally, and for
tolerance and cross-cultural sensitivity in the administration level of our schools.

The need for crosscultural administration of schools is most valid in international education programs. The
millions of people who have studied in the United States over the years constitute a remarkable reservoir of
goodwill for our country, perhaps our most underrated foreign policy asset. To educate international students
is to have an opportunity to shape the future leaders who will guide the political and economic development of
their countries. In order to help them gain an in-depth exposure to American values and to our successful
multicultural democracy, we must first acknowledge the differences in their values and learn to respect them
(Simons & Connely, 2000).

This review of literature will attempt to show the importance of crosscultural understanding in International
education administration and its implications on organizational theory.

CULTURAL DIFFERENCES

A- Definition of Culture
Culture consists of the rules and expectations that come into play when two human beings interact
(Thiederman, 1990). A more broad definition would be that culture is a) something that is shared by all or
almost all members of some social group, b) Something that the older members of a group try to pass on to the

COPYRIGHT @ JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL AND INSTRUCTIONAL STUDIES IN THE WORLD 21

 JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL AND INSTRUCTIONAL STUDIES
IN THE WORLD
August 2013, Volume: 3 Issue: 3 Article: 05
ISSN: 2146-7463

younger members, and c) Something that shapes behavior and structures one’s perception of the world such as
morals, laws and customs.

Administrators frequently see culture as “the collective programming of the mind which distinguishes the
members of one human group from another…the interactive aggregate of common characteristics that
influences a human group’s response to the environment” (Adler, 1991, p.15). In general, we see people as
being from different cultures if their ways of life as a group differ considerably, from the other (Adler, 1991).

Culture

Behavior Values

Attitudes

Figur 1: Influence of Culture on Behavior (Weaver, 2000, p.117).

B- Problems Associated with Cultural differences

Ethnocentrism
Because people are constantly immersed within their own cultures, it is difficult for them to understand the
cultures of others. Investigating to understand the characteristics of cultural values, one comes across an
interesting phenomenon: that, in fact, all cultures share a common attitude, which is the perception of one’s
own customs and beliefs as being the “right” ways. This tendency for every human group to believe that the
absolute truth lies within their own culture is called “ethnocentrism” (Ting Toomey & Korzenny, 1991).

There is nothing wrong with preferring one’s own culture. The problem arises when we allow that culture to
distort what we see. For administrators, this distortion often takes the form of misinterpreting the meaning
behind the culturally different workers’ or client’s (in our case the students’) behavior. This misinterpretation
brings forth an attitude which can ultimately affect the relationship between the administration and the
students. Cultural projection can be both ways, of course, however acknowledgment and understanding from
the part of the administrators will influence their attitudes and ultimately avoid ethnocentrism to be a problem
(Thiederman, 1990).

There are two steps to overcoming ethnocentrism: By learning about different cultures, and by becoming
aware of our own perceptions that cause us to misinterpret the behaviors of others. Learning about different
cultures does not mean we have to become anthropologists. Just respecting the reasons why some
international students behave in certain ways is a good way of starting understanding. Cultural self-awareness,
on the other hand is a more difficult task. It requires a deep understanding of our own culturally specific points
of view which is hard to separate from personality. We have to keep in mind that personality is also deeply
influenced by our cultural and even organizational beliefs (Guirdham, 1999).

Stereotypes
Stereotyping involves holding a stable set of beliefs or pre-conceived ideas which members of a group share
about characteristics of other groups (Guirdham, 1999). Stereotypes do not describe individual behavior; rather
they describe the behavioral norm for members of a particular group. Stereotypes could be positive-such as

COPYRIGHT @ JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL AND INSTRUCTIONAL STUDIES IN THE WORLD 22

 JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL AND INSTRUCTIONAL STUDIES
IN THE WORLD
August 2013, Volume: 3 Issue: 3 Article: 05
ISSN: 2146-7463

Asians are high achievers- or negative- such as Mexicans are lazy- but both types are equally distorting and
destructive (Adler, 1991).

Stereotypes interfere with our ability to see people for who they really are, they negate the individual, and they
minimize the likelihood that people will be identified with the traits they truly possess (Thiederman, 1990). In
fact, individual members of a culture differ for a variety of reasons such as socioeconomic status, social strata,
or education level. An administrator must take these differences into account while relating to people from
different cultures so as not to base decisions on stereotypical judgments.

The first step in eliminating stereotypical thinking is to separate our genuine knowledge about a particular
group from the inflexible notions that are lodged in our brains. Sometimes the only thing we know about a
cultural group is based on stereotypes. We must realize that using stereotypes could be more offensive than
admitting that we have little knowledge of one’s background. The more we learn about groups, the less able
we will be to lump individuals together. Therefore, as Thiederman puts it “Acquiring knowledge can only
weaken stereotypical thinking. It is ignorance and lack of familiarity that makes all those sailboats look alike”
(1990, p.22).

COMMUNICATION IN INTERNATIONAL EDUCATION

A- Crosscultural Communication
Communication is the exchange of meaning. It consists of any behavior that another human being perceives
and interprets. Therefore, communication includes sending both verbal messages and nonverbal messages and
involves a complex, multilayered, dynamic process through which we exchange meaning (Adler, 1991). Within
this approach, communication and culture are inevitably connected. As we noted earlier, culture is defined as a
historically transmitted system of symbols, meanings and norms. It is not the people but the communication
that links symbols and meanings together (Guirdham, 1999)

Crosscultural communication occurs when a person from one culture sends a message to a person from
another culture. This message is then interpreted or decoded according to the receiver’s cultural
understanding (Adler, 1991). There are many orientations affecting this cultural decoding system such as
attitudes towards beliefs, values, environment, time, space, structure or thinking patterns (Buckley, 2000).
Although crosscultural communication is a broad concept and there are many different perceptions of
analyzing these cultural orientations, the scope of this paper is limited to a general idea of how communication
shapes organizational behavior without getting into cultural specifics.

Crosscultural communication receives particular attention in international education settings where a number
of different cultures are represented. Administrators in environments like these must be competent in
communicating with people of various backgrounds. Understanding cultural differences can be a very useful
tool in achieving better communication skills. Even though we have indicated that experience within one’s
primary culture influences how one perceives others, to understand cultural differences, one must perceive
each culture in terms of its own context (Simons and Connely, 2000).

B- Organizational Communication
Organizational communication is no simple task. There are, however, a variety of orientations toward how it
can be carried out most effectively. The process in which who should say what through which channel to whom
toward what effect is considered to be the main components of communication, and exists in the classical
theory, social systems theory and open systems theories. The classical theory states that communication is the
means to increase efficiency and productivity in a hierarchical and downwardly directed manner. The social
systems orientation states that for communication to be effective it has to be a two-way process. The channels
can be formal or informal and the meaning of the message can be found in both the sender’s and receiver’s
psychological make-up. The open systems orientation suggests that meaning in communication is collaborated
and negotiated. This involves drawing the organization’s actions into a close fit with the needs of the
environment. The stress in this theory is that the communication must take into consideration social class

COPYRIGHT @ JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL AND INSTRUCTIONAL STUDIES IN THE WORLD 23

 JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL AND INSTRUCTIONAL STUDIES
IN THE WORLD
August 2013, Volume: 3 Issue: 3 Article: 05
ISSN: 2146-7463

differences, cultural values, time orientations and ethnocentrism of all types. Here, communication is the bond
that holds an organization together and synchronizes its parts (Hanson, 1996).

C- Barriers to Communication
Communication does not necessarily result in understanding. The greater the difference between the sender’s
and receiver’s cultures, the greater the chance for crosscultural miscommunication. Some of the barriers to
communication involves misperception, misinterpretation and misevaluation of the message.

No two cultural groups see the world in exactly the same way. For example Mexican children and American
children viewed pictures of a bull fight and a baseball game simultaneously, American children only
remembered seeing the pictures of the baseball game, Mexican children remembered only seeing the pictures
of the bull fight. This shows that perceptual patterns are selective, learned and culturally determined. The
distorting impact of perceptual filters causes us to see things in a different way. This misperception can cause
miscommunication among people of different cultures.

Interpretation is when we give meaning to our observations. It is the process of making sense out of
perceptions. Interpretation organizes our experience to guide our behaviors. For example an office worker
might interpret the direct language of an international student as rude, when in fact it might be the
communication style or lack of language that might have caused the directness. It is the interpretation that
employs the meaning on the action. Misinterpretations also cause communication to break down.

Even more than perception and interpretation, cultural conditioning strongly affects evaluation. Evaluation
involves a judgment action. It is culturally affected and we use our cultural beliefs as a standard of
measurement. We arrive at conclusions of good or bad as a result of our view through our own cultural lenses.
For example, when an administrator evaluates the quiet demeanor of one cultural group member as good and
the persistent behavior of another as bad, this is an evaluation. The behavior might very well depend on the
formality, respect and simply cultural boundaries of social behavior (Adler, 1991).

Improving Communication
When studying the process of communication and trying to determine how it can be improved, it is important
to develop the skills of communication analysis. Analyzing communication involves four different areas of
concentration: 1- situations of communication, 2- intentions of communication, 3- logistics of communication
and 4- consequences of communication.

Each situation involves a different kind of communication. The special requests of an international student with
the administrator calls for a different kind of situation than reprimanding a student’s actions. This is closely
connected with the intent of communication. When communication is initiated, there is usually a purpose such
as giving information, sell an idea, change an opinion, defend one’s argument etc. The administration must
keep in mind the purpose and intent of communication, as well as the receiver’s understanding of it.

Logistics also plays a role in communication analysis. This involves questions of the channels and networks
used, completeness of networks and time required. In school administration logistics is very important as the
wrong channels might not get the message across such as written messages in complicated language if
language is a factor.

Educational systems tend to function with limited feedback, and that’s why it is difficult to see the
consequences of the communication process. However, it is possible to strengthen communication by
considering analysis of the formal or informal, verbal or nonverbal and crosscultural elements of
communication networks in an educational organization, and is essential to improve its effectiveness (Hanson,
1996).

COPYRIGHT @ JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL AND INSTRUCTIONAL STUDIES IN THE WORLD 24

 JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL AND INSTRUCTIONAL STUDIES
IN THE WORLD
August 2013, Volume: 3 Issue: 3 Article: 05
ISSN: 2146-7463

LEADERSHIP AND ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR

A-Power and Authority

Authority and power both are means to social control. However, they differ in fundamental ways. Power is
defined as the ability to control something or someone. It is the mechanics of social organization. Power is
conveyed by giving resources such as rewards or punishments. It is not a product of inner compulsion.
Authority, on the other hand, could be defined as power exercised under conditions of social approval. It is
created in social relationships under mutual trust and is intrinsically meaningful. Authority in fact is the
substance of a person’s character, and is exercised through a feeling of intimacy. Power is derived from
authority because of symbolic displacement. Things that really matter for humans start getting interpreted by
symbols. The people who have the capacity to manipulate those symbols have power over us.

Leaders need to know how to lead with authority and power. Power is needed to impose school reforms on the
political and administrative level. Authority is needed to lead the students, community and teachers when the
reform is placed on the schools. Effective leaders learn when to use their authority and their power.

Communication is the key when considering power and authority. Without effective communication, it would
be impossible to exercise power or authority in an educational organization especially in an international
setting where the understanding of authority is culturally determined (Stone, 2002).

B- Multiparadigm Approach to Leadership and Organizational Behavior

According to Kuhn, paradigms are explanations of world views within a community. They are considered to be
a set of intellectual assumptions that are supported by research and data. Paradigms themselves cannot be
tested; however the theories that are within paradigms can be tested and proved (1996).

In educational administration four paradigms represent the four different theoretical approaches. These are:
structural functionalist, interpretivist, radical humanist and radical structuralist. Researchers concerned with
organizations and administration often follow a one paradigm approach; that is, they base their
epistemological and methodological work under one theoretical approach (Capper, 1993). However, field of
education is comprised of several areas that co-exist with each other. Therefore, the field of education rarely
has one defined community to agree on all aspects of a certain paradigm.

The Structural-Functionalist Paradigm

The structural-functionalists are interested in understanding how institutions work and how they might work
more efficiently while maintaining the existing structures intact (Capper, 1993). Structure in an organization
determines the blueprint for formal expectations like a building’s framework. When expectations are clear,
efficiency increases (Bolman & Deal, 2003).

The Interpretivist Paradigm

Interpretivist paradigm is rooted in the idea that organizations are socially constructed and exist only in the
perceptions of people. This approach focuses on social interactions and there is no objective reality. Structural
functionalists are mainly concerned with how organizations operate, whereas interpretivists are concerned
with how people experience them (Capper, 1993). Overall, more effective administrators tend to be high on
both consideration and structure (Bolman & Deal, 2003).

Critical Theory (Radical Humanist and Radical Structuralist Paradigms together)

Critical Theory, being rooted in Marxist thought deals mainly with societal advantages and oppression. Current
structures of social class, race and diversity is how meaning is managed in educational organizations.
Leadership is based on empowerment and transformation of society. There is an emphasis on morals, values,
intellectual thought and rationality. These areas are extremely culture laden areas and exist in administration’s
leadership and policies (Capper, 1993).

COPYRIGHT @ JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL AND INSTRUCTIONAL STUDIES IN THE WORLD 25

 JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL AND INSTRUCTIONAL STUDIES
IN THE WORLD
August 2013, Volume: 3 Issue: 3 Article: 05
ISSN: 2146-7463

In the social sciences, there can be more than one paradigm at a time. In educational administration, especially
in a multicultural environment, an administrative approach of following one paradigm will be inadequate and
unfitting in certain circumstances. For example, while a structure is needed by all educational organizations,
without considering the human element and the social justice elements, the structure alone will not carry the
institution. Complex organizations like educational institutions must be flexible enough to apply a
multiparadigmatic approach to serve as an example of valuing multiple ways of viewing a situation from
different epistemologies and methodologies (Capper, 1993).

ORGANIZATIONAL CHANGE

A-Target of Change
According to Hanson, if one really wants to learn how an organization works, one should try to change it. In this
attempt of change, the most important process is the targeting process which includes the focus level, potency
and impetus for change.

Focus of Change
When implementing change, administrators need to keep in mind what the focus of the change involves. By
focus of change, we mean change in: task, structure, technology and people. In this approach, we need to
distinguish between individual or organizational level change as well. Individual change involves personality
needs and values whereas organizational change involves the structure of the organization.

Level of Change
In organizations there are different levels of reality. Wilfred Brown has identified four levels of an organization:
Manifest organization, assumed organization, extant organization and requisite organization. Manifest
organization involves the formal structure that the leadership presents to the world. Assumed organization is
revealed in the conventional wisdom of how the system actually works. Extant organization is how a system
actually functions and requisite organization is the ideal type of organization and reflects how an organization
should be like. In targeting change, knowing the level of change will also diffuse misunderstandings.

Potency of Change
Potency in the sense of organizational change involves the degree of significant departure from the existing
conditions. The level of potency is useful because it suggests the degree in which resources, time, energy,
power and goodwill required for the change.

Impetus for Change

The targeting process cannot be carried out independent of the impetus behind the change. Targets usually
differ depending on whether the prime mover is external pressures, reaction to events or voluntary.

B-Planned Change
Planned change is usually seen as a tool for adopting new innovations, resolving conflicts, clearing
communication channels, upgrading instructional quality and so forth. These are all important targets for
change but individually they are limited. A more expansive solution lies in to establish built-in problem solving
capabilities that create experimentation in educational organizations.

Change is a learning process that is loaded with uncertainty. In this sense, change is more of a journey rather
than destination where adjustments must take place. Problems along this journey should be welcome rather
than avoided; after all, educational change is a problem solving process. Successful change is usually
systematic. That is, any reform must not only concentrate on formal components of change, informal
components such as culture must be considered (Hanson, 1996).

MANAGING AN ORGANIZATION WITH A CROSSCULTURAL APPROACH

Managing an organization in a multicultural environment such as an international education institution can

require increased cultural sensitivity in the governmental process. The government of the organization can take

COPYRIGHT @ JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL AND INSTRUCTIONAL STUDIES IN THE WORLD 26

 JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL AND INSTRUCTIONAL STUDIES
IN THE WORLD
August 2013, Volume: 3 Issue: 3 Article: 05
ISSN: 2146-7463

a traditional approach, which ignores cultural differences or treats them as problems, or, it can take a culturally
aware approach and use cultural diversity to create both culturally appropriate and synergistic solutions to the
problems encountered.

Traditional:
Culturally Dominant
Low Solutions
Crosscultural
Awareness

Equifinality:
Culturally Diverse Culturally Parallel
Employee and Solutions
Student Populations

Synergy:
High Culturally Integrative
Crosscultural Solutions
Awareness

Figur 2: Solutions to Managing Cultural Diversity (Weaver, 2000, p.121).

The Traditional Approach

The traditional approach treats cultural diversity as a problem. Organizations using traditional approach usually
attempt to superimpose the dominant culture’s ways of managing on all situations and people. This could lead
to discrimination, crosscultural miscommunication and/or dissatisfaction in many ways. This kind of approach
often causes disenfranchisement and resistance which makes it even harder to solve problems and discover
efficient solutions.

The Culturally Aware Approach

The culturally aware organization recognizes the cultural diversity in the population and is conscious of the
need to address that diversity. Cultural awareness means that the government of the organization recognizes
the similarities and differences in the population of the organization. Cultural awareness alone is not enough to
properly address the issues raised by cultural diversity but it is an essential first step in effective action.

Equifinality – The Parallel Approach

Equifinality means that there are many, equally valuable ways of reaching a particular goal. Educational
organizations using an equifinality approach create parallel ways of reaching their goals based on the cultural
diversity of the student and employee populations. For example, in an international educational institution, a
counselor might explain an important point by using a translator for one student and explaining in English for
another student that is competent in English. Using parallel solutions might demand additional sources but
they are an effective way of getting results.

COPYRIGHT @ JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL AND INSTRUCTIONAL STUDIES IN THE WORLD 27

 JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL AND INSTRUCTIONAL STUDIES
IN THE WORLD
August 2013, Volume: 3 Issue: 3 Article: 05
ISSN: 2146-7463

Synergy – The Integrative Approach

Cultural Synergy is a process in which organization policies and practices are formed on the basis of, but not
limited to, the cultural patterns of individual organization members and clients. This approach views diversity
as a resource in the design and development of organizations. The process of creating synergistic solutions is
challenging because it is not based on past patterns. Employees involved in creating synergistic solutions must
1- recognize the cultural diversity, 2- have an awareness of the cultural similarities and differences, 3- recognize
that there may be multiple ways to manage and 4- be able to integrate culturally distinct approaches into new
synergistic approaches. The benefit to the government of the organization is that synergistic approaches work
well with employees who must work on a day-to-day basis with people from other cultures (Weaver, 2000).

CONCLUSION

In conclusion, educational administration, especially international education administration requires

approaches that are crossculturally sensitive in the administrative as well as teaching areas. In this globally
expanding world, cultural diversity in the educational organizations is not only inevitable but expected as well.

Schools are considered as social systems for many reasons. The roles within the structure of society are
established at schools with a commitment to the values of society. Schools exist within the society therefore
they model society. If we want to create a society that is open-minded, well-informed and culturally sensitive,
we must start from the structural elements of educational organizations. We expect schools and societies to
reflect each other, not just in terms of subjects taught, but also in terms of school organization and functioning.
Therefore, crosscultural awareness and understanding as a part of organizational behavior will go a long way in
uniting the world of students and administrators as well as creating a global impact on future generations.
th
WJEIS’s Note: This article was presented at 4 International Conference on New Trends in Education and Their
Implications - ICONTE, 25-27 April, 2013, Antalya-Turkey and was selected for publication for Volume 3 Number
3 of WJEIS 2013 by WJEIScientific Committee.

REFERENCES

Adler, Nancy J. (1991). International dimensions of organizational behavior. Belmont, CA. Kent Publishing
Company.

Bolman, L.G. & Deal, T.E. (2003). Reframing Organizations. San Francisco, CA. John Wiley and Sons, Inc.

Buckley, L. C. (2000). A framework for understanding crosscultural issues in the English as a second language
classroom. The CATESOL Journal, 12(1), 53 72.

Capper, C. A. (1993). Educational Administration in a Pluralistic Society. Albany, NY State University of New
York Press.

Foster, W. (1986). Paradigms and promises: New approaches to educational administration. Buffalo, NY:
Prometheus.

Guirdham, M. (1999). Communicating across cultures. West Lafayette, Indiana. Purdue University Pres.

Hanson, M (2003). Educational Administration and Organizational Behavior (Fifth Edition), Boston, MA, Pearson
Education.

Kuhn, T. (1996). The structure of scientific revolutions. Chicago, Illinois. University of Chicago Pres.

COPYRIGHT @ JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL AND INSTRUCTIONAL STUDIES IN THE WORLD 28

 JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL AND INSTRUCTIONAL STUDIES
IN THE WORLD
August 2013, Volume: 3 Issue: 3 Article: 05
ISSN: 2146-7463

Simons, J. & Connelly, M. (2000). An administrator’s guide to quality ESL programs. Lanham, Maryland. The
Scarecrow Press.

Stone, D. (2002). Policy paradox: The art of political decision making. New York, NY. W. Norton and Company.

Thiederman, S. (1990). Bridging cultural barriers for corporate success. Lexington, Mass.: Lexington Boks.

Ting Toomey, S, & Korzenny, F. (1991). Cross cultural interpersonal communication. Newbury Park, CA: SAGE
Publications.

Weaver, G. R. (2000). Culture, communication and conflict. Boston: Pearson Publishing.

COPYRIGHT @ JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL AND INSTRUCTIONAL STUDIES IN THE WORLD 29

 JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL AND INSTRUCTIONAL STUDIES
IN THE WORLD
August 2013, Volume: 3 Issue: 3 Article: 06
ISSN: 2146-7463

THE QUALITY OF EDUCATION FOR STUDENTS WITH DISABILITIES

Sanja Selimović
Inova4t, 75000 Tuzla, Trg oslobođenja 6
BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA
[email protected]

Amila MuJezinović
Inova4t, 75000 Tuzla, Trg oslobođenja 6
BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA
[email protected]

Stanko Blatnik
IPAK Institute, Velenje Koroška 18
SLOVENIA
[email protected]

Abstract
In this paper the quality of education for students with disabilities in EU countries (Austria, Italy, Slovenia and
Spain) and non-EU (Bosnia and Herzegovina, and Croatia) has been investigated and compared. In the
framework of iLearn project supported by EU Commission the survey in participating in which participated
students with disabilities and their parents or caretakers was realized. The data was collected with
questionnaire containing 16 questions covering following topic use of computer, satisfaction with educational
process, use of free time and interviews made with selected members of target group. The collected data have
been statistically processed. It was found that there is significant difference in evaluation of quality of
education between EU and non-EU countries. However the participants from non-EU countries gave better
marks for educational process then EU members. This need more analysis and is probable caused by different
culture, tradition and history.

Key Words: Quality of education, evaluation, students with disabilities.

INTRODUCTION

In the iLearn projects (part of Lifelong Learning Programme) participate the partners from Austria, Bosnia and
Herzegovina, Croatia, Italy, Slovenia, Spain and Sweden. iLearn (ICT based Learning and Social Network for
People with Disabilities and Volunteers) is a project co-financed by the European Commission in the
framework of the Lifelong Learning Programme with the aim to foster social inclusion, lifelong learning and
voluntary work. iLearn wants to offer a fruitful opportunity to learn, share experience and connect to each
other to people with disabilities, parents or caretakers, volunteers and local authorities. The course of cooking
was developed with the aim to to facilitate social inclusion of people with disabilites using accessible ICT tools
both for learning and networking parents and caretakers and to provide them with fruitful occasion to learn
from different countries and practices. As a part of activities which were realized in the framework of iLearn
project there was a user analysis in which several interesting elements important for life of people with
disabilites have been collected, processed and analyzed. A significant part of data was connected with the
quality of education of people with disabilities. To get more insight in the problem of education we made
further statistical analysis of collected data with aim to find out if there is significant difference between quality
of education in EU countries and non-EU countries (Bosnia and Herzegovina).

COPYRIGHT @ JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL AND INSTRUCTIONAL STUDIES IN THE WORLD 30

 JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL AND INSTRUCTIONAL STUDIES
IN THE WORLD
August 2013, Volume: 3 Issue: 3 Article: 06
ISSN: 2146-7463

THE SURVEY

Preparing user analysis for iLearn project we collected a lot of data covering different area important for people
with disabilities. One area was the quality of education for people with disabilities. As the source of data we
used the questionnaries filled by children with intellectual and combined disabilities , both genders under 20
years. The questionnaires contained 16 questions of mixed type covering following topics what are they
interesting for, how they use free time and how they are satisfied with the educational system and how much
they use computers. For investigation how are person with disabilities satisfy with educational system we
asked how they mark the teachers, educational programme and educational materials. The questions were of
closed type and suggested answers were in Lickert scale with the marks from 1-5 (1 – lowest mark and 5
highest mark).

In the survey there were questionned 53 persons – pupils and students with disabilites coming from Austria,
Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Italy, Slovenia, Spain, and Sweden. The participants have been divided in two
groups 28 persons were from EU countries and 25 from Bosnia and Herzegovina and Croatia (12 from BiH and
13 from Croatia).

The answers collected from both groups were processed and analyzed using statistical methods (Fazlović,
2006).

RESULTS

The participants from Bosnia and Herzegovina and Croatia gave better marks for education of people with
disabilities then participants from EU countries. Because this result was not expected we used t-test for
comparison the answers from both groups and we got as follows between t is necessary to adopt some basic
concepts of cooking for people with disabilities namely:
• There was statistically significant difference for quality of teachers between EU and non-EU countries for
the 99% level of confidence the t-value was 2.83 what is larger from table value 2.02
• There was statistically significant difference for quality of educational programme between EU and non-EU
countries at 95% level of confidence because the t value was 2.34 and table value is 1.675
• There was statistically significant difference for quality of educational programme between EU and non-EU
countries at 95% level of confidence because the t value was 3.35 and table value is 1.675

The results were unexpected so we were trying to explain why it happened that persons from non-EU countries
gave better marks for all three elements of educational system for people with disabilities. Our conclusion was
that Bosnia and Herzegovina and Croatia are countries where the educational system is authoritative (Modrić-
Blivajs, 2007) so pupils and students are a little bit afraid to be critical and that students with special needs are
usually going to special schools where they have better conditions.

Another interesting results of survey were the answers to question What makes learning easier? On fig 1 are
results for Bosnia and Herzegovina.

COPYRIGHT @ JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL AND INSTRUCTIONAL STUDIES IN THE WORLD 31

 JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL AND INSTRUCTIONAL STUDIES
IN THE WORLD
August 2013, Volume: 3 Issue: 3 Article: 06
ISSN: 2146-7463

Figur 1: Answers from Bosnia and Herzegovina

The answers from Bosnia and Herzegovina are different from answers from Croatia( Fig. 2) and EU countries
(Fig. 3).

Figur 2: Answers from Croatia

COPYRIGHT @ JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL AND INSTRUCTIONAL STUDIES IN THE WORLD 32

 JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL AND INSTRUCTIONAL STUDIES
IN THE WORLD
August 2013, Volume: 3 Issue: 3 Article: 06
ISSN: 2146-7463

Figur 3: Answers from EU countries

Although in all countries the most important support for learning are coming from teachers there is a big
difference between use of computer in learning support. It is high in EU countries 26% , less in Croatia 9% and
almost 0% in Bosnia and Herzegovina. It could be explained by the difference in the economic situation in those
countries however it has to be a subject of more detailed analysis.

