THE YORK ASSOCIATES Lert: Business Tey CT ny roe by Nick Brieger Fe Be wm = ‘4 eu GkTHE YORK ASSOCIATES TEACHING BUSINESS ENGLISH HANDBOOK Nick Brieger York Associates PublicationsCopyright © 1997 Nick Brieger All tights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, ‘or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, oF otherwise, without the prior permission of the publishers. Published by York Associates, 116 Micklegate, York YOU 1)Y, England. Tel: (0/1904 624246, Fax: (0)1904 648971, E-mail: rraining@ yorkassoc.go-ed.com ‘Design: Hutton Peach Design Consultants, Newton-on-Ouse, York. Page setting: Celtic Publishing Services, Ty Brethyn, Llangollen, Denbighshire. Printed by: Bookeraft (Bath) Ltd., Midsomer Norton This book is sold subject to the condition that it shall not, by way of trade ot otherwise, be leat, re-sold, hired out or otherwise circulated without the publisher's prior consent in any form of binding or cover than that in which it is published and without a similar condition including this condition being imposed upon the subsequent purchaser. ISBN 1 900991 07 1 First published in 1997 ABouT THE AUTHOR After a first degree in law, a post-graduate teacher training qualification in TEFL and an M.A. in Applicd Linguistics, Nick Brieger began to specialise in professional language and communication training, especially in the field of Business English. He jomed York Associates as a partner in 1987 and now divides his time berween traming (in the UK and continental Europe). materials development (both in-house and for commercial publication) and Business English teacher training. He is a cegular contributor to international conferences, particularly in the field of ESP. Nick is the co-author of three series of ESP teaching materials for Phoenix ELT. The Comtacis series develops language knowledge and skills for learners from business and technical backgrounds at pre-intermediate level and above. The Business Management English series develops management knowledge and professional language and communication skills for learners at post-intermediate level and above. The Language of Business English series provides reference and practice in core language areas in) Business English. In addition, Nick is also the editor of the Penguin Business Englisly series. AsouT THE PUBLISHER York Associates is a partnership of five experienced trainers and materials developers, founded in 1980 and based in York in the UK. The company provides one-to-one and small group courses in professional language, communications skills, inter-cultural communication and management training to many major British and European companies both at its own training centres in York and throughout the rest of the world. It also provides teacher training courses world-wide for new and experienced ceachers of Business English. It bas a sister company, Language Works, in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, Irs parrners are also all well-known writers and count major sertes for the BBC, Berlitz; Oxford University Press, Prentice Hall and Penguin among the forty or so training titles so far published berween them, York Associates also’ produces its own specialist and innovative range of video and audio packs and books. Gam CONTENTS B® Foreword by Jeremy Comfort Acknowledgements INTRODUCTION PART 1: BACKGROUND ISSUES IN BUSINESS AND BUSINESS ENGLISH 1 Introduction to Business English The scope of teaching Business English Teachers of Business English Learners of Business English Business English versus General English: some contrasts 2 Dealing with Professional Content Content — the contentious issue Organisations in business ‘The evolution of management The division of labour Key issues in management Business sectors 3 ‘The Language of Business English Grammar Vocabulary 4 Communication Skills in Business Accuracy, fluency and effectiveness Presentations Meetings Telephoning Negotiations Written documentation 5 Management Skills in Business Leadership Team building Delegation 6 Communication across Cultures vi vii 10 2 15 69 7 75 80PART 2: PEDAGOGIC ISSUES FOR TEA i P, 1 2 3 4 8 6 CHING BUSINESS ENGLISH Pre-Course Needs analysis and course objectives Assessing entry levels Programme outline and trainee briefing On Course Planning a lesson Learning styles Giving feedback One-to-one teaching and group teaching Teaching or training? ‘The scope of materials and equipment End of Course Ending the course Reviewing the course Drafting the course report ART 3: CHECKLISTS Further reading Professional development for teachers of Business English Published materials in Business English Other sources of material for Business English Business English examinations Language for effective communication Presentations ™ Meetings ® Telephoning & Negotiation 7 Areas of specialist vocabulary ™ General management = Administration ™ Customer service ® Distribution ® Finance @ Legal ® Marketing = Human resources ® Production and operations ® Purchasing ® Research and development ™ Sales Abbreviations References Index a7 9 102 104 108 110 117 121 127 132 139 144 153 154 155 160, 161 169 188: 188 189 “Gam FOREWORD Maa k Brieger and 1 started teaching Business English in the late N eventies. We felt like pioneers when we started to develop job- specific courses for a frighteningly wide range of students: one week it was Vietnamese trainees learning about the Swedish paper industry; the next, German Sales Managers from one of the big multinationals. Since that time, Business English has grown into a major arm of ELT’ and an industey in itself. Books, audio and video tapes have proliferated and language schools offering Executive courses have blossomed. However, perhaps because of the entrepreneurial nature of this area of ELT, teacher training has not developed to support teachers as in other more academic areas. There are now signs that this is being remedied. Nick himself has been instrumental in developing the LCC] CertTEB course delivered by York Associates. He has had the chance to pilot it with teachers in St Petersburg, Tashkent, Warsaw, Budapest, Paris and the UK. It was a relatively small step to go on to develop this handbook. The handbook represents a distillation of Nick’s experience in Business English over the last twenty years. For teachers 1 am sure it will be seen as an ideal introduction to an area which can be daunting. Nick has set out to meet teachers’ needs in two major areas. The first, to develop background knowledge about business, will prove invaluable both for those just entering the profession, and for those who have been teaching for a couple of years but feel uncertain in some areas of business. While teachers should not be expected to be experts in business, they do need to understand what their students do or are training to do. Once teachers have a sound grasp of what makes businesses work, they can develop more relevanc courses, plan more motivating lessons and ask more intelligent questions. The other major concern of the handbook is to develop teaching skills. Business English is becoming a more and more demanding profession. Not only must we cope with our role as language teachers, we must also improve our students’ communication skills, increase their cross-cultural sensitivity and develop skills in managing people internationally. The handbook will help to open eyes and doors for both inexperienced and experienced teachers in all these fields. Nick has brought to this book his unparalleled experience of ESP and Business English as well as his love of teacher training, I feel confident that all Business English teachers will find this an invaluable support Jeremy Comfort York Associates“um ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Ba The author and publisher are grateful for the following permissions = The Columbia Dictionary of Quotations for the quotations on pages vii-viii of the Introduction. The Columbia Dictionary of Quotations is licensed from Columbia University Press. Copyright © 1993 by Columbia University Press. All rights reserved. ® Paul Smith of Paul Smith Associates, Munich for the Liaison Comn meeting agenda in chapter + = — Prentice-Hall Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ for the adaptation of the text ‘on Behavioural Approaches and Context-based Models (up to point 6) in the section on Leadership in Chapter 5, from Management (sixth edition) by Sconer, Freeman and Gilbert, © 1991. = Michael P. O'Connor, The Old Stone House, Dingle, Ireland, for the extract on Team Building from the MNM Team Building Process for Printers in chapter 1996 Michael P. O'Connor. Information about this book is available from Michael P. O'Connor or Becky Erickson, The Old Stone House, Dingle, Irland, tel / fax: + 353 66 59882, e-mail [email protected] or from COS Group International, 237 Oxford Strect, Suite 25F, Portland, Maine 04101, tel: + 1 207 871 8803, fax: + 1 207 883 1340 ® International Management Centres, Castle Street, Buckingham MK18 1BP for the extract on Delegation from page 75 to the end of How to Delegate? on page 78. More information about their MBA management training resources in the area of delegation can be found in Time Management Resource Level 3, Time Management and Delegation Resource at: heep://www.meb.co.uk/services/coursewa/mba/mb8.hem#session4 ® — John Mole and Nicolas Brealey Publishing for the Mole map in Chaprer 6, reproduced from Mind Your Manners: Managing Business Cultures in Europe by John Mole (1995) published by Nicholas Brealey Publishing, 36 John Street, London WCIN, price £9.99. ® Addison Wesley Longman Ltd and The English Speaking Union for permission co reprinc the language scale on pages 100-101 from Carroll