CONCLUSION

The comparison of educational system for people with disabilities in EU countries (Austria, Italy, Slovenia, Spain
and Sweden) and non EU countries (Bosnia and Herzegovina and Croatia) shows that in accordance the
answers of participants there is significant difference between these two systems. At same time the level of
use of computers as learning tool is much larger in EU countries. These differences are explained as difference
in culture (non EU countries are more authoritative) and in economic situation in these countries. However to
get more reliable results it is necessary to make more detailed survey (additional questions and larger sample
of person with disabilities who will fill the questionnaires).
th
WJEIS’s Note: This article was presented at 4 International Conference on New Trends in Education and Their
Implications - ICONTE, 25-27 April, 2013, Antalya-Turkey and was selected for publication for Volume 3 Number
3 of WJEIS 2013 by WJEIScientific Committee.

REFERENCES

D. Modrić-Blivajs (2007). Pedagoški standardi nekad i danas, Povijest u nastavi, Vol.V No.9 (1). Zagreb: Filozofski
fakultet.

S.Fazlović (2006). Statistika: deskriptivna i inferencijalna analiza. Tuzla: Denfas.

COPYRIGHT @ JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL AND INSTRUCTIONAL STUDIES IN THE WORLD 33

 JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL AND INSTRUCTIONAL STUDIES
IN THE WORLD
August 2013, Volume: 3 Issue: 3 Article: 07
ISSN: 2146-7463

COMPARISON OF SOCIAL – PSYCHOLOGICAL INTERACTION BETWEEN PARENTS

OF MENTALLY – RETARDED CHILDREN AND PARENTS OF NORMAL CHILDREN

Dr. Hossain Jenaabadi

The Univesity of Sistan and Baluchestan, IRAN
[email protected]

Abstract
Present research aims to investigate social – psychological interaction in parents of mentally – retarded
children. from statistical community of parents of mentally – retorted children ( able to be instructed ) and
normal students , 60 persons (30 fathers and 30 mothers ) as members of study sample and persons ( 30
fathers and 30 mothers ) as members of control sample were selected using the method of random sampling.

Data were collected through completing the questionnaire of social – psychology interaction test. Attained
information was analyzed by independent go ups t-test. The results show that there isn’t meaningful difference
between parents of mentally – retarded children and parents of normal children in social- psychological
interaction. The level of social- psychological interaction is more in mothers with mentally-retarded children
than in father of such children. This ratio is true between Mothers and fathers of normal children.

Key Words: Social- psychological interaction, mentally retarded child, intractable, and parents.

INTRODUCTION

Every father and mothers, who are going to have a child, expect and wish a healthy, intelligent and nice baby.
When a child with mental retardation puts his/her step in the science of life, their parents, in their first contact
with the child, encounter with a lot of “what to dos” and “what have to dos” Existence of a mentally – retarded
infant will cause a change in the behavior of family members. Parents in traction in fluencies social –
psychological health and parent-child relation. If we assume that the number of family members is averagely
five and the degree of mental retardation prevalence and epidemic is about three percent, based on
international standards, then approximately 1,800,000 people of Iranian seventy million populations are
affected, to some extent by the phenomenon of children’s mental retardation (Ahadi and Bani Jamsli, 1990:39-
100). There fore, it sounds necessary that feelings, insights, reactions and social- psychological issues of parents
in family environment should be paid needed attention and should be studied and examined.

The results of some researches show that the presence of a child with mental handicap causes mental pressure
on parents and other members of family. Because of having a child who is different with other children, the
parents of mentally – retarded child face many problems.

These problems make severe the mental pressure in parents with mentally – retarded child ( Afrooz, 1998:209).
Gowen (1989) believes that because of spending more energy and financial costs, parents of mentally –
retarded children, especially mothers more experience hopelessness, mental discomfort and emotional
instability. They may subjected more the signs of mental pressures. Mc Hall and Haris found out in their
research that some factors such as seniti of handicap, gender and age of such children increase the rate of
hopelessness in their parents (Afrooz, 1988:138-147). About the effect of mentally – retarded child on parents,
Alburzi(1996) shows that parents encounter with different reactions including feel of shyness (41 percent), feel
of sin (32.7 percent), and hiding the child ( 70 percent). In relation with having a mentally – retarded child, The
family suffers mental pressures, including anxiety (87 percent) , nervous annoyance (53.2 percent), effect on
family relations (23percent) and marital disputes.

COPYRIGHT @ JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL AND INSTRUCTIONAL STUDIES IN THE WORLD 34

 JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL AND INSTRUCTIONAL STUDIES
IN THE WORLD
August 2013, Volume: 3 Issue: 3 Article: 07
ISSN: 2146-7463

(Milani far, 1980: 205). The results show that mothers of mentally –retarded children are more disappointed
than normal children’s mothers and they face more problems in controlling their angry toward child
(Gamingrori, 1966, as quoting Robinson, 1995:148-160).

Additionally, parents with mentally- retarded child lose their love toward one – another. Especially, relation of
young parents is more affected. Also, because of existence of such children, Mothers are more susceptible to
disease than older mothers. This effect is more severe in literate mothers than ill-treated mothers or less
educated ones (shari’ati, and Dawar Manesh, 1984).

Parents’ awareness of their children handicap deficiency is sudden or gradual, how ever their early reactions
are stable. Parents reactions to child’s mental retardation are either temporal or permanently. Reactions like
feel of sin and extra – ordinary support are permanent that influence family atmosphere and relational cycle of
house hold for a long time. When the parents gradually accept the situation, they pass some stages for coping
with mental problems of this condition. Rosen (1985,as quoting by Ahadi, 1990:79) has provided a Five- stage
framework: 1) awareness of tissue, 2) recognition of what is it , 3) looking for reason(s) ,4) looking for
treatment and 5) accepting the child completely.

There for, family is a social system and mentally retarded child is one of the members of this system. These two
not only correlate with each other but also with other members of family. This interaction earn be considered
either positively or negatively.

Most researches, carried out in this field, imply that this effect is mostly negative. That is , mental retardation
of one of family members causes that the system of family can not perform its functions and duties properly .
Consequently, with presence of a mentally- retarded child, performance of family faces defects and de faults.
So, investigation of social – psychological interaction in parents with mentally – retarded child is the general
aim of this research. With respect to this aim, the hypotheses of research are: 1) There is no difference
between parents of mentally- retarded children and parents of normal children in social – psychological
nitration, 2) There is no meaning full difference between fathers and mothers of mentally- retarded children in
social – psychological interaction , 3) There is no meaning full difference between mothers with normal
children, in social – psychological interaction, and 5) There is no difference between fathers with mentally-
retarded children and fathers with normal children in social – psychological interactions.

METHOD

Regarding the subject, aims and hypotheses, the method of present research is causative – comparative. The
community of research is parents of mentally – yet added children with the ability of getting trained. Age scope
of these children is between 7-12 years. They are in primary schools inn exceptional centre’s of education in
city of zahedan in educational year of 2006-2007.

The size of sample involves 120 persons- parents of normal and mentally – retarded children, who were
selected simple- randomly from available community, Each one of them were matched based on some
variables such as place of birth, level of literacy, number of children and occupation, in order to monitor the
differences resulted from sample groups.

To collect data, following tools were used:

1) questionnaire of personal particularities, 2) questionnaire number 1 social- psychological in traction
(performed for both groups)

Estimation on social- psychological interaction test implies internal consistency (0.837) [chai, 1985,
zolzokarmaniz, 1980].

Bart – kanarad, using the method of bisection, informs of 0.83 coefficient of reliability at the level of non-
conditioned respect and 0.93 about levels of respect.

COPYRIGHT @ JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL AND INSTRUCTIONAL STUDIES IN THE WORLD 35

 JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL AND INSTRUCTIONAL STUDIES
IN THE WORLD
August 2013, Volume: 3 Issue: 3 Article: 07
ISSN: 2146-7463

Encel beckr (1984), using the same method, considers the test as reliable (0.75 and 0.94). Barson mentions the
re- test correlation for all scores of test as being 0.86. Two methods of descriptive statistics and deductive
statistics were used, by applying t- test for comparing the means of two independent groups in order to
analyze research- related information.

RESULTS

Investigation of results is carried out based on order of hypotheses.

First hypothesis: There is no difference between parents of mentally- retarded children and parents of normal
children in social – psychological interaction.

Table 1: Average of scores of social- psychological interaction of parents of mentally- retarded children and
parents of normal children.
groups mean Standard No
deviation
Parents of mentally-retarded children 20.28 10.70 60

Parents of normal children 17.71 10.20 60

p≥0.05 , df=118 , t=1.34

As the table shows, calculated t(1.34) with degree of freedom (118) at level of 0.05 is not meaningful. So,
between the averages, no difference exists. That is the phenomenon of child's mental retardation and
normality has no effect on parent’s social- psychological interaction in both groups.

Second hypothesis: between fathers and mothers of mentally – retarded children in social- psychological
interaction, there is no meaningful difference.

Table 2: average of scores of social- psychological interaction of fathers and mothers of mentally- retarded
children.
groups mean Standard No
deviation
fathers 25.53 9.37 30

mothers 17.71 9.34 30

p≤0.01 , df=58 , t=4.26

Because, calculated t( 4.26) with freedom degree of 58 at level of 0.01, is meaningful, so it can be said that the
rate of social- psychological interaction is more in mothers of mentally- retarded children than fathers of such
children.

COPYRIGHT @ JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL AND INSTRUCTIONAL STUDIES IN THE WORLD 36

 JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL AND INSTRUCTIONAL STUDIES
IN THE WORLD
August 2013, Volume: 3 Issue: 3 Article: 07
ISSN: 2146-7463

Third hypothesis: average of scores of social – psychological interaction of fathers and mothers of normal
children.
groups mean Standard No
deviation
fathers 20.60 11.74 30

mothers 14.83 7.52 30

p≤0.05 , df=58 , t=2.23

Since, estimated t (2.23) with freedom degree of 58 at level of 0.05 is meaningful, it can be concluded that the
rate of social- psychological instruction is less in mothers of normal children than the fathers of normal
children.

Fourth hypothesis: there is no meaningful difference between mothers with mentally- retarded children and
mothers with normal children.

Table 4: mean scores of social – psychological interaction of mothers with mentally – retarded children and
mothers with normal children.
groups mean Standard No
deviation
Mothers of normal children 20.60 11.74 30

Mothers of mentally- retarded children 25.53 9.39 30

p≤0.05 , df=58 , t=1.78

Since, calculated t (1.78) with freedom degree of 58 and at level of 0.05 is meaningful, so there is no difference
in compared averages.

That is between mothers of normal children and others of mentally – retarded children in social –psychological
interaction, there is no meaningful difference.
Fifth hypothesis there is no difference between of mentally-retarded children and fathers of normal children.

Table 5: avarage scores of social-psychological interaction in fathers of mentally – retarded children and fathers
if normal children.
groups mean Standard No
deviation
Fathers of normal children 14.83 7.52 30

Fathers of mentally-retarded children 15.30 9.37 30

p≥0.05 , df=58 , t=0.23

Since, calculated t(0.23) with freedom degree of 58, and at level of 0.05 is not meaningful. So, a meaningful
difference does not exist in social- psychological interaction of both groups fathers.

Discussion: family and mentally- retarded child have mutual effect on one- another. The researches indicate
that this effect is mostly negative. That is, mental retardation in one family member causes the system of
family does not meet its functions and duties properly.

COPYRIGHT @ JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL AND INSTRUCTIONAL STUDIES IN THE WORLD 37

 JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL AND INSTRUCTIONAL STUDIES
IN THE WORLD
August 2013, Volume: 3 Issue: 3 Article: 07
ISSN: 2146-7463

The results of this research show that there is no meaningful difference between parents of mentally –
retarded children and parents of normal children in social – psychological interaction.

However, the level of social- psychological interaction is more in mothers of mentally- retarded children than
fathers of such children. Also the rat of social- psychological interaction is more in mothers of normal children
than fathers of such children.

This result is not consistent with the results of previous studies that show inability of one family member
causes mental pressure on whole system of family. pleas, for example shows that in ІІ families from 20 studied
families, family members experienced emotional problems due to chronic disease of one family member.

A research, carried out by Kaplan and colleagues (1973, as quoted by sa'atchi) shows that more than 80
percent of families could n't cope with mental pressures resulted from chronic disease of family member. The
parents, after being informed of a family member’s inability, faced some problems or their current problem
stensified.

Berslaw etal (1987, as quoted by sa'atchi,1991) have studied the effects of a chronic diseased child on the
mental performance of 456 mothers of those children. Their results show that the rate of mental pressure in
studied mother was more than mothers of control group.

This difference may be due to change in the kind of assessed variable. That is, previous researches emphasized
more on parent’s mental pressure, while this research focuses on their social- psychological interaction.

Additionally, the difference has been caused by comparative – causative method and enhanced accuracy of this
research.
th
WJEIS’s Note: This article was presented at 4 International Conference on New Trends in Education and Their
Implications - ICONTE, 25-27 April, 2013, Antalya-Turkey and was selected for publication for Volume 3 Number
3 of WJEIS 2013 by WJEIScientific Committee.

REFERENCES

Ahadi and Bani. Jamil .Sh(1980). Mental health and mental retardation, first edition Tehran, Nai publication.

Afrooz. Gh (1988). An introduction to psychology and education of exceptional children, ninth edition, Tehran:
Tehran University.

Chawoshi-G (1988): examining social- mental problems in mothers with mentally- retarded children, M.A.
Thesis, Tehran University.

Robinson and Robinson (1995). Mentally – retarded child, Tr. Farhad Maher, Mashhad: publications of Astan
Quds Razawi.

Dawar Manesh and Shari'ati. N (1984). Education mentally – handicapped children. Tehran.

Sa'atchi.M (1991) effects of mental pressures resulted from disease and treatment methods convention on
stress and psychological diseases, Tehran: University of Tabtaba'ee.

Maher. F (1992). Effects of child's handicap on parent’s social- psychological interaction: Doctor ship thesis,
Tehran University.

Milani Far.13 (1990). Psychology of exceptional children and adolescents, Tehran Ghoomas publishing.

COPYRIGHT @ JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL AND INSTRUCTIONAL STUDIES IN THE WORLD 38

 JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL AND INSTRUCTIONAL STUDIES
IN THE WORLD
August 2013, Volume: 3 Issue: 3 Article: 07
ISSN: 2146-7463

Nezami .10(1987): mentally- retarded children’s parents’ perception: M.A. thesis. Tehran: University of Tehran.

Gumbezo E.J. and Guberium. F: (1992). Comparative parental perceptions of mentally really retarded child.
American journal of mentally deficiency, 77. 175-180

COPYRIGHT @ JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL AND INSTRUCTIONAL STUDIES IN THE WORLD 39

 JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL AND INSTRUCTIONAL STUDIES
IN THE WORLD
August 2013, Volume: 3 Issue: 3 Article: 08
ISSN: 2146-7463

THE VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY OF TURKISH VERSION

OF THE SITUATIONAL SELF-AWARENESS SCALE

Ahmet Akın
Sakarya Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi
TURKEY
[email protected]

Adem Güneş
TURKEY
[email protected]

Okan Bilgin
TURKEY
[email protected]

Zeynep Akkuş
TURKEY
[email protected]

Abstract
The aim of this study is to examine validity and reliability of the Turkish version of the Situational Self-
Awareness Scale (Govern & Marsch, 2001). The sample of this study consisted of 328 undergraduate students.
The results of confirmatory factor analysis indicated that the 9 items and three dimensional (immediate
surroundings, private self-awareness, public self-awareness) situational self-awareness model was well fit (x²=
42.30, df= 20, p= .00253, RMSEA= .057, CFI= .98, IFI= .98, NFI= .96, GFI= .97, and SRMR= .039). The internal
consistency reliability coefficients of the scale were .80, .64, and .40 for three subscales, respectively. The
corrected item-total correlations ranged from .27 to .69.

Key Words: Situational self-awareness, validity, reliability, factor analysis.

INTRODUCTION

Self-focus has both a public and a private aspect, which can be dispositional and situational. The first one is
often referred to as “self-consciousness” and is assumed to be a relatively stable trait; while the latter,
situational self-focus, is labeled “self-awareness” and is thought to be a transient state, susceptible to
manipulation (Buss & Scheier, 1976; Carver & Glass, 1976; Fenigstein, Scheier, & Buss, 1975).

Self-consciousness, described as being the tendency to direct attention toward aspects of the self, has been
found associated with personality such as handling of impressions, sociability, sensitivity to social rejection, or
resistance to experimental suggestion to the subjective experience of emotional arousal, task persistence, the
processing of self-relevant information, or the articulation of the self-scheme (Liu et al., 2009).

The purpose of this study is to adapt into Turkish and to examine the validity and reliability of Situational Self-
awareness Scale (Govern & Marsch, 2001).

COPYRIGHT @ JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL AND INSTRUCTIONAL STUDIES IN THE WORLD 40

 JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL AND INSTRUCTIONAL STUDIES
IN THE WORLD
August 2013, Volume: 3 Issue: 3 Article: 08
ISSN: 2146-7463

METHOD

Participants
Participants were 320 university students (117 were male, 203 were female) who were enrolled in mid-size
state University, in Turkey.

Measures
Situational Self-awareness Scale. The Situational Self-awareness Scale (Govern & Marsch, 2001) is a self-report
questionnaire with 9 items rated on a 7-point scale. This scale has three subscales; Awareness of immediate
surroundings (3 items); private self- awareness (3 items), and public self-awareness (3 items). High scores
indicate higher levels of situational self-awareness. The internal consistency reliability coefficients of the scale
were .70, .72, and .72 for three subscales, respectively.

Procedure
Translation of the Situational Self-awareness Scale into Turkish was based on the recommendations of
Hambleton and Kanjee (1995). As the first step two specialists who were a native Turkish speaker fluent in
English translated English version into Turkish. Discrepancies in initial translations were addressed with the
assistance of a third independent translator. The Turkish version of the Situational Self-awareness Scale was
then translated back into English by two English-speaking language specialists who were blinded to the original
scale and the objective of the study. The differences between translated versions were evaluated and a
satisfactory compliance with the original scale was achieved by consensus of the translators. The completed
Turkish version was evaluated for cultural appropriateness by three academicians from department of English
Language and Literature, controversial items were determined and necessary modifications were done. The
updated version was reevaluated by the original group of expert reviewers, to finalize the Turkish version used
in this study.

Permission for participation of students was obtained from related chief departments and students voluntarily
participated in research. Completion of the scales was anonymous and there was a guarantee of
confidentiality. The scales were administered to the students in groups in the classrooms. Prior to
administration of scales, all participants were told about purposes of the study. In this study confirmatory
factor analysis (CFA) was executed to confirm the original scale’s structure in Turkish culture and Cronbach’
Alpha reliability coefficient was calculated to examine the reliability. Data were analyzed using LISREL 8.54 and
SPSS 15 package programs.

RESULTS

Construct Validity
Confirmatory factor analysis demonstrated that the three-dimensional model was well fit (x²= 42.30, df= 20, p=
.00253, RMSEA= .057, CFI= .98, IFI= .98, NFI= .96, GFI= .97, and SRMR= .039). Factor loads of items belonging
Turkish version of Situational Self-awareness Scale are presented in Figure 1.

COPYRIGHT @ JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL AND INSTRUCTIONAL STUDIES IN THE WORLD 41

 JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL AND INSTRUCTIONAL STUDIES
IN THE WORLD
August 2013, Volume: 3 Issue: 3 Article: 08
ISSN: 2146-7463

M1
.72
M5 .83 Immediate
M9 .73 surroundings

.96

.30
M3 Private self-
awareness
M4 .78
.37 -.84
M7

-.81

M2 .81
Public self-
M6 .38 awareness

M8 .59

Figure 1: Factor loading for the Turkish version of the Situational Self-
awareness Scale

Reliability
The internal consistency reliability coefficients of the scale were .80, .40, and .64 for three subscales,
respectively.

DISCUSSION

The purpose of this study was to translate Situational Self-awareness Scale into Turkish and to examine its
psychometric properties. Overall findings demonstrated that this scale had acceptable validity scores. However
the internal consistency coefficient of the private self-awareness subscale was low. Hence further studies that
will examine the temporal stability of the Situational Self-awareness Scale using test re-test method are
important for its measurement force.
th
WJEIS’s Note: This article was presented at 4 International Conference on New Trends in Education and Their
Implications - ICONTE, 25-27 April, 2013, Antalya-Turkey and was selected for publication for Volume 3 Number
3 of WJEIS 2013 by WJEIScientific Committee.

REFERENCES

Buss, D. M., & Scheier, M. F. (1976). Self-consciousness, self-awareness, and self-attribution. Journal of
Research in Personality, 10, 463-468.

Carver, C. S., & Glass, D. C. (1976). The Self-consciousness Scale: A discriminant validity study. Journal of
Personality Assessment, 40, 169-172.

COPYRIGHT @ JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL AND INSTRUCTIONAL STUDIES IN THE WORLD 42

 JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL AND INSTRUCTIONAL STUDIES
IN THE WORLD
August 2013, Volume: 3 Issue: 3 Article: 08
ISSN: 2146-7463

Fenigstein, A., Scheier, M. F., & Buss, A. H. (1975). Public and private self-consciousness: Assessment and
theory. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 43, 522-527.

Govern, J. M., & Marsch, L. A. (2001). Development and validation of the Situational Self-awareness Scale.
Consciousness and Cognition, 10, 366-378.

Hambleton, R. K., & Kanjee, A. (1995). Increasing the validity of cross-cultural assessments: Use of improved
methods for test adaptations. European Journal of Psychological Assessment, 11, 147–157.

Liu, F., Shao, Y., Yang, B., Wu, S., Yang, H., Wang, W., & Xiao, W. (2009). The validity and reliability of the
revised chinese version of the Situational Self-awareness Scale. Social Behavior and Personality, 37(6), 743-752.

COPYRIGHT @ JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL AND INSTRUCTIONAL STUDIES IN THE WORLD 43

 JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL AND INSTRUCTIONAL STUDIES
IN THE WORLD
August 2013, Volume: 3 Issue: 3 Article: 09
ISSN: 2146-7463

THE SECONDARY EDUCATION STUDENTS’ PERCEPTIONS REGARDING PEACE EDUCATION

AND HUMAN RIGHTS

Dr. Gülay Bedir

Gaziosmanpaşa University
Faculty of Education
Educational Sciences Deparmant
Tokat, TURKEY
[email protected]

Prof.Dr. Mehmet Arslan

Gaziosmanpaşa University
Faculty of Education
Educational Sciences Deparmant
Tokat, TURKEY
[email protected]

Abstract
This study aims at determining seceondary education students’ perceptions regarding peace education and
human rights. (What is the perceptions of the secondary education students regarding peace education?-What
is the perceptions of the secondary education students regarding human rights?- Do students’—studying at
Secondary Education—opinions on peace education and human rights vary across class level, age, type of
school, family’s educational background, and gender?). In this paper, the secondary students’ perception on
peace education and human rights are presented by the method of questionnairre. The existing state here is
reflected on the basis of student perceptions. This is a descriptive study because of its features. The
questionnairre is composed of two parts. The students’ cooperation and communication; their prejudice, views
and their attitudes towards the solution of disagreements are going to examine in order to determine their
attitudes on peace education in the first part of the measure. In the second part, the students’ attitudes
towards sex difference, etnic culture, religious values (faith), language, political and philosophical views are
going to be assessed. Statistical analysis of data was performed by means of Windows SPSS packet program.
The aritmetic means and percentages of each items in the questionnairre were calculated and the obtained
data was tabled and interpreted. It is stated that according to the obtained results, secondary school students’
perceptions on Peace Education and Human Rights are usually positive.

Key Words: Secondary Education, Human Right, Peace Education.

INTRODUCTION

Recently, there has been an increase in the number of both national and international conflicts. Peoples of the
world have been said to lose their ability to tolerate differences (religion, language, ethnicity, race, etc.) due to
various reasons, and hence started to display more hostile and violent behaviors. It is possible to set up and
develop peaceful relationships among countries through growing up individuals who are democratic, pacific
and respectful to human rights. This issue can be provided by having the activities of education and instruction
including such behaviours. This case is directing all the world countries to perform studies in order to gain such
universal values in every stage of education institutions.

Although peace education is as old as human history, two world wars have led to call attentions to this issue.
Also it is the turning point for peace education to use first nucleer bomb against to Japan (Köklü, 1997, 18). In

COPYRIGHT @ JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL AND INSTRUCTIONAL STUDIES IN THE WORLD 44

 JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL AND INSTRUCTIONAL STUDIES
IN THE WORLD
August 2013, Volume: 3 Issue: 3 Article: 09
ISSN: 2146-7463

order to protect next generations from war disaster and to set up good neighbourhood relations, the Treaty of
United Nations suggesting to live in peace has formulated some decisions on “protecting peace and security”
and “the prohibition of applying to power threat or using power among international relationships” (Kabaoğlu,
1996, 49). Having seen the war damage for humankind, all the world countries have tended to various
applications in order to remove such damages and protect peace and security. One of the most important of
these applications is to grow up generations who are aware of such ideas.

What is peace education? It is expressed by different people with different meanings in different places. Peace
education is to live in peace among enemy or opposite groups; such as minorities, immigrants, ethnic groups
and people from different class and religion (Saloman, 2002). It is to solve individuals’ state of conflict in a more
creative and nonviolence way and to gain needed skills for individuals to do this (Galtung, 1997; Jenefer &
Sertel, 2005). Peace is worth learning and in order to realize this aim it is necessary to transfer it to students as
a fact needed more labour (Matthews, 2002, 29).

Peace culture is different from the concept of peace. Peace culture, which is based on the principles of equality,
justice, democracy, human rights, tolerance and solidarity, is a culture supporting living together and sharing.
Peace culture is against violence and it tries to take necessary measurements by reaching roots of
disagreements. It tends to solve problems through diologues and conversations. It aims to benefit everybody
from all the human rights and to guarantee the attachment of society to developing process. It reaches these
goals through culture, art and education (http://www.iksev.org).

Peace is a vital condition of human rights to be practised completely and forms the foundation of human rights.
For this reason, It is obligatory to think human rights education together with peace education (Kamarajk &
Aktan, 2005 ). Human rights and basic freedoms are the individual rights which are resulted from humanely
needs and skills (Beetham & Boyle, 1998, 99). Human rights cannot be taken away, no one has the right to
deprive another person of them for any reason. Human rights are inalienable and they are inherent to each
individual. It is impossible to have dignified and humane life without human rights (Uygun, 1996, 7). Without
any kind of distinction international organizations, which are aiming to develop respect to human rights and
take pains with it, and especially the countries that are the members of these organizations have to take
abstract and concrete measurements in order to realize aforesaid aim before needing to start control and
protection and they also have to contribute to it in order to make it real (Gülmez, 1996, 14).

It is needed that people have to reach a definite awareness, develop sensitivity and start moving in order to
practise human rights and to form an universal peace culture ( Bağlı & Esen, 2003). Human rights should not
the only demand of wronged people but also it should be a common demand of all citizens who want a healthy
relationship between state and society and between society and individual (Dağı, 2000, 202).

The primary way to obtain real respect to human rights is to educate human rights. It is impossible to get the
respect to human rights by means of the mechanisms of control and protection alone. Because they can be
only operated after violating the rules of human rights (Gülmez, 1996, 1). The education of human rights is an
effective way of work in making people aware of their own rights in order to defence universal values in the
national and advanced level (Yeşil, 2002, 45). Tibbis states that the education of human rights is to have
knowledge on the topics like right and responsibility; the manners of participating; the struggle with inequality
and distinction (Yeşil, 2002, 46).

International organisations working on human rights insist that states are responsible to their citezens for
introducing human rights through education. Human rights and citizenship education is a kind of educational
field that every stage of school, informal educational institutions, managers directing families’ mass media
tools, institutions of religion and mass organizations of democracy have to take responsibility for it. In recent
years, it has been started to perform some studies such as the development of program on democracy and
human rights, preparing instructional material and the education of teacher starting from the class of primary
school to high school in Turkey (Gözütok, 2005).

COPYRIGHT @ JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL AND INSTRUCTIONAL STUDIES IN THE WORLD 45

 JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL AND INSTRUCTIONAL STUDIES
IN THE WORLD
August 2013, Volume: 3 Issue: 3 Article: 09
ISSN: 2146-7463

The principles that human rights base on are as follows:

1. All instructional institutions should consider human rights education important and this education should
be encourage and control continuously.
2. Human rights education should be connected with real life, i.e. nearby and distant environment of school.
3. It should be provided that students have basic level of knowledge about basic rights and terminology to be
used in this area.
4. It should be tried to produce some outstanding changes on student attidutes and behavours as a whole or
one by one.
5. It should be create potential on students in the name of human rights, peace and improvement in order to
participate actively in social life in their future life (Akt. Kepenekçi, 2000, 13).

Human rights education is to help individuals in understanding human rights and feeling themselves important,
being respected and developing themselves to the point that they should be protected (http://www.amnesty-
turkiye.org).

There is going to occur the necessity of growing individuals who are aware of human rights and by this way
these individuals are going to accept the fact that there are opposite opinions and individuals who have got
different characters both in the society where they live and in the world. And also instead of struggle with the
opposites they are going to try to become together in common points or at least they are going to respect each
other’s presence. Peace education includes some features that sometimes similar to human rights education
and sometimes comprise each other. Without any kind of distinction people have rights simply because they
are human. They are indivisible, interrelated and interdependent because it is insufficient to respect some
human rights and not others. In practice, the violation of one right will often affect several other rights. All
human rights should therefore be seen as having equal importance and of being equally essential to the dignity
and worth of every person. This is the ideal to be reached (Soysal, 1987, 217).

Recently, different models has been developed to improve human rights education (Bajaj, 2004, 24). National
approach has been usually practised in the level of primary school. Basic concepts of human rights have been
also taught while discussing the history and the regime of the country. The education systems adopting such
approach have limited the inclination related to human rights in national level. Other countries are located
within the area of comperative approach. It is also paid attention to the constitutions of nations, the citezens to
be righted and what level these rights are applied. International approach pay attention to international, local
and civil organizations dealing with the protection of human rights. National approach has a special impotance
because it provides connection between national and comperative approaches. It also emphasizes the basic
national humane needs and the needs for human honour. And it also seizes the concept of rights within hak
kavramını global perspective. It is necessary to use these three aproaches together for an effective human
rights education (Kepenekçi, 1999).

Purpose Of The Study

This study aims at determining seceondary education students’ perceptions regarding peace education and
human rights. The main focus of it was to found out satisfactory answers for following questions:
1- What is the perceptions of the secondary education students regarding peace education?
2- What is the perceptions of the secondary education students regarding human rights?
3- Do students’—studying at Secondary Education—opinions on peace education and human rights vary
across class level, age, family’s educational background, and gender?)

METHOD

In this paper, the secondary students’ perception on peace education and human rights are presented by the
method of questionnairre. The existing state here is reflected on the basis of student perceptions. This is a
descriptive study because of its features. The techniques of questionnaire and interview are usually used in this
study in order to collect data. In this study, the technique of questionnairre was preferred in order to
determine student perception because of aiming at collecting data from a wide student group (Erden, 1998,
59-62; Kaptan, 1989, 82).

COPYRIGHT @ JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL AND INSTRUCTIONAL STUDIES IN THE WORLD 46

 JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL AND INSTRUCTIONAL STUDIES
IN THE WORLD
August 2013, Volume: 3 Issue: 3 Article: 09
ISSN: 2146-7463

Table 1: Demographic information of students participated in research

Their Fathers’ Education Mothers’ Education Dispersion of

Frequency(f) Percentage(%)
Sex

Male 205 51,6

Female 192 48,4
Uneducated 5 1,3
Primary School 220 55,4
Secondary school 50 12,6
Level

High school 73 18,4

Pre-Licence 21 5,3
University 27 6,8
Master Degree 1 0,3
Uneducated 4 1,0
Primary School 116 29,2
Secondary school 71 17,9
Level

High school 129 32,5

Pre-Licence 2 0.5
University 68 17,1
Master Degree 7 1,8
th
9 Class 227 57,2
classes

th
10 Class 87 21,9
th
11 Class 83 20,9
1 Sibling 35 8,8
Sibling Number

2 Sibling 125 31,5

3 Sibling 130 32,7
4 Sibling 68 17,1
5 Sibling 28 7,1
6 Sibling 9 2,3
7 Sibling 2 0,5

Participant
The participants of the study consisted of a total number of 347 secondary school students Tokat, Turkey. In
this title, students’ demographic data such as their sex, mothers’ education level, fathers’ education level, class
level and number of their sibling number has been given.

Dispersion Of Students According To Their Sex: There have been 205 male (51.6%) and 192 female (48.4%)
students participated in research.

Dispersion of Students Participated in Research According to Their Mothers’ Education Level: When the
dispersion of students are examined according to their mothers’ education level it is stated that 5 of them
(1.3%) are uneducated and 220 of them (55.4%) are graduated from primary school and 50 of them (12.6%) are
graduated from secondary school and 73 of them (18.4%) graduated from high school and 21 of them (5.3%)
are graduated from pre-licence and 27 of them (6.8%) are graduated from university and 1 of them (0.3%) has
master degree.

Dispersion of Students Participated in Research According to Their Fathers’ Education Level: When the
dispersion of students are examined according to their fathers’ education level it is stated that 4 of them (1.0%)
are uneducated and 116 of them (29.2%) are graduated from primary school and 71 of them (17.9%) are
graduated from secondary school and 129 of them (32.5%) graduated from high school and 2 of them (0.5%)
are pre-licence and 68 of them (17.2%) graduated from university and 7 of them (1.8%) has master degree.

COPYRIGHT @ JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL AND INSTRUCTIONAL STUDIES IN THE WORLD 47

 JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL AND INSTRUCTIONAL STUDIES
IN THE WORLD
August 2013, Volume: 3 Issue: 3 Article: 09
ISSN: 2146-7463

Dispersion of Students Participated in Research According to Their Class Level: 227 of the students (57.2%) are
9.class and 87 of them (21.9%) are 10.class and 83 of them (20.9%) are 11. class. Dispersion of Students
Participated in Research According to Number of Sibling: When the dispersion of students are examined
according to number of sibling it is stated that 35 of students (8.8%) have one sibling ş and 125 of them
(31.5%) have two sibling and 130 of them (32.7%) have three sibling and 68 of them (17.1%) have 4 sibling and
28 of them (7.1%) have 5 k sibling and 9 of them ( 2.3%) have six sibling and 2 of them (0.5%) have seven
sibling.

Tool of Collecting Data

Two five-scaled likert type questionnaire, developed by the researchers themselves, was used as a data
gathering instrument. Questionnaire is 0.87 for peace education and it is 0.78 for human rights education. The
questionnaire is composed of two parts and 58 items as a result of this application. The questionnaire items are
open ended and based on likert-type fifth grades.

The measure is composed of two parts. The students’ cooperation and communication; their prejudice, views
and their attitudes on the solution of disagreements are going to examine in order to determine their attitudes
on peace education in the first part of the measure. In part 2, the students’ attitudes on sex difference, etnic
culture, religious values (faith), language, political and philosophical views are going to be assessed.

Analysis of Data
The method of questionnaire was used to collect data. The expression and grading of the questionnaire are
that “Never” is between 1 and 1,79; “Rarely” is between 1,80 and 2,59; “Sometimes” is between 2,60 and
3,39; “Often” is 3.40 and 4,19; and “Always” is between 4,20 and 5,00.

In Part 2 related to human rights education, the expression of items were changed in order to adjust to Part 1.
The expression and grading of the questionnaire are that “Never Agree” is between 1 and 1,79; “Don’t Agree”
is between 1,80 and 2,59; “Indecisive” is between 2,60 ve 3,39; “Agree” is between 3,40 and 4,19; and “Totally
Agree is between 4,20 and 5,00.

Analysis and Interpreting of Data

Statistical analysis of data was performed by means of Windows SPSS packet program. The aritmetic means
and percentages of each items in the questionnairre were calculated and the obtained data was tabled and
interpreted. The differences among variables of students’ sex, mothers’ education level, fathers’ education
level, class level and number of kardeş were analyzed by variance analysis, Mann Whitney U Test and Kruskal
Wallis Test.

Fındıngs And Comments

The part of findings and comments of this study is composed of two parts. In part 1, there information about
students’ demographic features. In part 2, there are findings about students’ perception on peace education
and human rights.

Students’ Perceptions On Peace Education And Human Rights

In this part, there have been tables where the dispersion of students’ perception on peace education and
human rights determined by questionnaire are stated. Also there are tables about assessments of sex,
mothers’/fathers’ education level, class level and number of kardeş differences.

COPYRIGHT @ JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL AND INSTRUCTIONAL STUDIES IN THE WORLD 48

 JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL AND INSTRUCTIONAL STUDIES
IN THE WORLD
August 2013, Volume: 3 Issue: 3 Article: 09
ISSN: 2146-7463

Table 2: Dispersion of points ofsStudents’ perceptions on peace education

Often

Sometimes

Rarely

Never
Always
f % f % f % f % f % X
I try to approach lovely to everybody. 197 49,6 143 36,0 40 10,1 15 3,8 2 0,5 4,30
I do not behave prejudicely to people. 57 14,4 135 34,0 126 31,7 56 14,1 23 5,8 3,37
I’m open-minded to communicate with 214 53,9 114 28,7 46 11,6 23 5,8 - - 4,30
eveybody.
I try to find solution for disaggreements. 118 29,7 160 40,3 73 18,4 37 9,3 9 2,3 3,85
I’m respectful to different perspectives. 165 41,6 140 35,3 68 17,1 19 4,8 5 1,3 4,11
I’m open-minded to cooperate with people. 176 44,3 137 34,5 57 14,4 21 5,3 6 1,5 4,14
I do not bother ethnicity difference. 207 52,1 85 21,4 50 12,6 35 8,8 20 5,0 4,06
I’m respectful to religious faiths. 311 78,3 52 13,1 19 4,8 11 2,8 4 1,0 4,64
I’m in favour of living freedoms in a large scale 236 59,4 94 23,7 52 13,1 12 3,0 3 0,8 4,38
as much as possible.
I approach people with tolerance. 198 49,9 157 39,5 32 8,1 8 2,0 2 0,5 4,36
I try to be fair for everybody. 180 45,3 154 38,8 56 14,1 6 1,5 1 0,3 4,27
I think that it is necessary to be fair for all the 256 64,5 63 15,9 55 13,9 18 4,5 5 1,3 4,37
world people.
I’m careful to set up solidarity with people. 161 40,6 181 45,6 42 10,6 11 2,8 2 0,5 4,22
I try to solve for problems by means of 124 31,2 157 39,5 90 22,7 22 5,5 4 1,0 3,94
dialogue.
I’m open-minded for aggreement with 152 38,3 147 37,0 72 18,1 17 4,3 9 2,3 4,04
everybody.
I’m against evey kinds of war. 191 48,1 82 20,7 80 20,2 25 6,3 19 4,8 4,01
I try to use empathy for people with who I do 97 24,4 130 32,7 109 27,5 49 12,3 12 3,0 3,63
not agree.
I behave democratically to everybody. 130 32,7 172 43,3 63 15,9 28 7,1 4 1,0 3,99
I take care ethic rules while judging people. 116 dc1
29,2 38,8 84 21,2 34 8,6 9 2,3 3,84
14
I evaluate events with a positive critical 90 22,7 138 34,8 110 27,7 47 11,8 12 3,0 3,62
perspective.
I can accept my mistakes. 137 34,5 133 33,5 88 22,2 31 7,8 8 2,0 3,90
I can be respectful to opposite ideas. 159 40,1 132 33,2 72 18,1 22 5,5 12 3,0 4,01
I’m open-minded to share with people. 200 50,4 131 33,0 48 12,1 14 3,5 4 1,0 4,28
I’m in favour of abolishing colonialism. 288 72,5 60 15,1 30 7,6 10 2,5 9 2,3 4,53
I do not confirm torture for whatever reason it 257 64,7 78 19,6 30 70,6 12 3,0 20 5,0 4,36
is.
I’m in favour of struggling for genocide in all 223 56,2 86 21,7 53 13,4 14 3,5 21 5,3 4,19
over the world.
I’m against every kinds of armament in the 188 47,4 94 23,7 75 18,9 26 6,5 14 3,5 4,04
world.
I support countries to work together for the 236 59,4 94 23,7 55 13,9 6 1,5 6 1,5 4,38
development of international peace.
I’m against every kinds of distinction. 264 66,5 85 21,4 36 9,1 5 1,3 7 1,8 4,49
I’m in favour of the protection of land unity of 314 79,1 63 15,9 11 2,8 4 1,0 5 1,3 4,70
countries.
I take care the protection of cultural heritage 276 69,5 85 21,4 30 7,6 5 1,3 1 1,3 4,58
of the world.

COPYRIGHT @ JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL AND INSTRUCTIONAL STUDIES IN THE WORLD 49

 JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL AND INSTRUCTIONAL STUDIES
IN THE WORLD
August 2013, Volume: 3 Issue: 3 Article: 09
ISSN: 2146-7463

When the students’ perceptions on peace education are examined they all have chosen the expression of
“always” in “I try to approach lovely to everybody”, “I’m open-minded to communicate with eveybody”, “I’m
respectful to religious faiths”, “I’m in favour of living freedoms in a large scale as much as possible”, “I approach
people with tolerance”, “I try to be fair for everybody”, “I think that it is necessary to be fair for all the world
people”, “I’m careful to set up solidarity with people”, “I’m open-minded to share with people”, “I’m in favour of
abolishing colonialism”, “I do not confirm torture for whatever reason it is”, “I support countries to work
together for the development of international peace”, “I’m against every kinds of distinction”, “I’m in favour of
the protection of land unity of countries” and “I take care the protection of cultural heritage of the world”
items.

On the other hand they have chosen the expression of “sometimes” in “I’ do not behave prejudicially to people”
item. When the all findings are investigated primary school students’ perceptions on peace education have
generally positive attitudes and views. But violence in schools is getting increased nowadays. It can be said that
the ability of students’ self-awareness and their self- assessments objectively are low in the questionnaire of
peace education.

Table 3: Dispersion of points of students’ perceptions on human rights

Agree

Partly agree

Not agree

Never agree
Totally agree

f % f % f % f % f % X
Everybody has the equal rights without any 281 70,8 75 18,9 26 6,5 10 2,5 5 1,3 4,55
distinction.
All individuals have the right to live free. 303 76,3 73 18,4 14 3,5 5 1,3 5 0,5 4,68
Everybody has the equal rights before the laws. 311 78,3 65 16,4 17 4,3 2 0,5 2 0,5 4,71
Everybody is innocent without proving his/her 144 36,3 98 24,7 89 22,4 46 11,6 20 5,0 3,75
guilty.
Everybody has the to freedom of movement. 273 68,8 88 22,2 28 7,1 6 1,5 2 0,5 4,57
Everybody has the right to freedom of sheltering to 141 35,5 122 30,7 96 24,2 28 7,1 10 2,5 3,89
any country if his/her lifes is inscure.
Everybody has right to mary. 307 77,3 69 17,4 11 2,8 7 1,8 3 0,8 4,68
Everybody has right to be citizen of any country. 268 67,5 87 21,9 21 5,3 10 2,5 11 2,8 4,48
It must be respectful to private life. 331 83,4 50 12,6 13 3,3 1 0,3 2 0,5 4,78
Everybody has the right to have a family. 307 77,3 72 18,1 10 2,5 4 1,0 4 1,0 4,69
Everybody has the right to own property alone. 264 66,5 89 22,4 36 9,1 6 1,5 2 0,5 4,52
Everybody has the right to worship according to 322 81,1 65 16,4 7 1,8 - - 3 0,8 4,77
their religion.
Everybody has the right to change their religion. 192 48,4 98 24,7 78 19,6 15 3,8 14 3,5 4,10
Everybody has the right to freedom of thoughts. 236 59,4 110 27,7 29 7,3 14 3,5 8 2,0 4,39
Everybody has the right to obtain information about 294 74,1 77 19,4 21 5,3 4 1,0 1 0,3 4,65
every topics.
Everybody has the right to join legal 196 49,4 108 27,2 75 18,9 12 3,0 6 1,5 4,19
demonstrations.
All individuals have the right to be member of 223 56,2 109 27,5 49 12,3 11 2,8 5 1,3 4,34
associations.
Everyone has the right to take part in the 192 48,4 114 28,7 52 13,1 30 7,6 9 2,3 4,13
government of his country, directly or through
freely chosen representatives.
Everybody has the right to social security. 282 71,0 93 23,4 18 4,5 4 1,0 - - 4,64
Everybody has the right to be educated in 278 70,0 89 22,4 24 6,0 5 1,3 1 0,3 4,60

COPYRIGHT @ JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL AND INSTRUCTIONAL STUDIES IN THE WORLD 50

 JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL AND INSTRUCTIONAL STUDIES
IN THE WORLD
August 2013, Volume: 3 Issue: 3 Article: 09
ISSN: 2146-7463

accordance with their skills.

Everybody has the right to equal pay for equal work. 240 60,5 85 21,4 46 11,6 18 4,5 8 2,0 4,33
Everybody has the right to just and favourable 307 77,3 80 20,2 8 2,0 - - 2 0,5 4,73
conditions of work.
Everybody has the right to rest and leisure. 297 74,8 78 19,6 13 3,3 5 1,3 4 1,0 4,65
Everybody has the right to be treated. 316 79,6 62 15,6 15 3,8 1 0,3 3 0,8 4,73
Everybody has the right to join culturel life of 271 68,3 96 24,2 24 6,0 3 0,8 3 0,8 4,58
society.
Sexual discrimination must be abolished. 283 71,3 64 16,1 30 7,6 11 2,8 9 2,3 4,51
Everybody must be respectful other’s rights. 332 83,6 48 12,1 12 3,0 1 0,3 4 1,0 4,77

When the students’ perceptions on Human Rights are examined they have chosen the expression of “I agree”
in “Everybody is innocent without proving his/her guilty” and “Everybody has the right to freedom of sheltering
to any country if his/her life is insecure” and “Everybody has the right to change their religion” and Everybody
has the right to join legal demonstrations” and “Everybody has the right to take part in administration of
country” items. They have all chosen “totally agree” for the other items.
The students’ perceptions on human rights are also positive in the obtained findings like peace education. Even
they have more positive perceptions on human rights. Nevertheless it is important to keep these attitudes and
views when they are confronted violence events in school or society.

Table 4: Mann-Whitney u test results of students according to their sex

Guestionnaire Sex N Mean Sum of Ranks U p
Type Rank
Peace Education

Male 205 166,03 34035,5 12920,5 .000

Famale 192 234,21 44967,5

Male 205 182,51 37415,0 16300,0 .003

Human

Famale 192 216,60 41588,0

Rights

It is stated that there are differences between the students’ perceptions on peace education (U=12920.5, p0.5)
and the perceptions on human rights according to their sex (U=16300.0, p.05). When the rank mean is
examined it is seen that female students’ rank mean is higher than male students’. It may be resulted from the
reason that girls are more sensitive than boys.

Table 5: Kruskal wallis test results of students participated in research according to their mothers’ education
level
Guestionnaire Mothers’ Education Level N Mean sd X² p
Type Rank
Uneducated 5 207,70 6 0,46 .998
Primary School 220 199,90
Peace Education

Secondary school 50 192,74

High school 73 196,60
Pre-Licence 21 197,74
University 27 209,59
Master Degree 1 197,74

COPYRIGHT @ JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL AND INSTRUCTIONAL STUDIES IN THE WORLD 51

 JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL AND INSTRUCTIONAL STUDIES
IN THE WORLD
August 2013, Volume: 3 Issue: 3 Article: 09
ISSN: 2146-7463

Uneducated 5 196,90 6 0,99 .860

Primary School 220 196,10
Human Rights

Secondary school 50 207,39

High school 73 188,84
Pre-Licence 21 214,14
University 27 223,37
Master Degree 1 193,14

When students’ perceptions on human rights and peace education according to their mothers’ education level
are examined, it is determined that there have been no difference between peace education [x² (6)= 0,46,
p<.05 ] and human rights [x² (6)= 0,99, p<.05].

Table 6: Kruskal wallis test results of students participated in research according to their fathers’ education
level
Guestionnaire Fathers’ Education Level N Sıra sd X² p
Type Ortalaması
Uneducated 4 275,88 6 6,54 .365
Primary School 116 183,91
Peace Education

Secondary school 71 200,43

High school 129 206,72
Pre-Licence 2 119,25
University 68 209,81
Master Degree 7 166,00
Uneducated 4 255,63 6 8,07 .233
Primary School 116 185,96
Human Rights

Secondary school 71 213,08

High school 129 195,40
Pre-Licence 2 52,0
University 68 213,09
Master Degree 7 211,43

When students’ perceptions on human rights and peace education according to their fathers’ education level
are examined, it is determined that there have been no difference between peace education [x² (6)= 6.54,
p<.05 ] and human rights [x² (6)= 8,07, p<.05 ].

COPYRIGHT @ JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL AND INSTRUCTIONAL STUDIES IN THE WORLD 52

 JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL AND INSTRUCTIONAL STUDIES
IN THE WORLD
August 2013, Volume: 3 Issue: 3 Article: 09
ISSN: 2146-7463

Table 7: Kruskal wallis test results of students participated in research according to their class level
Guestionnaire Grup N X S F p Fark (LDS)
Type
th
9 Class 227 127,31 14,31 5,010 .007 9+10#11
Human Rights Peace Education

nd
10 Class 87 130,33 14,39

rd
11 Class 83 132,46 8,99

th
9 Class 227 121,74 10,99 0,374 .688
nd
10 Class 87 121,91 11,95
rd
11 Class 83 120,65 9,04

When the findings about class level are investigated, there have been no differences of students’ perceptions
on human rights according to their class level. On the other hand it is stated that there have been differences
of students’ perceptions on peace education according to their class level F(6,390)=5, 01, p<.05. It determined
that the difference is in favor of 11. Class as a result of LDS Test. As students’ class level is increased, they have
more positive opinions. They are getting more interested in the world, their country and individual problems
when they get older. As result of this, their perceptions are affected by these factors.

Table 8: Kruskal wallis test results of students participated in research according to number of sibling
Guestionnaire Öğretmenlerin Yaşı N Sıra sd x² p
Type Ortalaması
1 Sibling 35 180,81 6 8,60 .197
2 Sibling 125 201,76
3 Sibling 130 198,29
Peace Education

4 Sibling 68 218,64
5 Sibling 28 155,43
6 Sibling 9 206,17
7 Sibling 2 300,75
1 Sibling 35 182,60 6 3,15 .789
2 Sibling 125 202,48
3 Sibling 130 204,30
4 Sibling 68 197,39
Human Rights

5 Sibling 28 185,13
6 Sibling 9 173,56
7 Sibling 2 287,00

When students’ perceptions on human rights and peace education according to their number of sibling are
examined, it is determined that there have been no difference between peace education [x² (6)= 8,60, p<.05 ]
and human rights [x² (6)= 3,15, p<.05 ].

COPYRIGHT @ JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL AND INSTRUCTIONAL STUDIES IN THE WORLD 53

 JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL AND INSTRUCTIONAL STUDIES
IN THE WORLD
August 2013, Volume: 3 Issue: 3 Article: 09
ISSN: 2146-7463

DISCUSSION AND RESULT

The results obtained from research findings are as follow:

1- It is stated that according to the obtained results, secondary school students’ perceptions on Peace
Education and Human Rights are usually positive.
2- It is determined that there has been a meaningful difference of students’ perceptions on Peace Education
and Human Rights in favor of girls.
3- There has been no difference of perceptions on Peace Education and Human Rights according to mothers’
education level.
4- There has been no difference of perceptions on Peace Education and Human Rights according to fathers’
education level.
5- While the students’ perceptions on Peace Education are different in favor of 11.Class, there has been no
difference on Human Rights.
6- There has been no difference of students’ perceptions on Peace Education and Human Rights according to
the number of kardeş.

If the results of the study are examined, it can be seen that there is a very positive panorama. However, there
has been both in primary and secondary schools and universities as a result of many reasons. Unfortunately,
numbers of them are getting increased. When the results are examined, it may be resulted from that self-
awareness about their expression of human rights and peace education are low. It might also be resulted from
that they can not assess themselves objectively. In the studies related to violence in school, Türmüklü and
th
Şahin state that (2002) 6th and 7th and 8 classes of primary school students are confronted with many
conflicts resulted from insulting, cuss, nicknaming each other, envy and jealousy, complaining each other, hand
joking, using belongings without permission, kidding, sitting someone’s seats. On the other hand, Türmüklü’s
study (2007) on high school students shows that they are confronted with conflicts such as fighting (kavga), oral
fighting, arguments between girls and boys, argument of ideas and opposite ideas. Aypınar and Dilci’s study
(2007) state that there has been violence in schools because of neglecting of emotional development,
insufficient social activities, degenerating of moral values and ethics and globalization.

When individuals are not educated with conscious of human rights, rights can not be used properly and it is
impossible to process these mechanisms for right violation. As a result of this, not also individuals learn their
rights, but also they become aware of using them concretely (Gülmez, 1996, 2). The violence events confronted
in schools are the behaviors learned later (Türkdoğan, 1996). Students’ life long experiments and learning have
been realized in their families, environments and schools. From this point of view, it is necessary to inform our
students about peace education and human right consciously. Not only it is necessary to have positive opinions
and emotions, but also it is vital to turn them into behaviors when they confronted with violence events. As a
result of this there can be peaceful and untroubled atmosphere. For this reason, schools have to prepare peace
education and human rights programs that families and surroundings join to actively and schools should apply
them soon.

REFERENCES

Akpınar, B.& Tuncay, D. (2007). Eğitim Programları Bağlamında Okulda Şiddet Olgusuna Yönelik Öğretmen
Görüşleri, Eğitim Araştırmaları Dergisi, 29, 1-11.

Bağlı, M. T.; Esen, Y.(2003). Ders kitaplarında İnsan Hakaları İnsanHaklarına Duyarlı Ders Kitapları için, Türkiye
Ekonomik ve Toplumsal Tarih Vakfı, İstanbul.

Bajaj, M. (2004). Human Rights Education and Student Self-Conception In The Dominican Republic. Journal of
Peace Education, Vol. 1, No. 1, pp.21-35. New York, USA.

Beetham, D.;Boyle, K. (1998). Demokrasinin Temelleri. (Çeviren:Vahit Bıçak), Liberte Yayınları, Ankara.

COPYRIGHT @ JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL AND INSTRUCTIONAL STUDIES IN THE WORLD 54

 JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL AND INSTRUCTIONAL STUDIES
IN THE WORLD
August 2013, Volume: 3 Issue: 3 Article: 09
ISSN: 2146-7463

Bulut, N. (2006). Bir Grup Üniversite Öğrencisinin Demokratik Tutumları ile Çeşitli Değişkenler Arasındaki İlşiki.
Eğitim Araştırmaları Dergisi,Vol. 45, pp.37-59.

Erden, M. (1998). Eğitimde Program Değerlendirme. Ankara: Anı Yayıncılık.

Dağı, İ. (2000). İnsan Hakları Küresel Siyaset ve Türkiye, Boyut Yayıncılık, İstanbul.

Ögzütok, D. (2005). http://www.barobirlik.org.tr/yayinlar/makaleler/dilekgozutok.doc

Gülmez, M. (1996). İnsan Hakları Eğitimi Hakkı. TODAİE İnsan Hakları Araştırma ve Derleme Merkezi, Ankara.

Gülmez, M. (1996). İnsan Haklarının Uluslar arası korunması, TODAİE İnsan Hakları Araştırma ve Derleme
Merkezi, Ankara.

Uygun, O.(1996). Türkiye’de Demokrasi ve İnsan Hakları. TODAİE İnsan Hakları Araştırma ve Derleme Merkezi,
Ankara.