B and West R (1989). ESU Framework: Perlormance Scales for English Language Examinations. Harlow: Longman. ISBN 0-582-03161-3. ® Louis Garnade and his team at the English Book Centre, Oxford (details on page 159) for their characteristic generosity in allowing us access to their database of published Business English books for Checklist 2. Although every effort has been made to trace and contact copyright holders before publication, this has nor always been possible. If notified, the publisher will be pleased to rectify any errors or omissions at the earliest opportunity. Finally, especial thanks to all the partners, trainers and administrative staff ac York Associates to whom this book is dedicated and without whom it would not have been possible. Many of the ideas and examples in this book derive from discussions which have taken place, and materials which have been developed over a number of years and which would be impossible to acknowledge individually. The author and publisher therefore acknowledge, with gratitud ‘ral debr to the whole team, Qa INTRODUCTION ME of disparate disciplines. In fact, it would be difficult to find three more different bedfellows. So, let’s start in lighter vein with a fistful of quotations from those who, through their own opinions, have captured the diversity of what we, as Business English teachers, ery to unite. Ts Business English brings together under one umbrella a range 1 TEACHING Housework is a breeze. Cooking is a pleasant diversion. Putting up a retaining wall is a lark. But teaching is like climbing a mountain. Fawn M. Brodie (1915-81), U.S. biographer. Quoted in Los Angeles Times Home Magazine (20 Feb; 1977). It is the supreme art of the teacher to awaken joy in creative expression and knowledge. Albert Einstein (1879-1955), German-born Motto for the astronomy building of Junior S. physicist. ‘allege, Pasadena, Califor Everybody who is incapable of learning has taken to teaching. Oscar Wilde (1854-1900), Anglo-Ieish playwright, author. Vivian, in The Decay of Lying (published in Intentions, 1891). He who can, does. He who cannot, teaches. George Bernard Shaw (1856-1950), Anglo-Irish playwright, critic. Man and Superman, “Maxims for Revolutionists: Education” (1903). 2 BUSINESS AND COMMERCE International business may conduct its operations with seraps of paper, but the ink it uses is human blood. Eric Ambler (b. 1909), British novelist. Marukakis in A Coffin for Dimitrios, ch. 5 (1939). Business? it’s quite simple: it’s otber people's money. Alexandre Dumas (1824-95), French dramatist, Giraud, in La Question d' Argent, act 2, se. 7. When you are skinning your customers you should leave some skin on to grow: again so that you can skin them again. Nikita Khrushchev (1894-1971), Soviet premier. Quoted in The Observer (London, 28 May 1961), offering advice to British business people. Deals are my art forn.. Other people paint beautifully on canvas or write wonderful poetry. | like making deals, preferably big deals. That's how | get my kicks. Donald Trump {b, 1946), U.S, businessman. The Art of the Deal, ch. 1 (1987, written with Tony Schwartz), aBeing good in business is the most fascinating kind of art... Making money is art and working is art and good business is the best art Andy Warhol (1928-87), U.S. Pop artist. Fro A to Band Back Again, ch. 6 (1975). It is very vulgar to talk about one’s business. Only people like stockbrokers do that, and then merely at dinner parties. Oscar Wilde (1854-1900), Anglo-Trish playwright, author. Algemon, in The Importance of Being Earnest, act 3. 3 ENGLISH My God! The English language is a form of communication! Conversation isn’t just crossfire where you shoot and gei shot at! Where you've got to duck for your life and aim to kill! Words aren't only bombs and bullets - no, they're little gifts, containing meanings! Philip Roth (b. 1933), U.S. author, Portnoy’s Complaint, “The Most Prevalent Form of Degradation in Erotic Life” (1967). The English language is nobody's special property. It is the property of the imagination: it is the property of the language itself. Derek Walcott (b, 1930), West Indian poet, playwright. Interview in Writers at Work Fighth Series, ed. George Plimpton, 1988). Business English is not a subject of study with a solid base. It is an evolving practice which appears in many guises around the world and which takes a variety of forms according to local conditions and requirements. Business English arises from two expediencies: the need for a means of communication between those wishing co do business internationally; and the language used for this communication — English. So, the needs of international business have spawned a teaching cadre dedicated to providing instruction in Business English. This book attempts to bring together some of the current practices of teaching business English, though