Kabaoğlu, İ. Ö. (1996). Dayanışma Hakları. TODAİE İnsan Hakları Araştırma ve Derleme Merkezi, Ankara.

Jenefer, sertel. www.erg.sabanciuniv.edu/iok2005/ bildiriler/jennifer-sertel.ppt

Kamaraj, I.; Aktan, E. (2005) Erken Çocukluk Döneminde, Barış Değerine İlişkin Bir Program Modeli.
www.erg.sabanciuniv.edu/iok2005/ bildiriler/ebru%20- %20kamaraj.doc –

Kaptan, F. (1989). Bilimsel Araştırma ve Gözlem Teknikleri. Tekışık Web Ofset Tesisleri, Ankara.

Kepenekçi, Y. K.(2000). İnsan Hakları Eğitimi. Anı yayıncılık, Ankara.

Kepenekçi, Y. K. (1999). http://yayim.meb.gov.tr/dergiler/145/kepenekci.htm

Köylü, M. (1997). Theologıcal Foundatıons Of Peace Educatıon In Islam:Towards An Educatıonal Theory And
Practıce, Ohio.

Sağlam, H.I. (2000). Sosyal Bilgiler Dersinin Demokratik Tutum Geliştirmedeki Rolü, Milli Eğitim dergisi,
http://yayim.meb.gov.tr/dergiler/146/saglam.htm.

Saloman, G.(2004). What İs Peace Education? Journal of Peace Education, Vol. 1, No. 1, Israel.

Synott, J. (2005) Peace education as an educationalparadigm: review of a changing field using an old
measure, Journal of Peace Education Vol. 2, No. 1, pp. 3-16, Queensland University of Technology, Australia.

Tıbbits, F. (1994) Human Right Education in School in The Post Communist Context, European Journal of
Education , Vol. 29, No.4, pp.363-367. http://www.iksev.org/kultur_kon/Kon002.htm

Türkdoğan, O. (1996). Sosyal Şiddet ve Türkiye Gerçeği.İstanbul.Timaş Yayınları.

Türmüklü, A;& Şahin, İ.(2002). İlköğretim Okullarında Öğrenci Çatışmaları ve Öğretmenlerin Bu Çatışmalarla
Başa Çıkma Stratejileri. Kuram ve Uygulamada Eğitim Yönetimi, 8 (30), 283, 302.

Türmüklü, A. (2007). Liselerde Öğrenci Çatışmaları, Nedenleri, Çözüm Stratejileri ve Taktikleri. Kuram ve
Uygulamada Eğitim Yönetimi, 13(49),129-166.

COPYRIGHT @ JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL AND INSTRUCTIONAL STUDIES IN THE WORLD 55

 JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL AND INSTRUCTIONAL STUDIES
IN THE WORLD
August 2013, Volume: 3 Issue: 3 Article: 10
ISSN: 2146-7463

TEACHERS’ ATTITUDES TOWARDS THE “DYNED” IN PRIMARY EDUCATION IN TURKEY

Alptekin Muhammed Yiğit

Akçaabat Anatolian Teacher High School
Trabzon, TURKEY
[email protected]

Abstract
In Turkey, the Ministry of National Education made the DynEd compulsory in state primary education from the
4th to 8th grades in 2007. This study investigated EFL teachers’ attitudes towards the “DynEd” in primary
education in Turkey. This article is part of a descriptive study which was conducted in 2010 with 121 teachers
of English working at different primary schools and using DynEd in their lessons in 10 different cities in
Turkey. Data for this study were collected through a questionnaire which was used to find out participants’
attitudes. The questionnaire was analyzed by using SPSS v11.5 program. Statistical methods including
frequencies, percentages, mean, and regression analysis were used to analyze the data. The results of this
study revealed that teachers’ attitudes towards the DynEd were mildly positive. The results of the regression
analysis showed that 10 factors were found statistically significant which affect teachers’ attitudes towards the
DynEd.

Key Words: DynEd, CALL, Teacher’s Attitudes.

INTRODUCTION

Foreign/second language learning is part of modern education systems. Computers are widely used in the field
of language learning. “Computer assisted language learning (CALL) is an emerging force in language education.
Despite its awkward beginning and the on-going resistance of many in the language teaching community, it is
maturing and showing that it can be a powerful tool in the hands of experienced teachers”(Knowles, 2004, p.
1).

In Turkey, looking at the projects conducted by Turkish Ministry of National Education for the use of computers
in education one can see that there has been a serious progress in attempts to switch to computer assisted
education in recent years. The clearest example of this is the DynEd application. As English has become very
important in Turkey, The Ministry of National Education (MNE) tries to do its best to teach English to students.
In this sense: “Within the scope of “100% Support to the Education” Campaign, the DynEd English Language
Education Software products have been donated to our Ministry by Sanko Holding Inc” (MEB, 2007).

The positive or negative attitudes of teachers play an important role in the successful application of the DynEd
in schools. Determining the reasons for such attitudes might be the first step in this necessary but manageable
stage of adopting the DynEd. Understanding the attitudes of teachers towards the use of the DynEd might help
develop ways for teachers to cope with the problems that they might encounter in teaching. Also, it should be
borne in mind that with the lack of positive feelings, teachers cannot be effective while using the DynEd.

Since attitudes play an important role in teaching strategies, this study focuses on the attitudes of teachers
towards the DynEd. Understanding teacher attitudes will help the Ministry of National Education to
understand better the needs of teachers and to take decisions about the use of the DynEd in Turkey.

The purpose of this study is to find out about the attitudes of teachers towards the DynEd. To this end, this
study sought for the answer to the following question.
• What are the attitudes of teachers towards the DynEd?

COPYRIGHT @ JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL AND INSTRUCTIONAL STUDIES IN THE WORLD 56

 JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL AND INSTRUCTIONAL STUDIES
IN THE WORLD
August 2013, Volume: 3 Issue: 3 Article: 10
ISSN: 2146-7463

DynEd
th
The Turkish Ministry of National Education decided in 2007 to use the DynEd in primary education in the 4-8
grades. And since the 2008-2009 educational year, DynEd has been used in all primary education in Turkey.
Before we proceed, it would be useful to explain what DynEd is.

“DynEd was founded in 1987 by Lance Knowles, and a team of engineers. DynEd’s founders created the
world’s first interactive multimedia language learning software in 1988 and received a U.S. patent for this
invention in 1991” (Knowles, 2004). Also DynEd is a four-level introductory course ranging from the stages of
novice-mid to intermediate-high students. Emphasis is placed on building the receptive skill of listening and the
productive skill of speaking that are necessary for basic communication in English (Marimuthu, Soon, 2005).

First English is an award-winning, research-based, English language learning course for beginners. It has been
designed specifically to help students succeed in a school setting. It starts from the beginning and
systematically helps students comprehend, practice, internalize and build the basic framework of English
necessary for long-term success. DynEd's innovative use of visuals and comprehension exercises engage the
learner in ways that a text-based approach cannot. Based on neuroscientific research, First English builds
listening, speaking, vocabulary, grammar, and reading skills in an effective sequence that takes advantage of
the learning synergies between each skill (First English, 2010).

English For Success is another award-winning, research-based, English language learning course for students
who need to use English in school, including content areas like maths, science, geography and history. It
teaches the language of classroom presentations, explanations, questions, homework and tests. Its
multisensory, interactive approach has significant advantages over text-based presentations. With increased
English language proficiency, your students will show test gains in all subject areas (English for Success, 2010).

The implementation of DynEd in the World and in Turkey

In recent years, some countries such as China, France, Argentina, Malaysia, Korea, Miyanmar, and Turkey are
using DynEd software. In these countries, this software is used in a way in which it assists English language
teaching process in schools (Baş, 2010). For example in China, DynEd's training partners in China have
succeeded with the MBA students at Peking University's Guanghua School of Management, one of the top
business schools in China. Also in Italy one of Italy's largest government agencies uses DynEd's programs.
DynEd is installed on over 200 networks deployed across Italy to support 2000 employees. In addition to these
in Argentina Since 2003 Universidad Technolgica Nacional has built a successful extension program around
DynEd programs (Success Stories, 2010).

On the other hand in order to solve the problem in foreign language instruction in Turkey the Turkish Ministry
of National Education decided to use the DynEd in 2007. But why was DynEd necessary in Turkey? To answer
this question many studies have indicated. For instance, in their article Tılfarlıoğlu and Öztürk (2007) state
foreign language teaching/learning has been a failure in Turkey for many years although nearly everyone
believes that speaking at least one foreign language is essential today.

Also the answer of “Why was DynEd preferred in Turkey?” is as below. Designed by a team of language
educators, computer programmers, neurologists and artists, DynEd is a multimedia language teaching program,
which is the most effective and the best in the world. DynEd is an educational system that carries language
education onto computers and that enables individuals to learn English on their own. The use of the DynEd will
help students to learn English easily. Learning will be permanent and meaningful with the use of this kind of
software that calls upon many sense organs of students with different learning styles within the frame of
multiple intelligence theory (DynEd İngilizce Dil Eğitim Sistemi, 2010).

Attitudes of teachers
The term “attitude” has been defined by Zimbardo & Leippe (1991, p. 31) as “an evaluative disposition toward
some object based upon cognition, affective reactions, behavioural intensions, and past behaviours”. In the
Longman Dictionary of Applied Linguistics (1992, p. 199) ‘language attitudes’ are defined as follows: The

COPYRIGHT @ JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL AND INSTRUCTIONAL STUDIES IN THE WORLD 57

 JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL AND INSTRUCTIONAL STUDIES
IN THE WORLD
August 2013, Volume: 3 Issue: 3 Article: 10
ISSN: 2146-7463

attitude which speakers of different languages or language varieties have towards each others’ languages or to
their own language. Expressions of positive or negative feelings towards a language may reflect impressions of
linguistic difficulty or simplicity, ease or difficulty of learning, degree of importance, elegance, social status, etc.
Attitudes towards a language may also show what people feel about the speakers of that language.

The relationship between attitude and language teaching is another important point. Identifying teacher
attitudes is important on two levels: the individual classroom level and the larger program level. On the
classroom level, teacher attitudes affect teaching and students. Research shows that teachers' attitudes
influence both their expectations for their students and their behaviour toward them. These attitudes,
expectations, and behaviours influence both student self-image and academic performance (Alexander and
Strain 1978). In Turkey the Ministry of National Education aims that with help of the DynEd at first teachers and
then students will have positive attitudes towards teaching and learning English.

METHODOLOGY

Deriving from the purpose of the research, the study is an attempt to describe teachers’ attitudes towards the
DynEd. Therefore, this research is descriptive and developmental in nature. Also this study contains elements
of survey research, e.g. sampling and questionnaire.

Research Setting
The main aim of the study is to investigate teachers’ attitudes toward the DynEd which is used in the primary
education in Turkey. Therefore, a major component of the study was to review the current context in the
application of the DynEd in all primary education in Turkey. Accordingly, 10 cities were selected as the focus of
this investigation. Given the resource constraints and limitations of the study, the present researcher decided
to carry out an investigation of only 10 cities (İstanbul, Manisa, Antalya, Amasya, Sivas, Gaziantep, Bingöl, Ağrı,
Trabzon, and Rize). For concerns of representation, the cities were chosen from different geographical
locations. The researcher tried to choose a city from every region. The main concern in choosing cities from
different regions was that of representation. This study was carried out in 2010.

Sampling of the Study

The nature of the techniques employed to gather data required that convenience sampling technique be
applied to sample selection. The target population of this study is teachers of English. Accordingly, samples
were selected in order to represent the population. The size of the teacher sample was determined as 15 from
each city, making a total of 150 (N=150). Teacher samples in all cities were selected by using the convenience-
sampling method. This is a non-probability sampling method. The reason for using the convenience sampling
was time constraints and, not all teachers were available at the time of the administration of questionnaires.
Thus, the questionnaire was distributed to those who were willing and available to participate in the study at
the time.

Research Instrument
In order to gather data, the study employed a questionnaire and the results of this questionnaire were
analyzed quantitatively to understand teachers’ attitudes towards the DynEd.

A questionnaire was constructed to elicit data for the research question. The researcher had reviewed
questionnaire construction guidelines from the educational research literature. With the help of the research
literature on questionnaire design, the data needed was determined and as many items as possible were
created before the construction of the questionnaire. Especially after an analysis of Özerol’s (2009)
questionnaire, the researcher decided to partly utilize her questionnaire. In order to develop the questionnaire
the present researcher got necessary permission from Özerol to partly utilize her questionnaire. In her study
Özerol states that she adapted her questionnaire from Braul, Omar Ali, Albirini and Levy’s studies which are
highly reliable and valid. Instructions and items were revised several times to ensure reliability and validity
before the pilot work. The researcher made necessary adaptations in accordance with the purpose of the
study. The developed questionnaire consists of 3 parts.

COPYRIGHT @ JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL AND INSTRUCTIONAL STUDIES IN THE WORLD 58

 JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL AND INSTRUCTIONAL STUDIES
IN THE WORLD
August 2013, Volume: 3 Issue: 3 Article: 10
ISSN: 2146-7463

After the questionnaire was developed, it was translated into Turkish by an expert. The reason for this is that
the present researcher thought that while filling in the questionnaire, teachers would feel more confident with
their mother tongue.

The questionnaire also contained a cover page which included a letter to the respondents describing the
subject, aims and importance of the inquiry. A statement of confidentiality was also included in cover letter. It
took nearly two months to construct the questionnaire.

The questionnaire was divided into two parts. Part A of the questionnaire was aimed at eliciting teachers’
DynEd contexts of use. Part B of the questionnaire was aimed at eliciting teachers’ attitudes towards the
DynEd.

The pilot study was administered to four experts and six teachers of English. Four experts were from different
universities and the six teachers were from different cities. The researcher sent the questionnaires via e-mail.
After they had analyzed it, they phoned the researcher to tell their ideas about the questionnaire or sent e-mail
to the researcher which explained their ideas about the questionnaire. Necessary changes were made to the
questionnaire according to the feedback taken from these people. There were some unnecessary items and
some unclear points. The researcher fixed them. Also it was found that nearly 15-20 minutes was enough to fill
out the questionnaire.

After necessary modifications, the questionnaire was considered to be appropriate for the study. Four experts
confirmed that the questionnaire was valid. So the questionnaire was ready to be used.

Data collection Procedures

In order to collect the necessary data, the presents study employed a questionnaire. 150 questionnaires were
distributed in the second week of February, 2010. The data collection took three weeks. As mentioned before,
the researcher chose 10 different cities and tried to choose cities from every region.

Having selected the cities, the researcher contacted a colleague in these cities through telephone. They were
informed of the study and were asked whether or not they could help the researcher. In every city, the
researcher chose one responsible teacher from the colleagues who accepted to participate in the study. These
teachers were responsible for the distribution and collection of the questionnaires in their cities. The
questionnaires were mailed either by a delivery service or by e-mail. The volunteer responsible teachers that
received the questionnaires were requested to collect and send the questionnaires back via cash-on-delivery
method. Also permission was obtained from the Ministry of National Education (MNE) before the
administration of the questionnaire. In addition, permission of headmasters of each school was also
obtained to conduct the study in their schools and a copy of the permission of the MNE letter was given to the
mentors.

The responsible teachers were asked to hand out the questionnaires to the other teachers of English and to
collect them. A total of 150 questionnaires were sent to those cities. 15 questionnaires were sent to every city
and 121 of 150 questionnaires returned. The return rate was found to be 80,66%.

This questionnaire was conducted in the spring semester of 2010. The questionnaires were administered in the
second, third and fourth weeks of February. The participants were teachers of English, who work in primary
education.

Data Analysis
All the items in the questionnaire were analyzed by using the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS
v.11.5). Items in the Likert scales and close-ended items were designed with numeric items; therefore the
researcher entered them into SPSS without problem. Frequency calculations and percentages of each item (i.e.
how many teachers selected each answer) were used to produce central tendency statistics that were used to
present an overall picture of the teachers' attitudes towards the DynEd. Also, with the purpose of revealing the
factors that affect teachers’ attitudes towards the DynEd, regression analysis was employed for each subscale.

COPYRIGHT @ JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL AND INSTRUCTIONAL STUDIES IN THE WORLD 59

 JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL AND INSTRUCTIONAL STUDIES
IN THE WORLD
August 2013, Volume: 3 Issue: 3 Article: 10
ISSN: 2146-7463

FINDINGS

The Use of the DynEd

Part A of the questionnaire contained six questions and elicited data about the use of the DynEd. In order to
elicit the data, the following questions were asked. The first question of Part A asked the participants whether
they use the DynEd in teaching English at school. 64,5% of the teachers indicated that they used DynEd at
school while 35,5% of the teachers responded that they did not use the DynEd at school.

The second question of Part A in the questionnaire asked the participants whether they had enough facilities
(e.g. computer lab) to use the DynEd. Teachers’ responses showed that 73,6% of them had enough facilities
(e.g. computer lab) to use the DynEd while 26,4% did not. It is clear that most of the participants have enough
facilities to use the DynEd in their schools.

The third question asked the participants whether the DynEd can be effectively used by students in their
schools. According to the findings 89,3% of the teachers think that their students cannot use the DynEd
effectively in their schools whereas only 10,7% of the teachers think that they can use the DynEd effectively in
their schools.

The fourth question asked teachers whether they had ever attended a seminar or training program related to
the use of the DynEd. Findings showed that 82,6% of them had attended a seminar or training program related
to the use of the DynEd. 17,4% of the participants had never attended a seminar or training program related to
use of the DynEd.

The fifth question asked teachers whether they monitor and follow the website of the ministry, and other
pages on the internet related to the DynEd. The findings show that 53,7% of the teachers monitor and follow
the website of the ministry and other pages on the internet related to the DynEd, whereas 46,3% teachers do
not.

The sixth question asked teachers whether they followed the progresses of their students on the DynEd. 48,8%
of the teachers stated that they follow the progress of their students on the DynEd while 51,2% of the teachers
do not.

In conclusion, the finding of Part A of the questionnaire show that 35,5% of the teachers do not use the DynEd.
The researcher thinks that the percentage is high. One of the reasons why the teachers do not use the DynEd is
that 26,4% of the participants do not have computer labs in their schools. Also 89,3% of the participants stated
that their students cannot use the DynEd efficiently because of some technical and equipment problems, such
as lack of enough computers, and problems about the internet connection and server problems. An interesting
finding is that although 82,6% of the teachers previously attended a seminar or training program related to the
use of the DynEd, more than half of the participants (51,2%) do not follow the progress of their students on the
DynEd and nearly half of the teachers (46,3%) do not monitor and follow the website of the ministry and other
pages on the internet related to the DynEd.

Attitudes towards the DynEd

Part B of the questionnaire asked participants to respond to 12 Likert-type statements in order to elicit the
general attitudes of teachers towards the DynEd. Table 1 shows the frequencies, percentages and means of
responses to the 12-item scale.

General attitudes of the participants towards DynEd are mainly neutral with a total mean score of 3.2883. The
majority of the respondents (75,2%) agreed that they like using the DynEd in teaching English. 47,1% of the
teachers agreed that the use of the DynEd increases English learning speed of students. Most of the
respondents (54,6%) agreed that DynEd increases students' self-confidence in using English inside and outside
the classroom. A large number of teachers (59,5%) agreed that DynEd motivates students to learn English.
35,5% of the teachers agreed that they are able to follow their students’ level with DynEd all the time whereas

COPYRIGHT @ JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL AND INSTRUCTIONAL STUDIES IN THE WORLD 60

 JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL AND INSTRUCTIONAL STUDIES
IN THE WORLD
August 2013, Volume: 3 Issue: 3 Article: 10
ISSN: 2146-7463

33,9% of the teachers disagreed that are able to follow their students’ level with DynEd all the time. The
majority of the respondents (58,7%) agreed that when they compare language learning with the DynEd in a
laboratory environment to a traditional class environment, they think that their students are having more fun
with the DynEd. While 43,8% of the teachers agreed that their students who use the DynEd have improved
their reading skill in English, 48,7% of the teachers agreed that their students who use DynEd have improved
their English listening skill. On the other hand, 43,8% of the teachers remained neutral to “the students who
use DynEd have improved their speaking skill”. Also 46,3% of the respondents remained neutral to “the
students who use the DynEd have improved their writing skill”. 40,5% of the teachers agreed that computer
use with the DynEd has made it easy for the students to learn English. Finally, most of the teachers (38,8%)
remained neutral to “exercises included in DynEd improve students’ critical thinking qualifications.”

The mean scores of each item were also calculated to reveal general attitudes of the teachers towards the
DynEd. Mean scores were between 3.65 and 2.92. According to the mean scores, a large number of teachers
agreed that when they compare language learning with the DynEd in a laboratory environment to a traditional
class environment, they think that their students are having more fun with the DynEd (mean=3.65). Most of the
teachers remained neutral to “students who use the DynEd have improved their English writing skill”
(mean=2.92).

Table 1: General Attitudes of Teachers towards DynEd

Frequencies and Percentages

Disagree

Disagree
Strongly

Strongly
Neutral

Agree

Agree

Mean
Items

1. I like using DynEd in teaching English. %4,1 (5) %3,3 (4) %17,4 (21) %44,6 (54) %30,6 (37) 3,64
2. The use of DynEd increases English learning
%6,6 (8) %17,4 (21) %28,9 (35) %33,1 (40) %14,0 (17) 3,31
speed of students.
3. DynEd increases students' self-confidence in
%4,1 (5) %11,6 (14) %29,8 (36) %36,4 (44) %18,2 (22) 3,53
using English inside and outside the classroom.
4. DynEd motivates students to learn English. %5,0 (6) %11,6 (14) %24,0 (29) %40,5 (49) %19,0 (23) 3,57
5. I am able to follow my students’ level with %11,6
%22,3 (27) %30,6 (37) %24,8 (30) %10,7 (13) 3,01
DynEd at all time. (14)
6. When I compare language learning with
DynEd in a laboratory environment to a
%5,0 (6) %10,7 (13) %25,6 (31) %31,4 (38) %27,3 (33) 3,65
traditional class environment, I think that my
students are having more fun with DynEd.
7. My students who use DynEd have improved
%6,6 (8) %17,4 (21) %32,2 (39) %36,4 (44) %7,4 (9) 3,21
their English reading skill.
8. My students who use DynEd have improved
%5,0 (6) %12,4 (15) %33,9 (41) %38,0 (46) %10,7 (13) 3,37
their English listening skill.
9. My students who use DynEd have improved
%6,6 (8) %16,5 (20) %43,8 (53) %25,6 (31) %7,4 (9) 3,11
their English speaking skill.
10. My students who use DynEd have improved
%6,6 (8) %24,0 (29) %46,3 (56) %17,4 (21) %5,8 (7) 2,92
their English writing skill.
11. Computer use with DynEd has made it easy
%6,6 (8) %13,2 (16) %39,7 (48) %33,1 (40) %7,4 (9) 3,21
for the students to learn English.
12. Exercises included in DynEd improve
%8,3 (10) %24,0 (29) %38,8 (47) %24,0 (29) %5,0 (6) 2,93
students’ critical thinking qualifications.

It is clear that the general attitudes of teachers towards the DynEd are neutral but in some items such as the
first, third, fourth and sixth, the number of teachers who have positive attitudes towards the DynEd is not low.

COPYRIGHT @ JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL AND INSTRUCTIONAL STUDIES IN THE WORLD 61

 JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL AND INSTRUCTIONAL STUDIES
IN THE WORLD
August 2013, Volume: 3 Issue: 3 Article: 10
ISSN: 2146-7463

The researcher thinks that attitudes of the teachers can be positive if school administrations or Ministry of
National Education solve the problems.

Factors That Affect the Attitudes of Teachers towards the DynEd

Regression analysis was also used to learn which factors affect teachers’ attitudes towards the DynEd. Table 2
shows the regression analysis of teachers’ attitudes towards the DynEd based on the factors that affect the
attitudes of teachers towards the DynEd.

The results show that only 10 out of 34 factors were found statistically significant. Also 7 out of 10 factors were
found positively statistically significant. Factors that were found statistically significant are in table 2.
As Table 2 shows, teaching experience of teachers represent a statistically significant difference in teachers’
attitudes towards the DynEd (B=0,194). That is, the more teaching experience teachers have, the more positive
attitudes they hold towards the DynEd.

The regression analysis showed that teachers’ competence on selecting, evaluating and using an educational
software had a significant effect on teachers’ attitudes towards the DynEd (B=0,383). This means that when a
teacher believes that he/she has competence on selecting, evaluating and using educational software; he/she
will hold a positive attitude towards the DynEd. This was an expected result by the researcher.

The analysis of the data showed that teachers’ ideas about “computers would motivate students to study
more” had a statistically significant effect on teachers’ attitudes towards the DynEd (B=0,263). This means that
when teachers think “computers would motivate students to study English more,” this provides more positive
attitudes towards the DynEd.

Table 2: Regression Analysis of Teachers’ Attitudes Towards DynEd Based on the Factors That Affect Attitudes
of Teachers towards DynEd.
Model Summary
Model R R Square Adjusted R Square Std. Error of the Estimate
a
1 ,721 ,520 ,331 ,685
Unstandardized
Coefficients
Std. Sig.
Model B Error t (P)
1 (Constant) 1,974 ,688 2,868 ,005*
Teaching Experience ,194 ,100 1,952 ,054*
Teachers’ competence on selecting, evaluating and using educational software. ,383 ,117 3,259 ,002*
Computers save time and effort in EFL lessons. -,166 ,099 -1,680 ,097*
Computers would motivate students to study English more. ,263 ,121 2,173 ,033*
Teachers’ opinion about computers improveS students’ level of language
-,254 ,147 -1,731 ,087*
learning.
Using computer technology within classes makes the subject more
,320 ,103 3,109 ,003*
entertaining.
In general, teachers think that they need the computer in their own classes. ,281 ,106 2,640 ,010*
Monitor and follow the website of the ministry, other pages on the internet
,492 ,177 2,786 ,007*
related to the DynEd.
The teachers aren’t familiar with DynEd program. -,318 ,180 -1,764 ,081*
School administrations did not support DynEd application. ,457 ,212 2,152 ,034*
*On the level %10 (P<0,1) statistically significant

The next factor is teachers’ ideas about “computers save time and effort in EFL lessons.” According to the
regression analysis model, the result is an unexpected one. There are statistically significant differences in
teachers’ attitudes towards the DynEd. But this is a negative one (B=-0,166). The researcher thinks that the
reason for this result may be the old computers in the schools, internet connection problems and inadequate

COPYRIGHT @ JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL AND INSTRUCTIONAL STUDIES IN THE WORLD 62

 JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL AND INSTRUCTIONAL STUDIES
IN THE WORLD
August 2013, Volume: 3 Issue: 3 Article: 10
ISSN: 2146-7463

servers of the Ministry of National Education in Ankara. When teachers were asked to indicate why they could
not use the DynEd in their schools, most of the teachers stated that the internet connections in the schools
were very problematic. Also teachers indicated that the servers in the ministry of national education are not
enough for all primary education students to use them at the same time. They stated that when they tried to
connect to the DynEd servers, they could not achieve this because the servers were very busy, and they had to
wait for a long time to connect. Therefore, this is a very demotivating factor for teachers.

Another unexpected result of the analysis is that there were statistically significant differences in teachers’
attitudes towards the DynEd in terms of teachers’ opinion about “computers improve students’ level of
language learning”. But this is a negative one (B=-0,254). The researcher thinks that this results from the
inefficient use of the DynEd. But the main reason may be that due to the technical problems and insufficient
equipment (number of computers, microphones, headphones, etc.), teachers cannot use the DynEd efficiently.
Therefore, although they believe that computers improve students’ level of language learning, their attitudes
towards the DynEd are negative.

Another finding that the regression analysis showed is that there was a statistically significant difference and
positive relationship between teachers’ ideas about “using computer technology in the classes makes the
subject more entertaining” and teachers’ attitudes towards the DynEd (B=0.320). According to this finding,
teachers who think “using computer technology in the classes makes the subject more entertaining” have
positive attitudes towards the DynEd. The reason for this finding may be that there are a lot of visual and
auditory elements in the DynEd; also DynEd contains a lot of games for teaching English. All these help teachers
to organize an entertaining environment in classes.

The findings show that teachers’ ideas about “we need computers in our own classes” had a statistically
significant positive effect on their attitudes towards the DynEd (B=0,281). This means that teachers who think
that they need the computer in their classes have more positive attitudes towards the DynEd. This is an
expected result.

As Table 2 shows, there is a positive relationship between teachers who monitor and follow the website of the
ministry, and other pages on the internet related to the DynEd and their attitudes towards the DynEd
(B=0,492). This shows that teachers who monitor and follow the website of the ministry and other pages on the
internet related to the DynEd have more positive attitudes towards the DynEd. For when the teachers monitor
and follow the website of the ministry, and other pages on the internet related to the DynEd, they learn more
about the DynEd and this affects their attitudes towards the DynEd positively. For these web sites have news
about the DynEd, updates of the DynEd, solutions to the problems that are faced in using the DynEd and, the
telephone numbers of the relevant people. Even in discussion sections of these web sites, there are some
videos about how to use the DynEd, about creating classes on DynEd, and about importing and exporting
students’ name. Hence, with the help of these web sites, teachers learn more about the DynEd and find
solutions to their problems with the DynEd. Also they feel more comfortable and they have more positive
attitudes towards the DynEd with the help of these web sites.

The results indicate that there are statistically significant differences between teachers’ attitudes towards the
DynEd and the teachers’ ideas about the “teachers aren’t familiar with the DynEd program.” But this is a
negative one (B=-0,318). This is also an unexpected result. The regression analysis shows that teachers who do
not think that this option is not important have more positive attitudes towards the DynEd. This may arise from
the fact that most of the participants are young. They may be eager to learn new things. They may adapt
themselves to new implementations easily.

Moreover, the regression analysis model shows that there is a statistically significant difference and positive
relationship between teachers who think “school administrations do not support the DynEd application” and
teachers’ attitudes towards the DynEd (B=0,457). According to these findings, teachers who think that “school
administrations do not support the DynEd application” have positive attitudes towards the DynEd. For,
generally, teachers who have more positive attitudes towards the DynEd generally try to use the DynEd in their
schools. However, sometimes school administrations need to make some changes in the order of the schedule

COPYRIGHT @ JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL AND INSTRUCTIONAL STUDIES IN THE WORLD 63

 JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL AND INSTRUCTIONAL STUDIES
IN THE WORLD
August 2013, Volume: 3 Issue: 3 Article: 10
ISSN: 2146-7463

of computer labs. This affects the whole order of the schedule in the school. Therefore, some school
administrations do not want to spend time for these changes. For this reason, they do not support the DynEd.
Of course, this is the idea of the teachers who have positive attitudes towards the DynEd. Yet the attitudes of
school administrations towards the DynEd do not directly affect teachers’ attitudes towards the DynEd. It
means that even though school administrations do not support the DynEd, teachers may still have positive
attitudes towards the DynEd under different circumstances.

Table 2 shows the regression analysis of teachers’ attitudes towards the DynEd based on the factors that affect
attitudes of teachers towards the DynEd. From these findings, it can be concluded that of the 34 different
factors, only 10 factors were found to be statistically significant. Except for the 10 factors which were explained
above in detail, none of them were found to be statistically significant. These 10 factors directly affect teachers’
attitudes towards the DynEd either positively or negatively.

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

Teachers of English in primary education showed, though with a less degree, satisfactory attitudes toward the
use of the DynEd (M=3.2883).

With regard to the research question, the results indicated that more than half of the participants (64,5%) used
the DynEd in their schools. Nearly three-quarters of the respondents (73,6%) stated that they had enough
facilities (computer labs) to use the DynEd. Also 82,6% of the participants reported that they previously
attended a seminar or training program related to the use of the DynEd. Slightly more than half of the teachers
(53,7%) indicated that they monitored and followed the website of the ministry, and other pages on the
internet related to the DynEd and slightly less than half of the respondents (48,8%) followed the progresses of
their students on the DynEd. But a large number of the teachers (89,3%) indicated that their students could not
use the DynEd effectively in their schools because of such factors as insufficient equipment (number of
computers, microphones, headphones, etc.) in their schools, internet connection problems, intensive syllabus
and crowded classes.

In this study, teachers’ responses to the 12-item Likert scale showed that the general attitudes of the teachers
towards the DynEd are mainly neutral with a total mean score of 3.2883. Regarding the results of this Likert
scale, it can be concluded that the majority of the respondents agreed that they like using the DynEd in
teaching English. Slightly less than half of the respondents agreed that the use of the DynEd increases English
learning speed of students. Most of the respondents agreed that DynEd increases students' self-confidence in
using English inside and outside the classroom. A large number of teachers agreed that DynEd motivates
students to learn English. 35,5% of the teachers agreed that they are able to follow their students’ level with
the DynEd all the time where as 33,9% of the teachers disagreed that are able to follow their students’ level
with DynEd all the time. The majority of the respondents agreed that when they compare language learning
with the DynEd in a laboratory environment to a traditional class environment, they think that their students
are having more fun with the DynEd. While 43,8% of the teachers agreed that their students who use the
DynEd have improved their reading skill in English, 48,7% of the teachers agreed that their students who use
DynEd have improved their English listening skill. On the other hand a considerable number of the teachers
remained neutral to “the students who use the DynEd have improved their English speaking skill”. Also slightly
less than half of the respondents remained neutral to “the students who use the DynEd have improved their
English writing skill”. 40,5% of the teachers agreed that “computer use with the DynEd has made it easy for the
students to learn English”. Finally, most of the teachers remained neutral to “exercises included in DynEd
improve students’ critical thinking abilities.”

A regression analysis was made to determine the factors that affect teachers’ attitudes towards the DynEd. The
results of this analysis show that only 10 out of 34 factors were found statistically significant.

The findings of this study comply with the findings of Baş’s (2010) study. He states that teachers consider the
DynEd courses as important and they believe in the positive, useful and beneficial aspects of the DynEd
program. Teachers think that DynEd courses contribute positively to the development of students in English.

COPYRIGHT @ JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL AND INSTRUCTIONAL STUDIES IN THE WORLD 64

 JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL AND INSTRUCTIONAL STUDIES
IN THE WORLD
August 2013, Volume: 3 Issue: 3 Article: 10
ISSN: 2146-7463

Teachers have positive observations in the duration of the DynEd courses since students have great fun as well
as they have the opportunity to practise their learning and language skills such as listening and speaking in the
English lessons. On the other hand, the DynEd considers students’ different learning styles.

WJEIS’s Note: This article was presented at World Conference on Educational and Instructional Studies -
WCEIS, 07- 09 November, 2012, Antalya-Turkey and was selected for publication for Volume 3 Number 3 of
WJEIS 2013 by WJEIS Scientific Committee.

REFERENCES

Alexander, C., & Philip S. S. (1978). A Review of Educators' Attitudes Toward Handicapped Children and the
Concept of Mainstreaming. Psychology In The Schools, 15, 390-396.

Baş, G. (2010). Evaluation of DynED Courses Used in Elementary Schools From the Views of Teachers in Turkey.
Journal of Language and Linguistic Studies, Vol.6, No.1, April

DynEd İngilizce Dil Eğitim Sistemi. Retrieved April 3, 2010 from http://mebides.meb.gov.tr/files/
bize_ulasin.html

English for Success. DynEd, Retrieved April 3, 2010 from http://www.dyned.com/products/efs/

First English. DynEd, Retrieved April 3, 2010 from http://www.dyned.com/products/fe/

Knowles, L. (2004). The Evolution of CALL. Language Magazine, August, Retrieved January 3, 2010 from
http://www.dyned.com/pdf/Teacher-Guides/TGTHEORY.PDF.

Richards, J.C. (1992). Language attitudes. Longman Dictionary of Applied Linguistics, Longman Publishing
Group: 1st edition.

Marimuthu, R. & Soon, G. Y. (2005). The DynED Language Learning Software: To What Extent Does It Subscribe
to the ARCS Instructional Model?. Malaysian Online Journal of Instructional Technology, 2(3), 9 – 16.

MEB. (2007). DynED ingilizce Dil Eğitim Sistemi, No. B.0.08.İGM.0.08.01.01-320/14905, 17/09/2007, Retrieved
January 4, 2010 from http://mebides.meb.gov.tr/files/bakan_onayi.pdf

Özerol, G. (2009). Perceptions of EFL Primary School Teachers towards Call. Unpublished master thesis,
Çukurova University, Adana, Turkey.

Success Stories, DynEd, Retrieved April 3, 2010 from http://www.dyned.com/business/success.shtml

Tılfarlıoğlu, F. Y., & Öztürk, A. R. (2007). An Analysis of ELT Teachers’ Perceptions of Some Problems Concerning
the Implementation of English Language Teaching Curricula in Elementary Schools. Journal of Language and
Linguistic Studies, Vol.3, No.1, April.

Williams, B. & Burden, R.L (1997). Psychology for Language Teachers, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Zimbardo, P. & Leippe, M. (1991). The Psychology of Attitude Change and Social Influence. Stanford University,
New York: McGraw-Hill.

COPYRIGHT @ JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL AND INSTRUCTIONAL STUDIES IN THE WORLD 65

 JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL AND INSTRUCTIONAL STUDIES
IN THE WORLD
August 2013, Volume: 3 Issue: 3 Article: 11
ISSN: 2146-7463

IS TEACHER LEADERSHIP A FANTASY OR REALITY? A REVIEW

Sumera Khan
National University of Modern Languages (NUML)
Education Department
Islamabad, PAKISTAN

Assist. Prof. Dr. Sufiana Khatoon Malik

National University of Modern Languages (NUML)
Education Department
Islamabad, PAKISTAN
[email protected]
[email protected]

Abstract
The purpose of current paper is to comment on the concept of teacher leadership in educational context.
Teacher leaders’ expertise about teaching and learning is needed to lead instructional improvement and
increase teacher quality. It was a conceptual review paper. For this pupose tha available literature on teacher
leadership was reviewed. The related literature reflected that teacher leadership was not a fantasy, rather it
was strong reality which, could resultant improving the quality of teaching and the whole environment of the
school. The development of this concept relies mostly on the shoulders of school heads. How much they
recognize the leverage of teacher leadership? The fruit of teacher leadership can be seen in shape of effective
students learning outcomes. Researches strongly support the point that teacher leadership effects students’
achievement. Through the entire discussion of literature, it revealed that teacher’s role as a leader is very
important for enhancing students’ performance and developing their personality as well as in shaping the
direction of school environment.

Key Words: Leadership, teacher leadership, students’ performance, school environment, classroom leader.

INTRODUCTION

Leader is the person who led his followers to the achievement of goals of the organization. Leadership is the
ability to influence other people’s ideas and action. If we take classroom as an organization, then in this
organization, it is the teacher who is leading this organization. Teacher is a person who serves the whole
nation. He shows them the path of their future, he facilitates them while understanding certain concepts, he
observe them while doing activities, he provides such an environment to the students to explore a variety of
experiences, he guides them when they face any problem and of course he leads them in every field of life. So
role of a teacher as facilitator, observer, guide and leader are very important and teacher plays all these roles
directly, indirectly, consciously or unconsciously.

According to Barth (2001) teacher leadership is not about “teacher’s power”, rather it is about mobilizing the
still largely untapped attributes of teachers to strengthen student performance at ground level and working
toward a real collaboration.

There are a variety of functions inside the classroom that the teacher performs. He leads by examples and
allow others to watch. It can be considered a most clear and straightforward way that a teacher can use to lead

COPYRIGHT @ JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL AND INSTRUCTIONAL STUDIES IN THE WORLD 66

 JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL AND INSTRUCTIONAL STUDIES
IN THE WORLD
August 2013, Volume: 3 Issue: 3 Article: 11
ISSN: 2146-7463

by examples. In different teacher’s training programs, trainee teachers present before their colleagues and
then they can easily assess their weaknesses as well as strengths.

Childs-Bowen, Moller, and Scrivner, (2000, p. 28) maintain that Teachers are leaders when they function in
professional communities to affect student learning; contribute to school improvement; inspire excellence in
practice; and empower stakeholders to participate in educational improvement.”

Objectives of the Study

This study aims to find out literature on the concept of teacher leadership in order to promote the concept of
teacher leadership.

Students are the main concern in any educational organizations and educational organizations are important
for whole nation because a teacher transmits intellectual traditions to the coming generation. And main role in
guiding these students are their brilliant teachers. So teachers are leaders who lead the whole nation.
Teacher’s role is important inside and outside the classroom. So it is important to know the role of a teacher as
leader for the development of students. This research has implication for providing teachers opportunity to
rearrange and assess their current role and position. It has implication for teacher educators to give importance
of the needs of a teachers’ skill.

Research Question
What is teacher leadership and what is its importance?
Sharma, (2002, p.134) observes that teacher is vital important and acts as a leader in the classroom. A teacher
demonstrates expertise in their instruction and shares that knowledge with other professionals. They
frequently reflect on their work to stay on the cutting edge of what’s best for children. Teacher leaders engage
in continuous action research project that examine their effectiveness. Teacher leaders mentor new teachers.
They are risk-takers who participate in school decisions.

The role of teacher leader is more informal today. And this experience is gained from classroom experience.
One study was conducted by York Barr in 2004 on “What do we know about teacher leadership?” The author
of this study suggested a definition while keeping in view several definition of teacher leadership. According to
York (pp.287-288) teacher leadership is the process by which teachers, individually or collectively; influence
their colleagues, principals, and other members of the school communities to improve teaching and learning
practices with the aim of increased student learning and achievement. Such team leadership involves three
intentional development foci: individual development, collaboration or team development, and organizational
development.

York-Barr, & Duke, (2004) expresses that teacher expertise is at “the foundation for increasing teacher quality
and advancements in teaching and learning;” this expertise becomes more widely available “when
accomplished teachers model instructional practices, encourage sharing of best practices, mentor new
teachers, and collaborate with teaching colleagues”. Teacher leaders’ expertise about teaching and learning is
needed to lead instructional improvement and increase teacher quality.

One way a principal can improve teacher quality is to support staff development needs. Teacher leaders can
help principals support professional development by identifying teacher development needs, offering
professional learning experience, developing and delivering opportunities, and evaluating the outcomes of staff
development. The improvement of student learning requires every leader in the school to focus on that
outcome. For example, instructional teacher leadership positions have been created to increase students’
academic achievement by first improving teachers’ instruction. Further, teachers who model learning for
students can help to create a community of learners. Teacher leadership leads to teacher growth and learning,
and when teachers learn, their students learn. Effective and efficient collaborative decision-making processes
need to be in place to tap and infuse this expertise across the faculty.

The influence of teacher leadership is important to education reform. Teacher leaders can help “guide fellow
teachers as well as the school at large toward higher standards of achievement and individual responsibility for

COPYRIGHT @ JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL AND INSTRUCTIONAL STUDIES IN THE WORLD 67

 JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL AND INSTRUCTIONAL STUDIES
IN THE WORLD
August 2013, Volume: 3 Issue: 3 Article: 11
ISSN: 2146-7463

school reform” (Childs-Bowen et al., 2000). With the addition of the No Child Left Behind Act, the emphasis on
educational improvement at all grade levels has provided “further incentive for teachers to be involved in
teacher leadership” (Birky, Shelton, & Headley, 2006). In order to implement curricular and instructional
reforms at the classroom level, a commitment from the teachers who lead at that level is essential. Reform
possibilities reside in the hands of teachers; they are on the front lines and know the classroom issues, the
culture of the school, and the types of support they need to do their jobs.

Recruit, retain, motivate, and reward accomplished teachers. One major reason for the new interest in teacher
leadership is the desire to recruit, retain, motivate, and reward accomplished teachers. That is why according
to York-Barr & Duke, (2004) acknowledging teachers’ expertise and contributions and providing opportunities
for growth and influence can support these objectives. Teachers want to work in schools that are designed for
them to be successful and in which they have influence on key decisions that affect instruction and student
success. Alabama that “empowerment and leadership opportunities were important factors in whether
teachers said they [would] work in certain schools.”

In addition, the opportunity to influence teaching and learning for adults and children through greater
involvement in school leadership offers appeal to many accomplished teachers. Teachers find opportunities for
continuous learning as they expand the ways in which they contribute throughout their careers. “Teachers who
lead help to shape their own schools and, thereby, their own destinies as educators” (Barth, 2001).

A clear effect of teacher leadership is the growth and learning for the teachers themselves. This view is
expressed by York-Barr & Duke, (2004) that professional growth also occurs as the result of collaboration with
peers, assisting other teachers, working with administrators, and being exposed to new ideas. In fact, studies
show that leading and learning are interrelated, that “teacher leaders grow in their understandings of
instructional, professional, and organizational practice as they lead”. Likewise Childs-Bowen, Moller, and
Scrivner, (2000, p. 28) maintain that teachers are leaders when they function in professional communities to
affect student learning; contribute to school improvement; inspire excellence in practice; and empower
stakeholders to participate in educational improvement.

Teacher leadership provides the additional person power needed to run the organizational operations of the
school, which are too complex for principals to run alone. Indeed, teacher leaders are a source of reliable,
useful, and professional help for the principal. “When teachers lead, principals extend their own capacity”
(Barth, 2001).

In addition, instructional teacher leadership can reduce the principal’s workload. Teacher leaders are able to
assume some of the principal’s many responsibilities, including those of instructional leader. When teacher
leaders take on important school wide responsibilities and are centrally involved in school decision making,
they are able to transform their school into a democracy. Students benefit from observing and experiencing
democratic, participatory forms of government. They also benefit from higher teacher morale because their
teachers are involved in democratic decision making and school leadership.
http://www2.tqsource.org/strategies/leadership/EnhancingTeacherLeadership.pdf

According to Arif (2003) in order to create a classroom environment with maximum productive time utilization,
the teachers must establish and maintain it through following teaching and managing practices so that
instances of student disruptive behavior are reduced. They remain mostly involved in learning oriented actions
and activities.

(i) Keep students motivated by keeping the students motivated in learning, teachers set the stage for creating
positive class environment. Motivating students is the first step toward preventing discipline problems in
classrooms because a student involved in learning is not usually involved in clash with others at the same time.
(ii) Meet basic needs. Teachers must try to meet students’ basic as well as age related needs. Make students
feel physically comfortable, safe, welcome, socially accepted and valued. Otherwise, they more likely to face
learning difficulties and disruptively.

COPYRIGHT @ JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL AND INSTRUCTIONAL STUDIES IN THE WORLD 68

 JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL AND INSTRUCTIONAL STUDIES
IN THE WORLD
August 2013, Volume: 3 Issue: 3 Article: 11
ISSN: 2146-7463

(iii) Exercise moderate degree of control. The degree of class control must be moderate. Student learning is
great in classroom where teachers exercise neither too much nor too less control. Too much control may be
effective on memory tasks but it is harmful for learning involving critical and creative thinking.

(iv) Empower the students make them responsible for their own learning through group and individual learning
activities so that they ultimately become independent learners. This is one of the purposes of good classroom
management.

(v) Keep instruction at the student level. Keep instruction at the students’ development level so that they
neither experience discouragement nor boredom. Otherwise, they might behave disruptively.
(vi) Develop healthy and professionally sound relationship with all the students by being friendly with them.
Learn their names and some positive information about each to greet them.
(vii) Communicate interest in all the students and show concern for each of them. The interest and concern is
communicated through brief eye contact with all and through supporting gestures and facial expressions while
teaching.

(viii) While instructing, ensure physical closeness with all the students by roaming around the class.

(ix) Avoid labeling the students with negative adjectives, which are likely to lower their self-esteem. Labeling
influences teachers’ quality of interaction with the students, which further influences students’ expectations
and actions negatively.

(x) Describe the behaviour of the misbehaving student, not characterize the student. Instead of saying, “you are
rude” say “your comment was rude”. By criticizing the personality of the students, he is less likely to change his
behaviour.

(xi) Increase the “engaged time” by keeping the students involved in the learning tasks through, wittiness,
overlapping, smooth transitions and group focus.

(xii) Teach role and routines to the younger students in academic fashion with a lot of explanation, examples
and practices during initial classes.

(xiii) Develop a set of few general classroom rules applicable to variety of situations. These rules should be
displayed in the class.

(xiv) Be assertive, rather than passive or aggressive, in enforcing discipline. Apply the rule forcefully fairly,
consistently and calmly.

(xv) Create business like climate in the classroom. Where students understand that they and the teacher have a
commonly shared goal of accomplishing such activities that promote learning.

A Conceptual Framework for Teacher Leadership and its on Students’ achievement

York-Barr, j., & Duke, K. (2004) has given a framework about the effect of teacher leadership on students’
achievement.

COPYRIGHT @ JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL AND INSTRUCTIONAL STUDIES IN THE WORLD 69

 JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL AND INSTRUCTIONAL STUDIES
IN THE WORLD
August 2013, Volume: 3 Issue: 3 Article: 11
ISSN: 2146-7463

TEACHER
LEADERSHIP
• Respected as
Teachers
1
• Learning
Oriented 4
• Leadership
MEANS OF 6
Capacities 5
LEADERSHIP
LEADERSHIP INFLUENCE
WORK Maintain a focus on TARGETS OF INTER-
• Valued teaching and learning. LEADERSHIP MEDIACY
INFLUENCE OUTCOME Student
2 • Visible Establish trusting Individuals OF
and constructive Teams or groups Learning
LEADERSHIP
Organizational
• Negotiated relationships. Improvements in
Capacity teaching and
• Shared Interact through learning practice
formal and informal
points of influence.
LEADERSHIP
• Supportive
Culture
• Supportive
3 Principal and
1 Colleagues
• Time
• Development
opportunities

In February 2003 the Centre for Teacher Leadership (CTL) at Virginia Common Wealth University School of
Education conducted a survey of recognized teachers to determine their perception of themselves as leaders
and their training needs. It was online administered to a purposeful sample of Teachers. Key findings of this
survey showed that those teachers that are selected as sample are confident about their role as leaders, there
is a gap between the role that is perceived as leader and actual skills needed to be a leader.

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

Teachers have the pivot role in any society because they trained the whole generation. When a teacher
performs many roles like guide, facilitator, observer, counselor then leadership role of a teacher is also of great
importance. So if a teacher has leadership qualities than of course student will get positive benefit from
students.

Personality of a teacher effects the whole classroom environment. If a teacher is active then he/she can easily
handle his/her classroom, can teach actively, and can understand student’s individual differences.

COPYRIGHT @ JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL AND INSTRUCTIONAL STUDIES IN THE WORLD 70

 JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL AND INSTRUCTIONAL STUDIES
IN THE WORLD
August 2013, Volume: 3 Issue: 3 Article: 11
ISSN: 2146-7463

“Teachers are leaders when they function in professional communities to affect student learning; contribute to
school improvement; inspire excellence in practice; and empower stakeholders to participate in educational
improvement” (Childs-Bowen, Moller, & Scrivner, 2000, p. 28).

It means that teacher role is not limited to classroom, its widen and speeded in the whole school, even outside
the school. Teacher who is a leader not only work in class room but he also help other teachers to practice
certain new techniques in their classrooms.
Teacher leadership help in improving teaching quality, one of its ways is that if a head support staff
development needs, and evaluate teachers/ staff development. Teacher leadership effects students’ learning

Barr and Duke’s (2004) research strongly support the point that teacher leadership effects students
achievement. They gave a conceptual framework and these are six major component in that, First three
component shows conditions necessary for teacher leader then in forth point they construct a healthy and
constructive relationship. Then in fifth component some of the responsibilities necessary for teacher and at the
end the final outcome that is students achievement.

In current era, students are considered a central role in any nation. Students don’t know about the direction
which is effective for them, they don’t know about their inner abilities to accomplish a task. It is their teachers
who acknowledge all this, understand individual differences, solve their problems, help them in coping with
learning difficulties and encourage them to move forward. Through this entire discussion, it is concluded that
teacher’s role as a leader is very important for enhancing students’ performance. The personality of a teacher
affects the whole classroom. Teachers should be encouraged to be leader in the classroom so that they can
effectively and efficiently manage the whole classroom and it will result in overall effective students’
performance.

RECOMMENDATION

• More studies should be conducted to examine how far the concept of “teacher leadership” is meaningful,
useful and applicable to a wide variety of school.
• Teachers should be promoted on the basis of their performance.
• Several workshops should be arranged to promote teacher confidence to be leaders.
• Shared Decision making should be enhanced for informal interaction between teachers and Principals.
• Teachers’ role and work should be respected.
• Teachers should be encouraged to work in collaboration with other teachers.
• Heads should involve teachers in making decisions.
• Teachers should be empowered in their leadership tasks.

REFERENCES

Arif, H. M. (2003). Human Development and Learning, Majeed Book Depot, Lahore, Pakistan.

Barth.S.R. (2001). Teacher leaders. Retrieved date: October, 25, 2010 from www.edutopia.com

Miller, K. (2003, November). School, Teacher, and Leadership Impacts on Student Achievement. Retrieved
November 2010, from http://www.mcrel.org

Wilmore, E. L. (2007). Teacher leadership: improving teaching and learning from inside the classroom. Crown
Press.

York-Barr, J., & Duke, K. 2004.What dowe know about Teacher Leadership? Retrieved by www.centerforcsri.org
http://www2.tqsource.org/strategies/leadership/EnhancingTeacherLeadership.pdf

COPYRIGHT @ JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL AND INSTRUCTIONAL STUDIES IN THE WORLD 71

 JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL AND INSTRUCTIONAL STUDIES
IN THE WORLD
August 2013, Volume: 3 Issue: 3 Article: 11
ISSN: 2146-7463

http://www.nwlink.com/~donclark/leader/leadcon.html

http://www.scribd.com/doc/3008658/effect-of-teacher-leadership-style-on-class-satisfaction-andalso-explore-
the-relationship-between-teacher-leadership-style-and-role-clarity-of-student

http://www.mcrel.org/pdf/policybriefs/5032pi_pbschoolteacherleaderbrief.pdf

http://www.eslteachersboard.com/cgi-bin/articles/index.pl?page=2;read=3491

COPYRIGHT @ JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL AND INSTRUCTIONAL STUDIES IN THE WORLD 72

 JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL AND INSTRUCTIONAL STUDIES
IN THE WORLD
August 2013, Volume: 3 Issue: 3 Article: 12
ISSN: 2146-7463

ENSURING AND PROMOTING THE PEDAGOGICAL COMPETENCE

OF UNIVERSITY LECTURERS IN AFRICA

Dr. Michael Olalekan Olatunji

Institute for Educational Leadership
Gaborone, BOTSWANA
[email protected]

Abstract
This paper examines the availability or otherwise of structures in universities in Africa for ensuring and
promoting the promoting the pedagogical competence of lecturers. The characteristics that university students
do observe in their lecturers while performing their pedagogical duties and which they abhor are also
examined. Data were collected through interviews with 100 university lecturers, 200 university students and
twenty key university administrators. In all, a total number of twenty universities in Africa were covered with
two universities in each country. The universities span ten countries in Africa. Findings from the study show
that only 20% of the universities sampled have adequate structures in place for continuous pedagogical
development of all lecturers. All the students interviewed (100%) came up with traits that they observe in their
lecturers when carrying out their pedagogical duties and which they abhor. Attempt is made to draw out the
implications of the findings and to make relevant suggestions.

Key Words: Pedagogical training, professional development, teaching, universities, Africa.