it would be impossible to collect them all. Ie also tries to introduce some unifying principles under which all the various forms of Business English can happily co-exist, though the author freely admits that there could be other, hitherto undiscovered, varieties which may not fit the mould. Through this exercise, I hope that I can help these three bedfellows further evolve their relationship and benefit all concerned. Nick Brieger York, Spring 1997 PART | ONE BACKGROUND ISSUES IN BUSINESS AND BUSINESS ENGLISH1 INTRODUCTION TO BUSINESS ENGLISH THE SCOPE OF TEACHING BUSINESS ENGLISH in the last twenty years, beginning with the communicative revolution of the mid-1970s. And Business English, which appeared on the ELT stage as a course programme and learning objective in the late seventies, has been shaped by a range of influences from both the ELT and the non-EL'T world, Its course content reflects the diverse needs of varied learner groups — from pre-service students to in-service professionals; and its pedagogic approaches have been influenced by the learning experiences of its learners — from broadly-based general education to specifically-designed management training, So, the teaching of Business English has received noticeable contributions from = ELT methodologies which teach language knowledge and language skills in a range of business contexts through communicative activities = communication training which develops the effectiveness of the total communication process by looking at the message in terms of its form and delivery = management disciplines which provide professional content on key areas. nglish language teaching has gone through a radical shift of emphasis E In shore, the tcaching of Business English brings together three areas: I teaching — the pedagogic skills involved in running training, programmes 2 English — knowledge of the language and, latterly, an understanding of the role of communication in professional situations 3. business — familiarity with the key issues facing specific learners or learner groups. Each of these areas is evolving in its own way. New teaching approaches bring in training ideas such as facilitation and moderation; language change introduces new forms; communication adapts co evolving behavioural and technological standards; and business both initiates and responds to changing practices. All in all, the menu provides a rich mix, a starting point for exploring the scope of Business English and the range of skills needed by the Business English teacher. And for any practitioner, the challenge is in the dynartiic mix between: = each teacher's own personal and humanistic approach to teaching & the knowledge to be acquired by the learners ® the skills to be developed by the learners.So Business English is very much a mongrel. Course content reflects the needs of its users; course delivery the personal style of its practitioners. THE OBJECTIVES OF BUSINESS ENGLISH LEARNING AND TEACHING: ACCURACY, FLUENCY AND EFFECTIVENESS The recent history of ELT can be divided into two periods — the pre- communicative éra and the post-communicative era. Pre-1975, the emphasis of most language teaching was on developing knowledge of the language forms in terms of grammar and vocabulary. Identified through linguistic analysis, these elements were subsequently organised into teaching programmes and course materials. Students learned about the language rather than how to use it. The communicative revolution of the mid-70s clearly established fluency as the prime objective of language teaching and language training, Out went language drills; in came pair work and small group communicative activitics. In the carly years of the communicative revolution, accuracy was sacrificed in favour of fluency. The battle ery was “Get the students to talk at all costs’. One could be forgiven for thinking that the “accuracy versus fluency debate’ would remain centre-stage. Yet in ESP (English for Specific Purposes), another dimension was identified, namely effectiveness, making it into a thtee-cornered contest, In the red corner we have accuracy, claiming that without the correct use of language forms, the results will be flawed, In the blue corner we have fluency, claiming that if you can speak, somehow you will be able to get your message over. And in the green corner we have effectiveness, claiming that it is the total performance (linguistic and non-linguistic) which determines the success or failure of communication. The ‘fluency versus effectiveness versus accuracy” debate deserves a little more attention since, in my book, they are separate areas. My reasoning goes as follows: Firstly, all normal native speakers arc fluent in their mother congue; however, they are not all effective communicators. Therefore fluency, the objective of communicative language teaching, will not