INTRODUCTION

University education occupies a cardinal position in every society. The university not only receives products
from preceding levels of education, it is usually the final destination for formal teaching and learning before the
ultimate launch into the wider world for employment or entrepreneurship (Ajibade et al, 2010). The
Institutional Management in Higher Education (IMHE 2009) also points out that higher education is becoming a
major-driver of economic competitiveness in an increasingly knowledge-driven global economy. However,
while higher education in general has experienced significant development over the years, university education
in particular is currently undergoing a challenging phase. For example, Malik (2009) points out that university
education is facing challenges that it never faced before. These challenges according to him include increasing
number of students, diverse background of students, use of technology, assessment, globalization-learning and
corporate style management. These challenges, he maintains, put extra pressure and responsibility on the
shoulder of those responsible for policy decisions and also on the lecturers.

Similarly, Mugimu & Ezati (2010) citing the example of Makerere University in Uganda point out that prior to
the 1970’s, the university had a small population of about 2000 students but from 1990, the population rose
from less than 10000 to 40000 in 2010. This increase in student numbers has created more challenges and
attracted public concern about the capacity of Makarere University to promote quality education, given the
inadequate facilities, equipment and the numerical strength of the teaching staff (Mamdani 2007). This fear
points to problems with the curriculum, delivery methods, quality of teaching staff, as well as teaching and
learning materials (Mugimu & Ezati 2010).

Latchem et al (2006) in an international overview of professional development of university lecturers observe

that, with the exponential expansion of higher education, lecturers are expected to teach larger classes and
students from non-traditional backgrounds with a wide range of motivations and abilities. In addition, Latchem
et al, observe that lecturers are also expected to embrace new forms of educational delivery such as open,
distance, blended and work-based learning and master the latest tools and methodologies of information and

COPYRIGHT @ JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL AND INSTRUCTIONAL STUDIES IN THE WORLD 73

 JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL AND INSTRUCTIONAL STUDIES
IN THE WORLD
August 2013, Volume: 3 Issue: 3 Article: 12
ISSN: 2146-7463

communication technology. They submit that all of these are expected to occur without commensurate
increase in funding and in most cases, adequate training provision. According to them, with some notable
exceptions, there is little in the way of systematic professional development to prepare lecturers for
contemporary pedagogical challenges in the universities.
.
Postareff et al (2007) however highlight the trend that is becoming widespread around the world of training
university teachers in order to improve their pedagogical thinking and skills as evidenced in such countries as
Norway, the United Kingdom, Sri Lanka and Finland. Furthermore, Hussain et al (2010) report that, the Higher
Education Commission of Pakistan is training the academic staff of universities under the cover of National
Academy of Higher Education’s (NAHE) Faculty Development Program. Mirroring the diverse range of reasons
for the importance of courses to support academic staff in their teaching are discussions about similar courses
offered in Belgium (Stes et al 2007), Sweden (Ahlberg, 2008) and New Zealand (Tynan & Garbett, 2007).

Goody (2007) also confirms that nearly seventy five per cent of Australian universities offer teaching
preparation activities which ‘require’ staff to participate in them. He provides an overview of twenty five of the
Foundation programs that are offered across Australia. In addition, Goody identifies Foundation programs as
“formal programs that induct and develop university teachers with the aim of fostering and supporting the
quality of teaching and learning in the university” (p1.). These programs according to him are usually
completed within the first three years of employment and offer more than induction. Most of the Australian
courses are mandatory, non award programs that did not include formal assessment but require that
participant engage in specific activities (such as the presentation of teaching portfolio, engagement in an online
discussion or peer observation of teaching) to satisfactorily complete the course.

Moreover, Henard & Roseveare (2012) mention that the Catholic University of Portugal has in place a strategic
plan with the following goals among others: (a) ensure high levels of pedagogical innovations, particularly
through the start up projects with significant impact on the lecturers. (b) develop and implement a Skills
Development Plan teaching of lecturers(e.g., linking objectives, strategies and pedagogical evaluation,
coordination of teaching in attendance and technological contexts).

With the moves that many non African countries are making to ensure that lecturers in their universities are
pedagogically competent and remain so, effort is made in this paper to examine the situation in Africa.
Attempt is also made to find out the traits that university students find to leave much to be desired amongst
their lecturers as they carry out their pedagogical responsibilities. As a background to this study, the author
attempts an exploration of the concept of Pedagogical competence as would be used in the study.

The Concept of Pedagogical Competence

Ryegard et al (2010) point out that in agreement with international research with respect to the concept of
pedagogical competence there is a clear development from what was previously referred to as teaching ability
or teaching skill to a more comprehensive definition of pedagogical competence. The thing that has meant the
most for development during the last few years is above all the idea of Scholarship of Teaching and Learning
(Boyer 1990) where the teacher is expected to have a scholarly attitude towards the teaching task and in that
way contribute to the formation of knowledge of teaching and learning in higher education. According to them,
contemporary meaning of pedagogical competence includes greater organizational responsibility. The
lecturer’s contribution to the development of higher education (Ryegard 2008) and responsibility as a
pedagogy leader (Giertz, 2003) are now being emphasized. It is argued therefore that while pedagogical
competence includes teaching skills and the scholarship of teaching it goes beyond them.

Oldsjo(2010) stresses further that the traditional view of pedagogical competence is primarily a question of
practice “in the classroom” whereby a skillful teacher through knowledge, methods, actions and ability to
communicate etc, gets teaching situation to function and creates conditions for learning. He however points
out that this view is deficient in the sense that it does not include a scientific attitude towards teaching and
learning. He points out that the teachers ability lies primarily in a scientifically based subject competence and
the practical teaching skills that he /she has acquired and continued to develop. As a result of this, deficient
knowledge of learning theory, pedagogy for higher education research into teaching and tried experiences

COPYRIGHT @ JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL AND INSTRUCTIONAL STUDIES IN THE WORLD 74

 JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL AND INSTRUCTIONAL STUDIES
IN THE WORLD
August 2013, Volume: 3 Issue: 3 Article: 12
ISSN: 2146-7463

means that the teacher does not have a real scientific foundation for pedagogical development work. Oldsjo
comments further that the frame of reference risks being limited to the teacher’s own experiences and the
tradition of the institution.

In agreement with Magin (1998), Olsson et al. (2010) confirm that pedagogical competence is a broader
concept than teaching skills. They opine that pedagogical competence presupposes good, broad and deep
knowledge of the subject of teaching. A pedagogically proficient teacher shall in different context demonstrate
a good ability to use subject knowledge in research – related, practical, pedagogical actions with student
learning in focus.

In the same vein, Apelgren & Giertz (2010) define pedagogical competence as “the ability and will to regularly
apply the attitude, the knowledge, and the skills that promote the learning of the teacher’s students in the best
way. This shall be in agreement with the goals that apply, and within the framework available and presupposes
continuous development of the teacher’s own competence and instructional design. They highlight a number of
aspects in their definition which they deem to be of importance for the teacher’s pedagogical competence.
These aspects are:

• Attitude
Apelgren & Giertz argue that having an attitude that best promotes student learning is the cornerstone of
pedagogical competence. Attitude according to them means the perception of the lecturer with respect to his
own responsibilities, the responsibilities of the students and his pedagogical outlook. They also reiterate the
need for the lecturer to have a general academic attitude towards teaching. This they wrote means among
other things that when choosing content, teaching method, examination and evaluation, cognizance is taken of
what research has shown to promote student learning. They submit that higher education rests on a
foundation of research regarding both content and pedagogical design. According to Apelgren & Giertz, having
attitude that best promotes student learning also implies the need for the lecturer to ensure good contact with
all students, create good teaching climate, help students to develop good study habits, stimulate students to be
active learners and to listen to students.

• Knowledge
Apelgren & Giertz maintain that as a basis for pedagogical competence, the lecturer needs knowledge within
the following areas: the subject, how student learn (in general and for specific subject), the teaching process
and teaching methods, the goal of the course and the organization. They however submit that to have
knowledge in these areas alone has little value as a qualification. According to them, it is not enough to have
knowledge and skills that are needed. This is because the most important word in the definition is apply. It is
emphasized therefore that pedagogical competence means that the teacher also uses his/her knowledge and
applies acquired insights and skills.

• Ability
Applying knowledge in the areas mentioned in item 2 above , according to Apelgren & Giertz means
demonstrating different types of ability; ability to plan and organize activity, ability to structure and present
material in a subject in an appropriate way for students, ability to adapt teaching to the particular group of
students and the situation.

• Adapting to the situation

Apelgren & Giertz opine that the composition and the mental ability of students vary. As a result of this, they
point out that pedagogical competence means handling the diversity of factors in the best way with the goal of
optimizing the learning of students.

• Perseverance
Apelgren & Giertz put it forward that good teaching requires perseverance. It is also their view that neither the
students nor the institution gain from brilliant one-off if interest and commitment then wane. They conclude

COPYRIGHT @ JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL AND INSTRUCTIONAL STUDIES IN THE WORLD 75

 JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL AND INSTRUCTIONAL STUDIES
IN THE WORLD
August 2013, Volume: 3 Issue: 3 Article: 12
ISSN: 2146-7463

therefore that the ability and the will to work regularly in the best way therefore is emphasized as an important
aspect of pedagogical competence.

• Continuous development
Apelgren & Giertz further submit that pedagogical competence is neither something static nor something
which one ever completes. According to them, showing the ability and the will to apply a way of working that
best supports student learning means continuously searching for and taking in new knowledge, learning from
new experiences and developing professionally both in one’s subject specialty and pedagogically. Pedagogical
competence means continuously evaluating one’s pedagogical practice in the light of what research and
proven experiences have shown to best promote student learning and making necessary adjustment.

In a concise way, Ryegard (2008, p.9) captures the concept of pedagogical competence in his comment that:
“pedagogical competence implies that the teacher from definite goals and frameworks, through continuous
development of teaching and personal professional development, support and facilitates the learning of the
students in the best way. This pedagogical competence also reflects the teacher’s competence in regard to
collaboration, comprehensive view and contribution to the development of pedagogy for higher education.”

While admitting the possibility of other definition or description of pedagogical competence, Rygard et al 2008
argued that a correct and comprehensive definition or description/perspective of pedagogical competence
must include three basic components.

It shall be based on that which supports the students’ learning. In other words, a correct definition,
description or perspective of pedagogical competence shall take into consideration what both research
and well tried experience have demonstrated to promote students’ learning. This position, they contend is
strengthened by the fact that international research in pedagogy for higher education have shown that
there is a correlation between the lecturer’s understanding of what and how students learn along with the
conditions for that learning, and the lecturer’s success in lecturing (see, Marton et al., 1984; Prosser &
Trigwell, 1998; Ramsden,1992; Biggs, 2003). In the light of this, Rygard et al., 2008 argue that knowledge
about learning and the conditions of learning are indispensable requirements. While emphasizing factors
that support students learning, they reiterate the fact that lecturer’s perseverance, attitude, ability to
adapt to situation, didactic knowledge, and knowledge about learning are critical if the lecturer is to be
taken to be a professional by students, colleagues and superiors.

It shall include the lecturer’s ability to develop with the support of theory and to make public their
practices –Scholarship of Teaching and Learning. Furthermore, they highlight the fact that a pedagogically
competent lecturer finds out what works and what outcomes their choices result in, examines his lectures
and uses this knowledge to create better conditions for students’ learning. The lecturer if he is
pedagogically competent, shares knowledge in the same way that a researcher shares research results
(Antman & Olsson, 2007).

It shall make it possible to describe a threshold value (a lowest level) and a progression of pedagogical
competence.
Threshold value has to do with –what shall be required to be qualified and this also implies that the
lecturer is continuously developing pedagogically..
In a more concise way, Tagerud (2010) also emphasizes the fact that even if pedagogical competence is
defined with different words at different institutions there is a basic understanding that is shared by
everyone, namely that pedagogical competence comprises much more than teaching skills.

The Problem
University education is becoming increasingly competitive in terms of students, staff and resources. As a result
of the increasing demand for access to it by the masses in many countries of the world including Africa, it has
shifted from being the exclusive reserve of the elite that it was to a service open to the masses (Okwakol 2009).
In many countries outside Africa however, another development that is rapidly gaining ground is the attention
that is being given to the pedagogical competence of university lecturers; Henard & Roseveare(2012), Hussain
et al(2010) and Postreff et al(2007). This study therefore aims at finding out what the situation is, in Africa with

COPYRIGHT @ JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL AND INSTRUCTIONAL STUDIES IN THE WORLD 76

 JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL AND INSTRUCTIONAL STUDIES
IN THE WORLD
August 2013, Volume: 3 Issue: 3 Article: 12
ISSN: 2146-7463

respect to provisions for ensuring that university lecturers are pedagogically competent and for promoting
lecturers’ pedagogical competence.

Scope of the Study

Data were collected through interviews with 100 university lecturers, 200 university students and 20 key
administrative staff. In all, a total of twenty universities were covered with two universities in each country.
The universities span ten countries in Africa namely: Botswana, Zambia, Uganda, Ethiopia, Namibia, Tanzania,
Cameroon, Republic of South Africa, Nigeria and Ghana. The students covered in the study are from 200 levels
through 700 levels (2nd year undergraduate student through to Masters Degree level students).

Purpose of the Study

To investigate the availability or otherwise of structures for the promotion of pedagogical competences
amongst lecturers in the universities covered by the study, find out if pedagogical competences and formal
teaching qualifications are required in the recruitment of university staff in the universities covered by the
study and to identify the characteristics that students in the universities covered by the study do observe in
their lecturers and which they abhor while these lecturers are carrying out their pedagogical duties.

Research Questions
Specifically, this study addresses itself to the following questions:
1. Do universities in Botswana, Zambia, Uganda, Ethiopia, Namibia, Tanzania, Cameroon, South Africa, Nigeria
and Ghana have structures in place for the purpose of promoting pedagogical competence of lecturers?
2. In the countries listed in 1 above, is proven pedagogical competence or formal teaching qualification
required in the recruitment of university lecturers?
3. What are the characteristics that university students in the countries listed in 1 above do observe in their
lecturers while performing their pedagogical duties and which they abhor

Significance of the Study

The study’s significance is that it will highlight the prevailing situation in the universities covered, with respect
to the availability or otherwise of the structures for ensuring and promoting the pedagogical competence of
lecturers. Furthermore, it will illuminate the challenges of university lecturers in becoming and remaining
pedagogically competent .In addition, the study will bring to light, the experience of university students’ which
they find to leave much to be desired as lecturers carry out their pedagogical duties. Also, findings from the
study, if made available to policy makers and stakeholders in university education, may inform the
promulgation of regulations towards arresting identified short-comings

RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY

This study made use of qualitative research method adopting a survey research design. Using qualitative
research technique allows the researcher to get data directly from the subjects themselves by interacting with
the respondents and hearing their views in a comprehensive way using semi structured interviews conducted
face to face with the respondents. Purposive convenience sampling was adopted in the selection of
participants for this study. This type of non probability sampling method seeks information- rich cases which
can be studied in a comprehensive way (Patton 1990). Participants for the study were selected from the
faculties of Social Sciences, Science, Arts, Agriculture, Technology and Law.

Data Collection
Appointments were made with participants and interviews were conducted in stages over a period of time.
The emphasis during the interview was upon grasping the participants’ perspectives and comprehending the
experiences. In a few cases, it was necessary to interview participants’ more than once especially when new
perspectives were raised by subsequent participants. The duration of the interview ranged from thirty to sixty
minutes. Audiotape was used in recording the interviews and this was supplemented with reflective field notes.
The participants were assured of confidentiality and anonymity.

COPYRIGHT @ JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL AND INSTRUCTIONAL STUDIES IN THE WORLD 77

 JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL AND INSTRUCTIONAL STUDIES
IN THE WORLD
August 2013, Volume: 3 Issue: 3 Article: 12
ISSN: 2146-7463

Data Analysis
After transcribing the audiotapes of the interviews, the information was analyzed to increase understanding of
it and to be able to present the findings clearly.
Responses were treated according to the research questions they were responding to while the data analysis
was also approached by treating each research question on its own. Simple percentages were used to analyze
the data collected

Achieving Reliability and Validity

Notable qualitative researchers such as Smaling (1994:78) regard reliability as the elimination of casual errors
that can affect research results. In order to ensure the trustworthiness of the findings of the study therefore,
Gubal’s Model for qualitative research was adhered to. Guba(1982) proposes four criteria that he believes
should be considered by qualitative researchers in pursuit of a trustworthy study. The criteria are: credibility,
transferability, dependability and conformability. Furthermore, researcher’s personal observations and the
contrasting and comparison of data served as an additional confirmation of the validity of the data.

Ethical Issues
The researcher sees the topic as sensitive because it has bearing on the quality of teaching and learning in the
universities covered. As a result of this, care was taken to adhere to ethical measures such as the secrecy of
the participants’ identity during the research.

MAJOR FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION

Research Question No 1:
Are there structures in place in the universities sampled for the purpose of ensuring and promoting the
pedagogical competence of lecturers?

Out of the total number of twenty universities covered by the study and which span ten countries 20% of these
universities have in place induction programmes for newly recruited staff. These programmes are organized
either within the departments, faculties or centrally by university administration. From the responses of the
lecturers in the sampled universities, these induction programmes are merely series of events during which
new lecturers are introduced; most of the time hurriedly to the general work environments. The induction
programmes, the lecturers highlight are geared towards ensuring that lecturers have an appreciation of their
roles and the institution in which they are working and are mostly done within one or two days. 60% of the
universities sampled have units which provide pedagogical support to academic staff. These units are located
within the departments or faculties and the functions identified for the units include storage and supply of
teaching equipments to lecturers. 20% of the universities sampled have structures in place for continuous
professional development in pedagogy for all lecturers. The programme covers areas such as: e-teaching, e-
learning, lecturers’ ethics and code of teaching, general teaching methods, research supervision skills, students’
support etc. Compared to the other universities sampled, this programme for continuous professional
development is more involving and covers the major areas of pedagogical competence as expounded earlier in
the background to this study.

Fleming et al (2004) however argued that, it is not simply a matter of increasing the skills of academic staff but
of encouraging university lecturers to become professional by them with opportunities “to engage in critical
reflective pedagogy”. They point out that this “is being widely acknowledged as an important element in the
continuing professional development” of university lecturers (p. 165). Against this backdrop, and coupled with
the what pedagogical competence entails as discussed in the earlier part of this paper, one opines that pockets
of meetings here and there under the name of induction programmes or merely making teaching equipment
available for lecturers will not suffice in keeping lecturers in the universities in Africa on track for pedagogical
competence. The fact that only 20% of the universities sampled have in place a relatively comprehensive
programme for promoting the pedagogical competence of lecturers implies that necessary and sufficient
attention is not being given to the development of pedagogical competence of academic staff in the
universities covered by the study. As a result of this, the concentration of lecturers in these universities is on
research. This is more so because apart from the fact that lecturers do not have official provisions of

COPYRIGHT @ JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL AND INSTRUCTIONAL STUDIES IN THE WORLD 78

 JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL AND INSTRUCTIONAL STUDIES
IN THE WORLD
August 2013, Volume: 3 Issue: 3 Article: 12
ISSN: 2146-7463

programmes for pedagogical development and enhancement to which they can commit themselves , research
is predominantly the yardstick being used for promotion. Henard & Roseveare (2012) confirm this
development in their submission that emphasis on research performance for both institutions and individual
academics has traditionally overshadowed teaching and learning for students in many countries. While
progress in research is commendable and expected of lecturers, it ought not to be at the expense of steps that
can ensure their pedagogical competence and continuous development of the same. So long as this situation
persists in universities, so long shall it continue to negatively impact the students who at the receiving end.
When lecturers do not give attention to how they can become pedagogically competent or improve their
pedagogical competency, it goes without saying that these lecturers will either not make progress at all
concerning pedagogical competence or they will not make appreciable progress. Incidentally, it is under this
condition that these lecturers are “deciding the fate” of their students. The outcome of such exercise is better
imagined than experienced.

Research Question No 2:
In the recruitment of university teaching staff, is ability to proven pedagogical competence or formal teaching
qualification a requirement?

According to the lecturers in the sampled universities and the key administrative staff that were interviewed,
neither proven pedagogical competence nor formal teaching qualification is required for recruitment of
academic staff except for those in the faculties of education. Furthermore, findings from the study show that
only 10% of the sampled lecturers apart from those in the Faculties of Education have undertaken formal
pedagogical training at one level or another and at different times. When neither proven pedagogical
competence nor formal teaching qualification is a requirement in the recruitment of university lecturers there
is no way of ensuring the pedagogical competence of university lecturers before being employed to carry out
pedagogical duties. One sees this as an abnormality and again it is the students that will eventually bear the
brunt as some lecturers will be unable to carry out their pedagogical duties the way they ought to.

Findings from this study also reveal that, at the point of entry into university workforce, 40% of the lecturers in
the sampled universities do not have any teaching experience and do not have any teaching qualification. One
does not have any reasonable ground to vouch for these lecturers in terms of their being able to give their
students the best pedagogy wise. At the point of entry into university work force, 50% of the lecturers covered
by this study do not have neither formal pedagogical training nor university in-house pedagogy training but
have years of teaching experience. This group of lecturers might have been able to improve themselves
pedagogy wise through “trial and error” over the years. This however does not and cannot rule out the need
for initial professional training in pedagogy either at the point of entering into university work force or before
and continuous professional training in pedagogy. The fact that all that some lecturers have as their
pedagogical background is the experience acquired through “trial and error” over the years speaks volumes as
to the quality of teaching in the universities covered by this study.

Postareff et al (2007) however point out that in recent years there have been discussions about the need to
improve university lecturers’ pedagogical thinking and skills as well. As a consequence, they observe further
that the training of university lecturers has recently become a widespread trend in many countries (Postareff
2007). Furthermore, in a study carried out by Postareff et al on the impact of university lecturers’ pedagogical
training on approaches to teaching among 200 lecturers of University of Helsinki in Finland, more than half of
the lecturers who took part in the university pedagogical training confirm that participation in the pedagogical
training made them more aware of their approach to teaching and of teaching methods. These lecturers
further believed that their reflective skills had developed during training. Ten lecturers considered that they
received theoretical knowledge, new ideas, advice as well as new viewpoints from participation in the
pedagogical training.

Research Question No 3:
What are the characteristics that university students in the countries sampled do observe in their lecturers
while performing their pedagogical duties and which they abhor?

COPYRIGHT @ JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL AND INSTRUCTIONAL STUDIES IN THE WORLD 79

 JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL AND INSTRUCTIONAL STUDIES
IN THE WORLD
August 2013, Volume: 3 Issue: 3 Article: 12
ISSN: 2146-7463

All the students interviewed (100%) came up with traits that they observe in lecturers when carrying out their
pedagogical duties and which they abhor. The characteristics named by the students interviewed in the sample
universities are as follow:
 Boring presentations,
 Being short-tempered or moody during lecture
 Threatening students with failure at the outset of the course and or throughout the course period,
 Low voice projection during lecture,
 Direct or indirect avoidance of students’ questions during lecture,
 Simply reading of notes to students’ during lecture,
 Simply reading of textbook to students’ during lecture,
 Arriving late for lecture most of the time,
 Leaving the lecture hall before the scheduled time most of the time,
 Dressing in a way that distracts
 Not making any comment on the script but simply putting the score),
 Asking students to exchange their scripts and do the assessment themselves without double checking,
 Always giving feedback very late,
 Wanting to have illicit relationship with students,
 Not having good mastery of course content,
 Having good mastery of content but lacking the ability to communicate and deliver,
 Announcing at the outset of a course that no one can score an alpha,
 Announcing at the outset of a course that some students must fail,
 Using the same lecture note word for word year in and year out,
 Not making illustration on the board at all or sufficiently during lecture,
 Getting students into group discussion without making any put,
 Always absent from lecture without prior notice,
 Inadequate use of instructional materials during lecture,
 Total lack of the use of instructional materials during lecture,
 Conflicting interest manifested in holding two full time jobs at the same time therefore coming to lecture
exhausted most of the time.

It is only normal for students to expect to get value in return for the cost of their education-whether paid
directly by the students or by taxpayers. However, a situation whereby students experience all or some of the
above mentioned characteristics either frequently or occasionally does not speak of value which students
expect to get for hard earned money neither does it speak of professionalism which lecturers are supposed to
display. Bearing in mind what pedagogical competence entails as discussed in this study, where a program for
ensuring and promoting the pedagogical competence of lecturers is effectively put in place in the universities
covered by this study, the characteristics cited above and many other similar characteristics that university
students abhor in lecturers while discharging their pedagogical duties would be taken care of. The sad truth
however is that until structures are put in place to ensure and to promote pedagogical competence of
university lecturers in the universities covered by this study, students in these universities will continue to live
with these unpleasant characteristics; the depth of which may worsen with time. In what can be rightly
regarded as a confirmation of some of the findings concerning the characteristics that university students do
observe in their lecturers and which they abhor, Nwogu (2013) reports that some key university dons in Nigeria
have lamented the inability of some lecturers in nation’s tertiary institutions to effectively deliver and
communicate their lectures to their students. These university dons, Nwosu reports further highlight the fact
that inefficient and ineffective communication had contributed to the poor standard of education and mass
failure in some examination of some students. Effective communication is an important component of
pedagogical competence. That the inability of university lecturers to communicate effectively with their
students is a cause of mass failure in some examination of their students is a pointer to the seriousness of the
subject of pedagogical competence of university lecturers and the need to give it the necessary attention.

In the light of the aforementioned examples, it stands to reason that the absence of structures for ensuring and
promoting the pedagogical competence of lecturers in the universities sampled in this study is a serious missing
link in their educational set up. This position is further strengthened by the fact that international research in

COPYRIGHT @ JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL AND INSTRUCTIONAL STUDIES IN THE WORLD 80

 JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL AND INSTRUCTIONAL STUDIES
IN THE WORLD
August 2013, Volume: 3 Issue: 3 Article: 12
ISSN: 2146-7463

pedagogy for higher education have shown that there is a correlation between the lecturer’s understanding of
what and how students learn along with the conditions for that learning, and the lecturer’s success in lecturing
(see, Marton et al., 1984; Prosser & Trigwell, 1998; Ramsden,1992; Biggs, 2003).

SUGGESTIONS AND CONCLUSION

The findings of this study are a pointer to what might be the situation in other universities in Africa that are not
covered by the study. It is suggested therefore that an audit be carried out by the relevant authorities in
university education in the various countries of Africa with a view to determining the status quo with respect to
the pedagogical competence of lecturers. The knowledge of the status quo will give insight into the modus
operandi of ensuring and promoting the pedagogical competence of the lecturers. This is necessary if
universities in Africa will not end up at the very end of the ladder when it comes to international ranking in the
all important area of pedagogy. To this end, some practices outside Africa geared towards the promotion of
the pedagogical competence of lecturers are presented in the ensuing paragraphs for possible purpose of
benchmarking.

According to Henard & Roseveare (2012), the Catholic University of Portugal has in place a strategic plan
geared towards making the university to become “a university of teaching and learning of recognized quality”.
The strategic plan among others stipulates the following goals: among others:
• Ensure high level of pedagogical innovation.
• Develop and implement a skills Development Plan teaching of lecturers (e.g., linking objectives, strategies
and pedagogical evaluation, coordination of teaching in attendance and technological contexts).
• Drawing upon external evaluations and consultancy for promoting quality teaching.
• Fostering the use of internal evaluation and prompting institutional research in pedagogical models and
conceptions of teaching and learning.
• Developing policies on recognition and reward of innovative and effective teaching.
Each year, the university organizes awards for excellence in teaching and awards for teaching excellence
have gradually gained recognition of the same value as those of research. In addition the university keeps
their lecturers on track for pedagogical competence by organizing the following:
o Provide an effective venue for discussions and experience sharing on teaching and learning practices
(e.g., a Learning and Teaching Center).
o Encourage peer evaluation, constructive feedback and coaching as ongoing practices to foster a
“learning community” approach to quality teaching.
o Monitor the effectiveness of professional development through its impact on teaching quality.
o Identify champions of teaching excellence, examine what makes their teaching excellent, publicize
their accomplishment and use them as role models.

According to Henard (2008), at the Universidad Nacional del Nordeste (Argentina), the first institutional self -
evaluations revealed a major weakness regarding teacher training. Consequently, the university created two
programmes to promote continuous training (open to all staff of courses). Henard also highlight the fact that at
Dublin University of Technology,there is a programme of mandatory training for lecturers during their first two
years. Similarly, at City University of Seattle, institutional quality teaching initiatives primarily target newly
recruited lecturers and part-time lecturers (Henard 2008). Henard also report that at Macquarie University,
Australia, as a result of the performance Culture of Teaching Project, criteria for promotion at the various
academic levels of appointment have been developed based on minimum level of experience, skills and
knowledge expected at each level. The criteria specify the form and level of contribution a lecturer can be
expected to make at each level to the three elements of scholarship: research, learning and teaching and
community engagement. In the case of adjunct staff and staff from the corporate world, Macquarie uses
orientation programmes and staff manuals to help them provide teaching of an equivalent quality to that of full
time staff (Henard 2008).

COPYRIGHT @ JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL AND INSTRUCTIONAL STUDIES IN THE WORLD 81

 JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL AND INSTRUCTIONAL STUDIES
IN THE WORLD
August 2013, Volume: 3 Issue: 3 Article: 12
ISSN: 2146-7463

Furthermore, Henard & Roseveare (2012) point out that each year, Universite Laval in Canada organizes the
University Awards for Excellence in Teaching through which Faculty members are honored for their exceptional
teaching or for the production of high quality educational materials.

In the same vein, Tagerud (2012) confirms that competence development in pedagogy for higher education is
now offered at all Swedish universities and colleges and the activities in that context make up an important
part of the work of promoting pedagogical competence.

As a way forward for universities in Africa with respect to the promotion of pedagogical competences amongst
lecturers, one finds Henard & Leprince – Ringuet (2008) very relevant in their observation that: one of the most
foreseeable evolutions in the future of higher education lies within globalization. This rapid process bears many
consequences on higher education worldwide. “In many nations, international mobility; global comparison,
benchmarking and ranking; and the internationalisation of institutions and system; are key policy themes
(OECD, 2007)”. “Not all universities are (particularly) international, but all are subject to the same processes of
globalisation – partly as objects, victims even of these processes, but partly as subjects, or key agents of
globalisation” (Scott, 1998). Therefore, all higher educational institutions should develop a coherent response to
globalization. “To be effective in the global environment, means being prepared to changes: Global exchange is
transformative and all policies and institutional habits are ripe for reconsideration in the light of global
challenge” (OECD, 2007). This may, in particular mean that institutions may have to think over what should be
taught, or how classes should be taught.

REFERENCES

Ahlberg, A. (2008). Teaching and Learning in hard science research environments: views of academic and
education developers. Higher Education Research & Development, 27(2), 133-142.

Ajibade, Y.A., Oloyede, E.O., Adeleke, M.A., Awopetu, E.O. (2010). Lecturers’ views on and Attitudes to
Pedagogical Skills Training: Obafemi Awolowo University as a case study.Review of Higher Education in Africa.
Vol. 2 No 1. October.

Antman, L. & Olsson, T. (2007). A two –Dimensional Matrix Model for Analysing Scholarly Approaches to
Teaching and Learning. In Rust, C. (Ed) Improving Student Learning Through Teaching, The Oxford Centre for
Staff and Learning Development.

Apelgren, K. & Giertz, B. (2010). “Pedagogical Competence –A key to Pedagogical Devcelopment and Quality in
Higher Education”. In Ryegard, A., Apelgreen, K. & Olsson, T. (2010). A Swedish Perspective on Pedagogical
Competence.Division for Development of Teaching and Learning. Uppsala University.

Aregbeyen, O. (2010). Students Perception of Effective Teaching and Effective Lecturer Characteristics at the
University of Ibadan, Nigeria. Pakistan Journal of Social Sciences. 7 (2): 62-69.

Biggs, J. (2003).Teaching for Quality Learning at University. London: Open University Press.

Boyer, E.L.(1990). Scholarship Reconsidered. Priorities of the Professoriate. The Carnegie foundation.

Chireshe, R. (2011). Effective and Ineffective Lecturers: University Students’ Perspective in Zimbabwe.
Anthropologist, 13(4):265-269.

Devlin, M. & Samarawickrema, G. (2010). The criteria of effective teaching in a changing higher education
context. Higher Education Research & Development. Vol. 29, No 2, April 2010, 111-124.

COPYRIGHT @ JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL AND INSTRUCTIONAL STUDIES IN THE WORLD 82

 JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL AND INSTRUCTIONAL STUDIES
IN THE WORLD
August 2013, Volume: 3 Issue: 3 Article: 12
ISSN: 2146-7463

Devlin, M. (2007a August). Conception of effective teaching in tertiary education: Institutional and Individual
influences. Keynote address at Excellence in Education and Training Convention, Singapore Polytechnic,
Singapore.

Fleming, S., Shire, J., Jones, D., McNamee, M., & Pill, A. (2004). Continuing professional development:
suggestions for effective practice. Journal of Further and Higher Education, 28(2), 165-177.

Giertz, B.(2003). Att bedoma pedagogisk skicklighet –gar det? Uppsala: Rapportserie fran Avdelningen for
utveckling av pedagogic och interaktivt larande, Uppsala univ. UPI:2.

Goody, A. (2007). Report on the survey of foundations of university teaching programs. Unpublished: Preparing
Academics to Teach in Higher Education (PATHE). A Project funded by the Carrick Institute for Learning and
Teaching in Higher Education.

Guba, E.G.(1982). Epistemological and Methodological bases of naturalistic inquiry. Educational

Communication and Technology- A journal of Theory, 30:233-252.

Henard, F, & Ringuet, L.S. (2008). The Path to Quality Teaching in Higher Education. Institutional Management
for Higher Education. OECD.

Henard, F.(2008). Learning our Lesson: Review of Quality Teaching in Higher Education. Institutional
Management in Higher Education. OECD.

Henard, F., & Roseveare, D. (2012). Fostering Quality Teaching in Higher Education: Policies and Practices.
Institutional Management in Higher Education(IMHE). An IMHE Guide for Higher Institutions.

Hodkinson, S. & Taylor, A. (2002). Initiation rites:the case of new lecturers, Innovations in Education and
Teaching International, 39(4), 256-264.

Hussain, S., Sarwar, M., Khan, M.N., Khan, M.I. (2010). Faculty Development Program for University Teachers:
Trainee’s Perception of Success. European Journal of Scientific Research. Vol. 44, No. 2, pp253-257.

Institutional Management in Higher Education (2009). Review on quality teaching in higher education.
Presented at “what works” Conference on Quality Teaching. Instabul Technical University, 12-13 October.

Latchem, C. , Odabasi, F.H., Kabasi, I. (2006). Online Professional Development for University Teaching in
Turkey: A Proposal. The Turkish Online Journal of Educational Technology. Vol. 5. Issue 3 Article 4.

Machingambi, S. & Wadesango, N. (2011). University Lecturers’ Perception of Students Evaluation of Their
Instructional Practices. Anthropologist, 13(3):167-174.

Magin, D.J. (1998). Rewarding good teaching: A matter of demonstrated proficiency or documented
achievement? The International Journal for Academic Development, 3(2):124-135.

Malik, A.M. (2009). Developments in Teaching, Learning and Assessment Practices in Higher Education :A Self
Explanatory Approach. Pakistan Journal of Social Sciences(PJSS). Vol 29, No. 1. June, pp1-11.

Mamdani, M. (2007). Scholars in the market place: Dilemmas of Neo-liberal Reform at Makerere University
(1989 -2005). Kampala: Fountain Publishers.

Marton, F., Hounsell, D., & Entwistle, N.(1984). The Experience of Learning, Edinburg: Scottish Academic Press.

Mosha, H.J. (1986). Towards a Comprehensive Model For Staff Development in African Universities. Utafiti vol
VIII, No 2. Journal of Arts and Social Sciences, Univrsity of Dar es Salaam.

COPYRIGHT @ JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL AND INSTRUCTIONAL STUDIES IN THE WORLD 83

 JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL AND INSTRUCTIONAL STUDIES
IN THE WORLD
August 2013, Volume: 3 Issue: 3 Article: 12
ISSN: 2146-7463

Mugimu, C.B. & Ezati, B.A. (2010). Possibilities and Challenges of providing Continuous Professional
Development in Pedagogy for Higher Education Staff in Africa: A case study of Makarere University.
Comparative & International Higher Education 2.

Nwaboku, N. (1996). Enhancing Instructional Competence in Higher Education: A Study of Pedagogical needs in
Some African Universities. Higher Education Unit.UNESCO-DAKAR.

Nwogu, S.(2013). Some Lecturers can’t communicate well. The Punch. Tuesday , July 23.p48.

Oldsjo, F.(2010). “Some Thoughts From A Pedagogical Expert”. In Ryegard, A., Apelgreen, K., & Olsson, T.
(2010). A Swidish Perspective on Pedagogical Competence. Division for Development of Teaching and
Learning. Uppsala University.

Olsson, T., Martensson, K., Roxa, T. (2010). “Pedagogical Competence – A Development Perspective From Lund
University”. In Ryegard, A., Apelgreen, K., & Olsson, T. (2010). A Swidish Perspective on Pedagogical
Competence. Division for Development of Teaching and Learning. Uppsala University.

Okwakol, M.J.N.(2009). The Need for Transformative Strategic Planning in Universities in Uganda. NCHE
Journal. Kampala.

Paton, M.O.(1990). Qualitative Evaluation and Research Methods. Newbury Park: Sage and Paul Chapman
Publishing.

Postareff, L., Ylanne, S.L., Nevgi, A. (2007). The effect of pedagogical training on teaching in higher education.
Teaching and Teacher Education. 23, 557-571.

Prosser, M. & Trigwell, K (1998). Understanding Learning and Teaching: The experience in Higher Education.
London: Open University Press.

Prostareff, L.L., & Neugi, A. (2007). The effect of pedagogical training on teaching in higher education. Teaching
and Teacher Education, 23,557-571.

Ramsden, P. (1992). Learning to Teach in Higher Education, London: Routledge.

Ryegard, A. (2008). En ny karriarvag for hogskolans larare. Vasteras: Malardalens hogoskola.

Ryegard, A., Apelgren, K. & Olsson, T. (2010). A Swedish Perspective on Pedagigical Competence. Uppsala
University. Division for Development of Teaching and Learning. April.

Scott, P. (1998). Massification, Internalisation and Globalisation of Higher Education, in Scott, P. (Ed), The
Globalisation of Higher Education, SHRE/Open University Press, Buckingham.

Slavin, R.E. (1996). Research on cooperative learning and achievement: What we know, what we need to know,
Contemporary Educational Psychology, 21, pp.43-68.

Smaling, A.(1994). Course material for the qualitative Methodology- Winter Schol. Pretoria: HSRC.

Stes, A., Clement, M., & Van Petergem, P. (2007). The effectiveness of a faculty training programme: Long-term
and institutional impact. International journal for Academic Development, 12(2), 99-109.

Tagerud, Y. (2010). “Pedagogical Competence- Experiences From An Institution in the Process of being
Merged”. In Ryegard, A., Apelgreen, K., & Olsson, T. (2010). A Swidish Perspective on Pedagogical Competence.
Division for Development of Teaching and Learning. Uppsala University.

COPYRIGHT @ JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL AND INSTRUCTIONAL STUDIES IN THE WORLD 84

 JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL AND INSTRUCTIONAL STUDIES
IN THE WORLD
August 2013, Volume: 3 Issue: 3 Article: 12
ISSN: 2146-7463

Tynan, B.R., & Gabett, D.L.(2007). Negotiating the university culture: collaborative voices of new academics.
Higher Education Research & Development, 26(4), 411-424.

Uppsala Universitet. (2006). Assessing Teaching Skills, Broschyr.

Wadesango, N. & Machinganmbi, S. (2011). What’s the use of Induction Courses? A case Study of Three South
African Universities. Journal of Social Sciences, 26(1): 1-9.

Winka, K. (2010). “Ways to increase the value of Pedagogical Competence”. In Ryegard, A., Apelgreen, K., &
Olsson, T. (2010). A Swidish Perspective on Pedagogical Competence. Division for Development of Teaching
and Learning. Uppsala University.

COPYRIGHT @ JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL AND INSTRUCTIONAL STUDIES IN THE WORLD 85

 JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL AND INSTRUCTIONAL STUDIES
IN THE WORLD
August 2013, Volume: 3 Issue: 3 Article: 13
ISSN: 2146-7463

OPEN EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO BIOLOGY TEACHING

AND RESEARCH AID IN ETHIOPIA

Sanjoy Kumar Pal

School of Animal & Range Sciences
Haramaya University, Dire Dawa, ETHIOPIA
[email protected]

Dr. Manas Ranjan Panigrahi

Department of Educational Planning and Management
College of Education and Behavioural Sciences
Haramaya University, Dire Dawa, ETHIOPIA
[email protected]

Abstract
Information and Communication Technology (ICT) is now playing an important role to support teaching and
dissemination of knowledge. ICT has virtually revolutionized the teaching and learning process globally.
Ethiopia has witnessed the development of ICTs in various sectors over the last decade including education.
With the spread of Internet it is now possible to assess all kinds of teaching and research information of
unbelievable proportions. Internet now provides a variety of resources for all users. Although the classroom
lectures continue to be used as the primary method of teaching biology. The lectures that used to be primarily
chalk and blackboard have now started incorporating multimedia resources to enhance teaching and
complement demonstration. Video presentation makes it easier to explain complicated topics in biology. It is
now possible to show many real time action & reactions and three-dimensional models of atoms and molecules
moving freely in space. Though Internet offers rich sources of potential teaching aid that can be used to
enhance the classroom teaching, it is often too challenging for anyone to filter out the high quality useful
information from the Internet. Special skills are required to fish out required information from the Internet. In
this article some useful websites that provide quality information on biology and which may aid in the e-
learning process are discussed. In the coming year’s ICT is going to play a key role in enhancing and providing
sustainable quality education in schools and colleges in Ethiopia. Hence, urgent attention should be given to
strengthen the infrastructure facilities, training of teachers and implementation of ICT-related teaching models
that encourage learning processes by use of ICT. Emphasis must also be placed on the pedagogy beside the use
of ICT.

Key Words: Biology Teaching Resources, e-learning, Ethiopia, ICT, OER.

INTRODUCTION

Science educators and school science teachers have been continuously looking for ways to create environment
for active learning – in which, students’ attention is captured and their minds are engaged (Lin et al., 2002).
After the advent of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) the teaching and learning process has
virtually got revolutionized globally. ICT is now playing an important role for the dissemination of sustainable
quality education worldwide. Information ICT is defined as a diverse set of technological tools and resources
used to communicate, create, disseminate, store, and manage information. These technologies include
computers, the Internet, broadcasting technologies (radio and television), and telephone (Blurton, 2002).

With the wide spread use of ICT, the most beneficent end-users are mainly the students and teachers. Variety
of information on any subject is now freely available on the Internet. With some basic knowledge of how to
navigate the Internet one can have access to any kind of information. Gathering of new information that would

COPYRIGHT @ JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL AND INSTRUCTIONAL STUDIES IN THE WORLD 86

 JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL AND INSTRUCTIONAL STUDIES
IN THE WORLD
August 2013, Volume: 3 Issue: 3 Article: 13
ISSN: 2146-7463

have taken days of library search earlier can now be done in matter of minutes using the Internet (Pal et al.,
2001). Nobody can deny that the deployment of information technology has profoundly altered not only the
way we live and work today but also our reading and learning experience (Panigrahi, 2011). A new way of
learning experience that has emerged with Internet is the Virtual Learning Environment (VLEs). The VLEs today
include a plethora of alternative teaching spaces including, Internet based courses (Ferguson and Wijekumar,
2000), tele-conferencing courses and virtual reality courses. The common link for all environments is that
students come to a ‘place’, or use a technology to link them to a place to acquire new knowledge (Peat, 2000).

The potential of ICT in secondary biology teaching is enormous, although it is a huge undertaking and fairly
daunting to newcomers (Peat and Fernandez, 2000). Computer learning packages and the web can offer a
variety of opportunities for learning, ranging from non-interactive content to highly interactive student-centred
learning experience. Biology teaching has been deeply changing with ICT (Lombard, 2008). There is a plethora
of media and multimedia resources available that can be used in the lecture classroom to enhance teaching
and complement demonstrations and other teaching aid (Francis, 2000). However, the field of information
technology is so new and changing so speedily that one has to update himself/herself regularly to keep pace
with this fast changing world. Moreover, the Internet is like an ocean and without proper navigational skills one
is likely to get lost.

The use of ICT in African countries is increasing and dramatically growing (Adeyinka et al., 2007). Ethiopia has
witnessed the development of ICTs in various sectors over the last decade including education. Overcoming all
constraints ICT is likely to penetrate all schools and colleges of the country. Hence, urgent attention should be
given to train teachers and professionals to support ICT-related teaching models. In this article information is
provided on some basic Internet navigation tools, useful teaching resources, and some miscellaneous
information that can help teachers, researcher and students of biology.

METHOD

The information was collected by using the internet service provided by Haramaya University.

Navigating The Internet

The Internet is a large, worldwide network of interconnected computers. It consists of several communication
media, the best known of which is the World Wide Web. The principal communication protocol of the Internet
is TCP/IP (Transmission control protocol/internet protocol), developed in the 1970s by the US Department of
Defence. It was designed to connect networks of different vendors into a “network of networks” [The Internet]
(Pal et al., 2001). The World Wide Web referred to as www is one interesting and popular development. It
offers user-friendly access to million of pages of information on computer all over the world. It is now possible
to link our computer to computer/s all around the world through Internet. Sitting at a computer terminal in a
remote part of the world, one can search for virtually any information of interest from all over the world.
However, because of the enormous content of the World Wide Web, it is important to know how to search the
web effectively to avoid wasting of time. Three things are important to perform a successful search: i.) Web
browser, ii.) Search engine, iii.) Download managers.

i) Web browser: Commonly referred to as a browser is a software application for retrieving, presenting and
traversing information resources on the World Wide Web. An information resource is identified by a
Uniform Resource Identifier (URI) and may be a web page, image, video or other piece of content.
Hyperlinks present in resources enable users easily to navigate their browsers to related resources. A web
browser can also be defined as an application software or program designed to enable users to access,
retrieve and view documents and other resources on the Internet. The major web browsers are Chrome,
Firefox, Internet Explorer, Opera, and Safari.

ii) Search Engine: A search engine is an information retrieval system designed to help find information stored
on a computer system. The information may be a specialist in web pages, images, information and other
types of files. The search results are usually presented in a list and are commonly called hits. Search
engines help to minimize the time required to find information and the amount of information which must

COPYRIGHT @ JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL AND INSTRUCTIONAL STUDIES IN THE WORLD 87

 JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL AND INSTRUCTIONAL STUDIES
IN THE WORLD
August 2013, Volume: 3 Issue: 3 Article: 13
ISSN: 2146-7463

be consulted. Some search engines also mine data available in databases or open directories. The most
popular search engines are Google, Yahoo, Baidu, Bing, Rediff etc.

iii) Download Managers: A download manager is a computer program dedicated to the task of downloading
(and sometimes uploading) possibly unrelated stand-alone files from (and sometimes to) the Internet for
storage. Some download managers can also be used to accelerate download speeds by downloading from
multiple sources at once. Although web browsers may have download managers incorporated as a feature,
they are differentiated by the fact that they do not prioritize accurate, complete and unbroken downloads
of information. There comes a time when you are downloading a large file and the download stops part of
the way through. If you are using the Windows download applet there is nothing you can do about it; you
will just have to start again. A good download manager will allow you to resume the download, picking up
where it left off. Good download managers also allow you to start several concurrent download sessions
from available resources for the one file. This works by splitting the file into parts with each part
downloaded at the same time from multiple or mirrored resources. At the end the file is re-assembled, by
joining all the pieces by the download managers. Some popular download managers are Internet
Download Manager (IDM), Download Accelerator Plus, Download Express, FlashGet, GetGo, Orbit
Downloader. Information of freely available download managers can be obtained from:
[http://www.techsupportalert.com/best-free-download-manager.htm].

The easiest way to fish out the desired information from the internet is to obtain the exact Uniform Resource
Locator (URL). If one knows the address for a particular website, the same can be typed into the location box of
the browser and the user will automatically be connected to the correct site. Most of the time, however, the
exact address will be unknown. In this case, a search engine can be used. We have searched the internet and
found many interesting websites that may be useful for biology teachers and students; a list is given in table.

Table 1: Web addresses of interesting sites

Biology http://biology.slss.ie/
Biology Online http://www.biology-online.org/
Biology Corner http://www.biologycorner.com/
The Biology Project http://www.biology.arizona.edu/
Principles of Molecular Biology http://bbruner.org/107main.htm
Human Biology http://www.teachingideas.co.uk/science/contents_humans.htm
Biology Junction http://www.biologyjunction.com/
Biology Education Online: http://www.accessexcellence.org/LC/BEOn/aboutbeon.php
Biology Animation Library http://www.dnalc.org/resources/animations/
DNA Today http://www.dnalc.org/resources/dnatoday/index.html
DNA Learning Centre http://www.dnalc.org/resources/
Biology Spark Notes http://www.sparknotes.com/biology/
Biology Cliff Notes http://www.cliffsnotes.com/study_guide/Biology.topicArticleId-
8741.html
IB Biology Notes http://www.ibguides.com/biology/home
Free Biology Video http://www.learnerstv.com/Free-Biology-video-lecture-courses.htm
Biology Video Clips http://www.goldiesroom.org/video_archive.htm
Online Biology Video Lessons http://www.brightstorm.com/science/biology/
ocw.mit.edu/courses/biology/7-012-introduction-to-biology-fall-2004/video-lectures/
http://www.youtube.com/playlist?list=PL7A750281106CD067
Biology Video Lecture http://freevideolectures.com/Course/2548/Biology
Biology Resource Page http://www.learnerstv.com/biology.php
Biology Lecture [PPt] http://www.curriki.org/
Teachers Network http://teachersnetwork.org/?gclid=CPP27PXahbYCFa9aMgodQxQAwA
Biology Learning Guide http://www.shmoop.com/biology/
Biology Teaching & Learning http://www.biology-resources.com/
Association for Biology Teacher http://www.nabt.org/websites/institution/index.php?p=38
Resource for teaching Biology http://www.csun.edu/science/biology/index.html

COPYRIGHT @ JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL AND INSTRUCTIONAL STUDIES IN THE WORLD 88

 JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL AND INSTRUCTIONAL STUDIES
IN THE WORLD
August 2013, Volume: 3 Issue: 3 Article: 13
ISSN: 2146-7463

Practical Biology http://www.nuffieldfoundation.org/practical-biology

Biology Teacher Resource Bank http://store.aqa.org.uk/qual/gce/pdf/AQA-2410-W-TRB-RL.PDF
Human Biology Resources http://store.aqa.org.uk/qual/gce/pdf/AQA-2405-W-TRB-RL.PDF
BioDIDAC Digital Resources http://biodidac.bio.uottawa.ca/

Wikipedia: http://www.wikipedia.org
Wikipedia is a multilingual, web-based, free-content encyclopaedia project operated by the Wikimedia
Foundation and based on an openly editable model. The name "Wikipedia" is a portmanteau of the words wiki
(a technology for creating collaborative websites, from the Hawaiian word wiki, meaning "quick") and
encyclopaedia. Wikipedia's articles provide links to guide the user to related pages with additional information.
Wikipedia is written collaboratively by largely anonymous Internet volunteers who write without pay. Anyone
with Internet access can write and make changes to Wikipedia articles, except in limited cases where editing is
restricted to prevent disruption or vandalism. Users can contribute anonymously, or with their real identity.
Since its creation in 2001, Wikipedia has grown rapidly into one of the largest reference websites, attracting
470 million unique visitors monthly as of February 2012. There are more than 77,000 active contributors
working on over 22,000,000 articles in 285 languages. As of today, there are 4,186,541 articles in English. Every
day, hundreds of thousands of visitors from around the world collectively make tens of thousands of edits and
create thousands of new articles to augment the knowledge held by the Wikipedia encyclopaedia.

YouTube: http://www.youtube.com
YouTube is a video-sharing website, created by three former PayPal employees in February 2005, on which
users can upload, view and share videos. The company is based in San Bruno, California, and uses Adobe Flash
Video and HTML5 technology to display a wide variety of user-generated video content, including movie clips,
TV clips, and music videos, as well as amateur content such as video blogging, short original videos, and most
importantly educational videos. Most of the content on YouTube has been uploaded by individuals, although
media corporations including CBS, BBC, National Geography, History Channel, VEVO, Hulu, and other
organizations offer some of their material via the site, as part of the YouTube partnership program. In
November 2006, YouTube, LLC was bought by Google, and now operates as a subsidiary of Google.

Digital Video Resources

A variety of different video-based technologies are available over the internet. Most of them offer the ability to
view short compressed film sequences as well as computer-based animation (Francis, 2000). Most of the video
players are user-friendly and offer several different display options. Popular formats include: Moving Picture
TM ® ®
Expert Group (MPEG), QUICKTIME (Apple’s video player; it has a Windows version), Video for Window
format (AVI); K-Multimedia Player (KMP), a Korean media player software that runs on Microsoft Windows.
Each video player play files in its own format.

DATABASES

Databases may contain bibliographic, factual/statistical information or images. Data is usually accessed by
searching for a specific term or selecting from a browseable menu. Many bibliographic databases require a
subscription, but there are some free ones. Here are some site addresses of Bibliographic Databases:

Biology Digest: http://www.csa.com/factsheets/biodig-set-c.php

Biology Digest is a compilation of abstracts and indexes of domestic and international literature in the area of
life sciences. Made available by ProQuest-CSA, this database aims to keep students, academics, and
researchers aware of the latest developments in biological research. Subscription required.

Zoological Record: http://scientific.thomson.com/products/zr/

Zoological Record is a database of animal biology with coverage that extends back to 1864. Its scope of
coverage represents every area of animal biology from biodiversity and the environment, to taxonomy and
veterinary sciences. Zoological Record covers 5,000 serials and other sources of information including books,
reports, and meetings. Subscription required.

COPYRIGHT @ JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL AND INSTRUCTIONAL STUDIES IN THE WORLD 89

 JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL AND INSTRUCTIONAL STUDIES
IN THE WORLD
August 2013, Volume: 3 Issue: 3 Article: 13
ISSN: 2146-7463

UK PubMed Central: http://ukpmc.ac.uk/

UKPMC is a free-to-access online digital archive of full-text, peer-reviewed research publications in the
biomedical and life sciences journal literature. Fully searchable and provides context-sensitive links to other
online resources, such as gene and chemical compound databases.

American Society for Cell Biology: Image & Video Library: http://cellimages.ascb.org/
The Image & Video Library (IVL) is an extensive collection of peer-reviewed cell images, videos, and digitised
texts. This free educational resource is published by the American Society for Cell Biology.

Biology Animation Library: http://www.dnalc.org/ddnalc/resources/animations.html

Made available by the Dolan DNA Learning Center, this collection of animations features some of the most
common molecular processes such as PCR, sequencing, and DNA restriction. Available for viewing online or
download to your computer.

Professional Associations and Societies:

Many key national and international organisations, learned societies, and research bodies have websites, which
contain useful information, guidance, reports, and other key materials. Here are some site addresses of
Professional Associations and Societies:

Tropical Biology Association: http://tropical-biology.org/

The TBA is a non-governmental, non-profit organisation working in partnership with environmental institutions
throughout the Africa region.

British Society for Cell Biology: http://www.bscb.org/

The BSCB aims to promote and advance research in all branches of cell biology and encourages the interchange
of information.