necessarily lead 10 effectiveness. Similarly, amongst non-native speakers, some rank fairly highly on the fluency scale, yet considerably lower on the effectiveness scale. Therefore, fluency docs not equal effectiveness. Secondly, all educated native speakers can form correct sentences in their mother tongue in terms of grammar and vocabulary. Yee this linguistic accuracy does not auromatically lead to effectiveness in communication. The saime is true of non-native speakers, | have taught many students who have had an excellent knowledge of linguistic forms, but who would not be considered as effective communicators. On the other hand, there are those ‘natural communicators’, who break the language rules, yet transmit convincing and effective messages. Therefore, accuracy does not equal effectivenes My conclusion is that we have three different (yet related) elements or skills: accuracy, fluency and effectiveness, as shown in the diagram which follows. And it is important that we decide which one (or two or three) our particular training course shall concentrate on. Course OBJECTIVES \_/ EFFECTIVENESS THE SCOPE OF BUSINESS ENGLISH In the previous section we examined the range of objectives of a Business English programme. It might be considered unconventional to look at the why before the what, but this approach highlights the need ro keep the focus clearly on learners and their reasons for embarking on a programme of instruction. Corresponding with learner objectives, we have two major elements as the building blocks for course design and a constellation of minor forces Language knowledge reflects the formal aspects of grammar, vocabulary and the sound system. In communication we activate this knowledge to transmit messages through different channels, for example presentations, meetings, telephoning ot in written documents, such as correspondence or reports. Language knowledge reflects what one knows of the languages communication skills what one knows how to do with the language Together they are a powerful instrument in asscssing overall competence. THE Scope OF BUSINESS ENGLISH A —~ PROFESSIONAL) ‘CONTENT The legitimate scope of our pedagogic activities as Business English trainers is to design and deliver courses which aim to increase language knowledge and to develop communication skills.However, what makes Business English trainers different from General English trainers is partly related to language and partly to communication. = The language to be introduced and practised in the Business English classroom reflects the professional background of the leamer(s).. @ The channels of communication to be developed and practised reflect the professional world of presentations, meetings and telephoning rather than general communication in discussion. Business ENGLISH ® grammar © presentations ® vocabulary = meetings ® pronunciation = telephoning = report writing ‘Thus, Business English draws on genetal English for some of its contents, while adding others which are specific to. business. BUSINESS ENGLISH General Language General Communication Spare areas and socal © Socabubry = teres Speciale Language Professiofal Communication errant FE presenations © france ® Gephonne = human resources = _negotatons So, while language and communication are central, the contexts of Business English are different frum the contexts of General English. These contexts are reflected by the constellation of smaller ovals in the diagram on the previous page. 1 Professional Content provides a Fange of settings or themes related to professional functions, such as marketing or finance, or to business sectors, such as banking or pharmaceuticals. Both General English and Business English need contexts for developing language knowledge and communication skills. General English uses topics or themes; Businiess English takes professional content, In both cases the setting is the activation vehicle not the learning end. In other words, the use of a theme such as ‘leisure activities’ in the General English classroom is not to make the students experts in leisure; similarly, when dealing with marketing issues, the Business English teacher is not aiming to teach about marketing. Providing training in professional content is the role of a management consultant, not a language trainer. Nevertheless, there is a need for the Business English teacher to know something about professional content, and this is discussed more fully in Chapter 2 — Dealing with Professional Content. 