European Molecular Biology Organization (EMBO): http://www.embo.org/about_embo/

A membership organisation of leading researchers in Europe representing a cross-section of the life sciences
community.

American Society for Microbiology: http://www.asm.org/

The ASM is the world’s largest scientific society of individuals interested in the microbiological sciences.

Institute of Biology: http://www.iob.org/

The Institute of Biology (IOB) is the professional body representing UK biologists with a membership of more
than 14,000.

The Genetics Society: http://www.genetics.org.uk/

The Genetics Society has more than 2,000 members, consisting of most of the UK's active professional
geneticists, including teachers, researchers, and students. Industry and publishing are also well represented in
their membership.

British Society for Immunology: http://www.immunology.org/

The British Society for Immunology (BSI) website provides resources for both practitioners of immunology and
the wider public.

INFORMATION & COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY AND SCIENCE EDUCATION

The challenge for science teacher educators is to develop pedagogies and employ technologies which embraces
‘communities of practice’ as core to both science practice and teacher learning (Duncan and Chandler, 2011).
The global change in science curriculum arising from knowledge explosion and new wave in science and
technology development demands for qualitative science teaching (Joseph and Joy, 2011). The change calls for
the provision and utilization of resources which tend to enhance the effective teaching and learning of science.

COPYRIGHT @ JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL AND INSTRUCTIONAL STUDIES IN THE WORLD 90

 JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL AND INSTRUCTIONAL STUDIES
IN THE WORLD
August 2013, Volume: 3 Issue: 3 Article: 13
ISSN: 2146-7463

The classroom lectures continues to be used as the primary method of teaching biology (Francis, 2000). Lecture
styles that incorporate a variety of innovative teaching methods are essential if one is going to gain the
attention of students raised in our media-saturated culture. There is a plethora of media and multimedia
resources available that can be used in the lecture classroom to enhance teaching and complement
demonstrations and other teaching aids. Most of the material can be accessed free of charge or for a small
registration fee.

Introductory biology instruction often involves some reference to the atomic-molecular level of life. Many
students in introductory courses have difficulty visualizing the three-dimensional shape of atoms and
molecules, especially if the students’ exposure is limited to two-dimensional stick drawings and figures. When
students can visualize three-dimensional models of atoms and molecules moving freely in space, they gain a
greater appreciation for how they make up biological structures. Obviously, hands-on models work well, but for
the lecture classroom molecular viewers offer a great advantage over chalkboard drawings (Francis, 2000).

Internet now offers a unique opportunity for distance learning and professional development for teachers. It
can also aid in online in-service education and training (INSET) activities. Study carried out in Turkey suggest
that with online INSET activities, especially time and place dependency can be overcome, and accommodation
and transportation issues can be resolved. Teachers feel that online INSET activities can promote effective use
of resources (Kokoc et al., 2011). Moreover, it has been found that teleconferences can motivate teacher to
develop teaching-learning materials (Panigrahi, 2012).

CHALLENGES OF ICT IMPLEMENTATION

th th
In the 18 century we had the agrarian revolution; the industrial revolution followed in the 19 century, in the
th
20 century came the technology revolution, and now starting of this millennium we have the information
revolution. In the past few years with the use of ICTs in education there has being a paradigm shift from the
teacher-centred education system to learner centred education the world over (Baggotta et al., 1997).
However, while there is a great deal of knowledge about how ICTs are being used in developed countries, there
is limited information on how ICTs are being introduced into schools in developing countries (Adeyinka et al.,
2007). Though there are many hurdles to overcome, ICT use in education is at a particularly dynamic stage in
Africa; new developments and announcements are happening on a daily basis somewhere on the continent
(Farrell and Isaacs, 2007).

Encountering different challenges Ethiopia has made the development of information and communications
technology one of its strategic priorities. The ICT policy is a demonstration of its commitment to the
development of ICT both as an industry and as an enabler of socio-economic transformation (FDRE, 2005). To
counter the significant educational challenges from primary through tertiary level the government has
undertaken different programs and strategies to bring educational reforms in the country (Wakgari et al.,
2013). ICT is one such approach that may bring drastic change in the way which education is delivered. The
effective integration of ICTs into the educational system is still a complex and multifaceted process. However,
once the various challenges like infrastructure, curriculum and pedagogy, capacity-building, language and
teacher competencies are overcome ICT will play a key role in enhancing and providing sustainable quality
education in schools and colleges in Ethiopia.

CONCLUSION

ICT has radically changed the way the science (biology) is taught in the developed world. The Internet is
providing tremendous resources for science educators, it is now possible to get software, multimedia
technology, and establish communication links with libraries and teacher from all over the world. ICT could
provide sustainable quality education in schools and colleges throughout Ethiopia. As ICT can help to make
lecture more interesting, challenging and thought provoking, will thus promote positive student outcome. If
the future generation of students receives high-quality knowledge in science can set the stage for rapid
scientific development in the country. Hence, urgent attention should be given to support ICT-related teaching
models that encourage both students and teachers to play an active role in teaching/learning activities.

COPYRIGHT @ JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL AND INSTRUCTIONAL STUDIES IN THE WORLD 91

 JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL AND INSTRUCTIONAL STUDIES
IN THE WORLD
August 2013, Volume: 3 Issue: 3 Article: 13
ISSN: 2146-7463

Acknowledgement: We like to acknowledge the internet service provided by Haramaya University.

PS: One note of caution is that internet addresses are subject to change. This is very frustrating. There are two
things one can do if the internet address of a particular resource has changed. Try using the incorrect address
anyway since it may lead to the correct address, or use a search engine to locate the new URL. It may be also
possible that the server of the particular website can be temporarily down for maintenance.

REFERENCES

Baggotta, L.; Nicholb, J. and Ellisonc, P. (1997). Educational Informatics for the Biology Teacher. J Biol Edu, Vol.
31: 189-196.

Blurton, C. (2002). New Direction of ICT use in Education, Available online: http://www.unesco.org.

Duncan, J.C. and Chandler, P.D. (2011). A Community of Practice for Early Career Biology Teacher: Social
Networking and Digital Technologies. Paper presented at the Contemporary Approaches to Research in
Mathematics, Science, Health and Environmental Education, Deakin University, Burwood, Victoria. http://acu-
au.academia.edu/PaulChandler/Digital-Pedagogy (Retrieved on 14.03.2013).

Farrell, G and Isaacs S. Survey of ICT and Education in Africa: A Summary Report, Based on 53 Country Surveys.
2007.Washington, DC: infoDev / World Bank.
http://www.infodev.org/en/Publication.353.html (Retrieved on 20.03.2013).

FDRE (2005). Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia: ICT policy (draft), Addis Ababa.

Ferguson, L. and Wijekumar, K. (2000). Effective Design and Use of Web-based Distance Education
Environments. Professional Safety, Vol. 45(12), 28-33.

Francis, J.W. (2000). Use of Internet Resources in the Biology Lecture Classroom. The American Biology Teacher,
Vol. 62(2), 90–93.

Kokoc, M.; Ozlu, A.; Cimer, A. and Karal, H. (2011). Teachers' Views on the Potential Use of Online In-service
Education and Training Activities. Turkish Online Journal of Distance Education-TOJDE, Vol. 12(4), 68–87.

Lin, C.; Cheng, Y.; Chang, Y. and Hu, R. (2002). The use of Internet-based Learning in Biology. Innovations in
Education and Teaching International (IETI), Vol. 39, 237–242.

Lombard, F. (2008). Information Technology (IT) to Change Biology Teaching or Teaching IT-changed Biology.
http://tecfa.unige.ch/perso/lombardf/publications/bioed-dijon-08/lombard-dijon-08-texte.pdf (Retrieved on
14.03.2013).

Obomanu, B.J. and Akporehwe, J. (2011). Resources for Teaching Secondary School Biology in Bayelsa State of
Nigeria. Information and Knowledge Management, Vol. 1, 28-35.

Pal, S.K.; Nazir, A.; Mukhopadhya, I.; Saxena, D.K. and Chowdhuri, D.K. (2001). Internet: A Major Resource for
Toxicologist. Indian Journal of Experimental Biology, Vol. 39, 1207-1213.

Pal, S.K.; Singh, M.K.; Pandey, G.S. and Mittal, B. (2001). Internet Resources for Human Geneticist. Indian
Journal of Experimental Biology, Vol. 39, 503–510.

Panigrahi, M.R. (2011). Perception of Teachers’ Towards Extensive Utilization of Information and
Communication Technology. Turkish Online Journal of Distance Education-TOJDE, Vol. 12(4), 45–57.

COPYRIGHT @ JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL AND INSTRUCTIONAL STUDIES IN THE WORLD 92

 JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL AND INSTRUCTIONAL STUDIES
IN THE WORLD
August 2013, Volume: 3 Issue: 3 Article: 13
ISSN: 2146-7463

Panigrahi, M.R. (2012). Capacity Building of Teachers through Distance Mode Using Teleconferencing as an
Innovative Tool. Turkish Online Journal of Distance Education-TOJDE, Vol. 13(2), 256–266.

Peat, M. and Fernandez, A. (2000). The Role of Information Technology in Biology Education: An Australian
Perspective. Journal of Biological Education, Vol. 34(2), 69-73.

Peat, M. (2000). Towards First Year Biology Online: A Virtual Learning Environment. Educational & Society, Vol.
3(3). http://www.ifets.info/journals/3_3/b06.html (Retrieved on 14.03.2013).

Wakgari, T.; Sani, D. and Panigrahi, M.R. (2013). Information Communication Technology for Educational
Quality: Challenges, Prospects in Ethiopian Context. Turkish Online Journal of Distance Education-TOJDE, Vol. 14
(Accepted for publication, April issue).

COPYRIGHT @ JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL AND INSTRUCTIONAL STUDIES IN THE WORLD 93

 JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL AND INSTRUCTIONAL STUDIES
IN THE WORLD
August 2013, Volume: 3 Issue: 3 Article: 14
ISSN: 2146-7463

INVESTIGATING ROLES OF THE HEALTHY EYES DURING PROBLEMATIC READING

Behnam Behfrouz
Applied-Science University
Motahary Martyr Street
Joghatay City, Khorasan Razavi Province, IRAN
[email protected]

Abstract
This study investigated the role of eyes during reading. In this case 20 intermediate EFL learners have been
selected and some minimal pair words had been exercised with them before the final reading. The results of
the study revealed that in some situations learners without psychological pressure, brain lesions, and eye
problems read the words in context in a wrong manner.

Key Words: Minimal pair words, reading problems, Healthy eyes.

INTRODUCTION

Most of the time some problems in reading happen through brain impairments (Cherney, 2004). Both left-
hemisphere and right hemisphere damages cause deficiencies in recognition of correct words via reading or
writing. Sometimes the problems of word recognition in not on the basis of brain damages but originating from
some psychological factors like stress, place of reading, reading within a small community, etc. This article is
divided to two parts, first of all brain impairments and its effects on reading is stated generally and the second
part includes descriptive investigation of eye movement in wrong remembering of words through reading on
some participants with academic degrees who are healthy without brain damages.

THEORETICAL BACKGROUND

Brain Impairments
Some statistical data revealed that 80% of learning happens via vision. Although there is no scientific criterion
for such a statement but there are agreements and disagreements (Walline & Carder, 2012).

One of the important strategies in reading is keeping the eyes in-line. Those people with deficiency in control
and focus of their eyes usually face with reading problems. In this situation they use their fingers to find their
way through paragraph.

There are different lesions of brain which each one happens through damage to spatial part of it which are
called alexia, dyslexia, agraphia and etc.

As Cherney (2004) stated:

Disturbances of reading that occur after right-brain damage are typically related in visual processing such as
spatial discrimination and unilateral visual neglect, these alexias have been referred to as neglect dyslexia or
spatial alexia( p.22).

COPYRIGHT @ JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL AND INSTRUCTIONAL STUDIES IN THE WORLD 94

 JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL AND INSTRUCTIONAL STUDIES
IN THE WORLD
August 2013, Volume: 3 Issue: 3 Article: 14
ISSN: 2146-7463

He (2004) also stated that reading problems which will be happen after left-hemisphere damage originated
from some linguistics deficits and is stated as two different points: 1. As an isolated symptoms or a part of
aphasia syndrome.

Following Cherney (2004) alexias are classified under investigation of neuroanatomic distinctions. Many years
ago two kinds of alexias have been distinguished by Dejerine as alexia with agraphia and alexia without
agraphia. In former, damages of left-hemisphere parietal cause some deficiencies and the latter originated
from occipital damages together with damage to the splenium of the corpus callosum. Newly, another kind of
alexia has been proposed which is called frontal alexia elicited from anterior lesion in the left-hemisphere.

Anxiety
The type of anxiety which occurs during learn a foreign language is unique (Horwitz etal., 1986; Mac Intyre and
Gardner, 1989). Learners in these classes may represent poor performance which reduces their information via
learning situations. Even some students which have high level of anxiety, mental block may happen (Tobias,
1979).

Hilleson (1996), in his diary stated that anxiety can go on different skill areas. His participants represented a
range of anxiety which in not limited to speaking or listening but reading and writing. In some studies, reading
anxiety has been investigated clearly. Via FLCAS (Foreign Language Classroom Anxiety Scale) and FLRAS
(Foreign Language Reading Anxiety Scale), Saito et al., (1999) examined a link between foreign language anxiety
and foreign language reading anxiety among learners of Japanese, French, and Russia. They found that it is also
so hard to make a boundary between FL reading anxiety and FL anxiety.

In a Study Horwitz et al. (1986) tested 75 English learners of Spanish at an American University, using FLCAS
found that learners experienced a major foreign language anxiety which affected their performance in that
language. The results revealed that those learners with high level of anxiety afraid of speaking in the target
language and even they got nervous when speaking it.

In order to improve the abovementioned results, let’s check another study in this case. Aida (1994) and Kitano
(2004) focused on the relationships between language anxiety and Japanese language learning. It revealed that
some amount of anxiety existed in Japanese classroom which it affected learners performance. Aida (1994) also
found that learners experience in target language situations is effective on anxiety reduction.

Physical Environment
Classrooms and schools are some places more than living for a special period of time, but they can have some
significant emotional feelings. A viewpoint believes that designing educational school and classrooms could
help learners in their identities. This idea stated that environment have some impacts on cognitive and
behavioral development of the learners (Ellis, 2007).

Moreover, physical conditions of learning situations play an important role during reading. Some researchers
examined the physical environment of learning and following results elicited:
1. Temperature, heating, and air quality are some factors which affect the learners` achievement (Earthman,
2004)
2. Noise of exposure cause some reading problems (Higgins et al., 2004)
3. Using visual aids provides success in what learners achieved (Culp, 2006)

Reading & Eye movement

One of the factors which affect reading is word frequency. The time the readers look as a word is influenced by
the frequency of the word in the language (analyzed by corpus data). Rayner (1977) found that t he fixation
time of readers on infrequent words are more than frequent ones and also Carpenter (1980) reported such
similar findings on word frequency. Some studies found that the frequency of orthographic neighbors will
affect the ability of word recognition. Andrew (1989) believed that it relates to lexical similarity of neighbors.

COPYRIGHT @ JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL AND INSTRUCTIONAL STUDIES IN THE WORLD 95

 JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL AND INSTRUCTIONAL STUDIES
IN THE WORLD
August 2013, Volume: 3 Issue: 3 Article: 14
ISSN: 2146-7463

Although two words may have same frequency value, they may differ in familiarity. The effects of word
familiarity on fixation time have been determined in some recent studies (Chafin, Morris, & Seely, 2001; Juhasz
& Rayner, 2003; Williams & Morris, 2004). There are other factors like number of meaning and age-of
acquisition which is out of the patience of this paper.

There are two schemes on analyzing some words during reading. There is an interesting question on how does
the word ART, is arranged in A, R, T, and no more else. There are two different coding approaches on the point.
One of them is the channel-specific scheme. In this model it is hypothesized that in every string position exists
different sets of letter units. For example, there are separating units representing ``A`` in first position, in
second position and so on. In context-unit encoding this is not based on a single letter, but a group of letters.
For example in this case the word ART never showed in A-R-T but –AR, ART, or RT-. The – symbol represents
word boundary. The second scheme of encoding includes letter-tagging, in which a single letter can occupy any
position and the position is numbered in which a word is read. For example, ART would represents as `A-1`, `R-
2`, `T-3`.

When people read, look at a special place, or search for an object, the eyes continually moved which is called
saccades. During this, the eyes remain relatively during fixation for about 200-300 ms. Saccades are rapid
movements of the eyes with velocities as high as 500
per second. During eye movements, the visual input
sensitivity is reduced. This phenomenon called saccadic suppression ( Matin, 1974 ; Rayner, 1998).

Two important findings of eye movement and reading are 1. Fixation time on a word is shorter if the reader has
a valid preview of the word prior to fixating it, and 2. Fixation time is shorter when the word is easy to identify
and understand (Clifton, 2003).

Jonson (elicited in Rayner et al., 2006), provides some information based on the preview information and
represented that transposed letters are more affective previews than substituted letters. It also revealed that
special letters identities are important in preview benefit.

There are differences between eye movements of reading silently and reading aloud. During reading aloud, or
reading silently while listen to someone which reads the same text, fixation duration are longer (Levy-Schoen,
1981). While reading English, eye fixation lasts about 200-250 ms. Letter spaces are the appropriate metric to
use, because the number of letters traversed by saccades is relatively invariant when the same text is read at
different distances, even though the letter space subtend different visual angles (cited in Rayner, 1998).

In previous paragraphs roles of some factors which influence the learning, has been investigated. The focus of
this study is to considering the role of eyes during reading. For example why learners in some situations
pronounce bike instead of like? As it is mentioned above, in most of the situations brain impairments may
cause such a problem, or factors like anxiety and learning environment play the role of negative affection. This
study examined learners reading of paragraphs within minimal pairs to determine that anxiety, and other
negatives are not the only factors in reading disabilities. The present investigator of this research provided a
small community of the learners in a user-friendly place in order to reduce the negative affections. Based on
the above mentioned idea, the research question which is addressed here includes: Does in user-friendly
environments which negative affections has been removed generally, learners may face with reading or
learning disabilities? Following research question a null hypothesis is stated: learners may face with some
reading and learning problems in some user-friendly places.

METHOD

Participants
The study was carried out with the involvement of twenty intermediate Iranian EFL learners, divide in pattern
of 7 males and 15 females. Five of females were high-school students. All other remained males and females
had academic university degrees in different majors. The age scale widened over 16 years old up to 40 years
old.

COPYRIGHT @ JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL AND INSTRUCTIONAL STUDIES IN THE WORLD 96

 JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL AND INSTRUCTIONAL STUDIES
IN THE WORLD
August 2013, Volume: 3 Issue: 3 Article: 14
ISSN: 2146-7463

Instruments
This study made use of following instruments in order to gather more information:
1. Some minimal pairs has been selected and distributed to the learners in order to read and write.
2. After the end of experiment some interviews had done to investigate the emotional feeling of the learners
during reading.

Procedures
To conduct the study the researcher started to read the special minimal pairs which selected already, and
asked learners to repeat, read and write them. The purpose of such exercise was to make learners eyes familiar
with the words which differ in just one phoneme or letter.

After working on minimal pairs some paragraphs were given to the learners contained the words on the
minimal pair list but through some correct semantically and grammatically sentences. The purpose of this
exercise was to determine the role of eyes during reading.

And finally researcher interviewed the learners in order to consider their general health and also emotional
feelings that he/she had on reading time.

Data Analysis
The first step in this part is the analysis of data on the basis of correct pronunciation of words and wrong
pronunciation of them. As it is observed from Table 1, the mean difference of learners on the basis of words
pronunciation is so high, i.e. , most of the words pronounced by the learners were correct words.

Table 1: Descriptive Statistics for Wrong and Correct Pronunciation of Words

C.pronunciation W.pronunciation
N Valid 20 20
Missing 0 0
Mean 37.65 2.35
Variance 2.239 2.239

Table 2: Statistics for Correct Pronunciation of Words During Reading

Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent

Valid 35 1 5.0 5.0 5.0
36 4 20.0 20.0 25.0
37 5 25.0 25.0 50.0
38 4 20.0 20.0 70.0
39 3 15.0 15.0 85.0
40 3 15.0 15.0 100.0
Total 20 100.0 100.0

COPYRIGHT @ JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL AND INSTRUCTIONAL STUDIES IN THE WORLD 97

 JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL AND INSTRUCTIONAL STUDIES
IN THE WORLD
August 2013, Volume: 3 Issue: 3 Article: 14
ISSN: 2146-7463

Table 3: Statistics for Wrong Pronunciation of Words During Reading

Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent

Valid 0 3 15.0 15.0 15.0
1 3 15.0 15.0 30.0
2 4 20.0 20.0 50.0
3 5 25.0 25.0 75.0
4 4 20.0 20.0 95.0
5 1 5.0 5.0 100.0
Total 20 100.0 100.0

In order to earn more details on the basis of significant level, one-sample test had been stated and the result
revealed that practicing minimal pairs before reading section cannot be effective on the pronunciation of
wrong similar words instead of their correct forms.

Table 4: One-Sample Test for Wrong pronunciation

Test Value = 0
95% Confidence Interval of the
Mean Difference
t df Sig. (2-tailed) Difference Lower Upper
W.pronunciation 7.023 19 .000 2.350 1.65 3.05

Table 5: One-Sample Test for Correct Pronunciation

Test Value = 0
95% Confidence Interval of the
Mean Difference
t df Sig. (2-tailed) Difference Lower Upper
C.pronunciation 112.514 19 .000 37.650 36.95 38.35

Of course some interviews have been investigated and following reports were revealed: a. one of the learners
with reading problems had a car accident two days before the examination session. The two other learners
used eye-glasses and I think it was their problem to read problematically. Other learners with reading problems
have not special problem.

CONCLUSION

This study has been followed some purposes: 1. Most of the times, psychological and environmental factors are
not the only source of errors during reading. 2. Brain damages cannot always be faulty in wrong pronunciation
of words during reading. 3. Sometimes remembering the similar words previously in the same sequence makes
eyes faulty during pronunciation of words which differs in one or two phoneme (s).

Suggestion for further research

Since the sample size of this study was small, it is problematic to generalize the results to whole community of
learning, thus more research is needed in this point. The other suggestion is that some qualitative reports are

COPYRIGHT @ JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL AND INSTRUCTIONAL STUDIES IN THE WORLD 98

 JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL AND INSTRUCTIONAL STUDIES
IN THE WORLD
August 2013, Volume: 3 Issue: 3 Article: 14
ISSN: 2146-7463

not sufficient to investigate such studies, some tests had been designed which measure the sources of errors in
details which all the researchers can use them in other studies.

There was no financial support for this study, and this study has been investigated on August 2013.

REFERENCES

Aida, Y. (1994). Examination of Horwitz, Horwitz, and Cope’s construct of foreign language anxiety: the case of
students of Japanese. The Modern Language Journal 78, 155–168.

Andrews, S. (1989). Frequency and Neighborhood Effects on Lexical Access: Activation or Search? Journal of
Experimental Psychology: Learning. Memory, & Cognition, 15, 802-814.

Chaffin, R., Morris, R. K., & Seely, R. E. (2001). Learning New Word Meanings from Context: A Study of Eye
Movements. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory and Cognition, 27, 225-235.

Cherney. R. L. (2004). Aphasia, Alexia, and Oral Reading. Top Stroke Rehabil. Volume (11). Nom. 1. pp. 22-36.
Thomas Land Publishers, Inc.

Clifton, C., Jr. (2003). On Using Eye Tracking Data to Evaluate Theories of On-line Sentence Processing: The Case
of Reduced Relative Clauses. Invited talk, 12 European the Conference on Eye Movements, Dundee, Scotland,
August, 2003.

Clifton, C. J., Traxler, M., Mohamed, M. T., Williams, R. S., Morris, R. K., & Rayner, K. (2003). The Use of
Thematic Role Information in Parsing: Syntactic Processing Autonomy Revisited. Journal of Memory and
Language, 49, 317-334.

Culp, B. (2005). Management of the Physical Environment in the Classroom and Gymnasium: It's not That
Different. Teaching Elementary Physical Education, vol. 17, no. 5, pp.13–15.

Earthman, GI. ( 2004). Prioritization of 31 Criteria for School Building Adequacy', American Civil Liberties Union
Foundation of Maryland. Accessed online on 30/04/07 at http://www.aclu-
md.org/aTop%20Issues/Education%20Reform/EarthmanFinal10504.pdf

Higgins S, Hall E, Wall K, Woolner P and C McCaughey.( 2005). The Impact of School Environments: A literature
review', The Centre for Learning and Teaching, School of Education, Communication and Language Science,
University of Newcastle. Accessed online on 30/04/07 at http://www.cfbt.com/PDF/91085.pdf

Hilleson, M. (1996). I Want to Talk with Them, but I don’t Want Them to Hear: An Introspective Study of Second
Langue Anxiety in an English-Medium School. In: Bailey, K.M., Nunan, D. (Eds.), Voices from the Language
Classroom. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp. 248–282.

Horwitz, E.K., Horwitz, M., Cope, J. (1986). Foreign Language Classroom Anxiety. The Modern Language Journal
1, 125–132.

Juhasz, B.J., & Rayner, K. (2003). Investigating the Effects of a Set of Inter-Correlated Variables on Eye Fixation
Durations in Reading. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 29, 1312-1318.

Kitano, K. (2001). Anxiety in the College Japanese Language Classroom. The Modern Language Journal 85, 549–
566.

COPYRIGHT @ JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL AND INSTRUCTIONAL STUDIES IN THE WORLD 99

 JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL AND INSTRUCTIONAL STUDIES
IN THE WORLD
August 2013, Volume: 3 Issue: 3 Article: 14
ISSN: 2146-7463

Levy-Schoen, A. (1981). Flexible and/or Rigid Control of Oculomotor Scanning Behavior. In D.F. Fisher, R.A.
Monty, & J.W. Senders (Eds.), Eye movements: Cognition and visual perception (pp. 299-316). Hillsdale, NJ:
Erlbaum.

MacIntyre, P.D., Gardner, R.C.( 1989). Anxiety and Second-Language Learning: Toward a Theoretical
Clarification. Language Learning 39, 251–275.

Matin, E. (1974). Saccadic Suppression: A Review. Psychological Bulletin, 81, 899-917.

Rayner, K. (1977). Visual Attention in Reading: Eye Movements Reflect Cognitive Processes. Memory &
Cognition, 4, 443-448.

Rayner, K., Sereno, S., Morris, R., Schmauder, R., & Clifton, C. J. (1989). Eye Movements and On-line Language
Comprehension Processes. Language and Cognitive Processes, 4, SI 21-50.

Rayner, K. (1998). Eye Movements in Reading and Information Processing: 20 Years of Research. Psychological
Bulletin, 124, 372-422.

Rayner, K., Cook, A.E., Juhasz, B.J., & Frazier, L. (2006). Immediate Disambiguation of Lexically Ambiguous
Words During Reading: Evidence from Eye Movements. British Journal of Psychology, in press.

Saito, Y., Horwitz, E.K., Garza, T.J., 1999. Foreign Language Reading Anxiety. The Modern Language Journal 83
(2), 202–218.

The Effect of the Physical Learning Environment on Teaching and Learning. value learning, value teaching.
Victorian Institute of Teaching.

Tobias, S., 1979. Anxiety Research in Educational Psychology. Journal of Educational Psychology 71 (5), 573–
582.

Walline. J & Carder. E. J. (2012). Vision Problems of Children with Individualized Education Programs. Journal of
Behavioral Science. Volume (23). Nom. 4. P.87

Williams, R.S., & Morris, R.K. (2004). Eye Movements, Word Familiarity, and Vocabulary Acquisition. European
Journal of Cognitive Psychology, 16, 312-339.

COPYRIGHT @ JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL AND INSTRUCTIONAL STUDIES IN THE WORLD 100