2 Management skills (sce Chaptet 5). Managers manage. A marketing, manager manages marketing; and a production manager manages production. Although we can define the content of marketing and production, the precise activities of management are less clearly prescribed. The history of management shows that different periods have focused on different skills. Yer in the changing web of management activities, four areas stand out through time: @ planning ® leading © organising ® controlling ‘A glance at the preoccupations of today’s managers shows that two areas are considered the key to successful management: = leadership in order to inspire and motivate colleagues and subordinates = team building in order to harness the synergies of individuals brought together from different disciplines and with diffcrent specialisations. ‘And at the heart of both effective leadership and team building is communication. 3 Cultural awareness. Culture (see Chapter 6) refers to the values shared by a group of people, While culture has traditionally been viewed and analysed at the national level, other groups clearly share beliefs, behaviours and other traits. A set of shared values can be seen at the level of the: ® company = department = team Shared values are an important factor in enhancing the togetherness of the members, thereby improving their performance ‘At the end of the twentieth century, as national borders crumble in the wake of increased global business, those companies which have established a firm basis of values and principles sccm better equipped to provide a secure framework for their employees and an environment in which they can flourish. ‘And at the heart of each entity with a strong positive culture is open and effective communication.THe ESP Famity i [COURSETYPE | DRIVERT DRIVER 2 DRIVER 3 SOFT ESP LANGUAGE conTeNT SQMMUNICATION | COMMUNICATION SKILLS CONTENT LANGUAGE ‘LANGUAGE ‘OR. HARD ESP CONTENT ‘OR. COMMUNICATION | COMMUNICATION THE ESP FAMILY ESP courses can be roughly divided into three main categories, depending on their structure and goals. This table shows three members of the ESP family. Each can be considered a type of ESP course. The table goes on to show the organisational principles around which each course type is structured. | have divided these organisational principles into primary, secondary and tertiary to show their relative weight in the course design. Let's start with soft ESP courses, These are courses where the primary structure of the course materials is linguistic. In other words, a glance at the contents page of a soft ESP hook such as Farly Business Contacts will show the traditional linguistic categories (grammatical, functional and lexical). So what differentiates it from a general English course? Content. However, the ‘specialist’ content, be it business, technical or legal, is an ‘add on’ to give the materials a flavour of the specific area. In other words, they are a credible teaching, vehicle, but not authentic in terms of content or context. They are good for developing language knowledge and communicative fluency; they are less good at developing effectiveness in communication, Our second member is the communication skills course. Here the emphasis is on effective transmission of a message. Key areas addressed in this type of programme or materials are: What is the best medium to use? Should it be written ot face-to-face; in a presentation or through a meeting? How can the message be best structured? Should it be logically or chronologically; from general to specific or vice versa? And how can the message he best delivered? In a formal or informal style; with questions doring of after the information? Here the emphasis is on developing communication techniques (in contrast to communicative fluency). As with soft ESP courses, content is not a primary focus, although it may be provided as an adjunct in order to contextualise the course within the students’ professional area, e.g. effective presentations for marketing personnel or effective negotiations for finance managers. These communication skills courses are clearly valuable for communication effectiveness; they are less good at developing language accuracy or communicative fluency. Our third member is the hard ESP course, Here the driving, force, in organisational terms, is the learner’s specialist area and the key questions which he or she needs to deal with, Below are two examples, the first from marketing and the second from personnel. Marketing ‘The market environment Buyer behaviour Market segmentation: targeting and positioning Products Produet type and mix decisions Product development decisions Marketing Distribution channels Wholesaling and retailing Promotion Communication and advertising Personal selling International marketing Entering foreign markets Global versus local marketing Pricing Pricing strategies Placing Personnel Job analysis Training and development Job description Person specification Planning and recruiting Personnel requirements Recruiting job candidates Job advertising Selection and interviewing Selection methods Interview structure and conduct Identifying training needs On-the-job training methods Compensation, incentives and benefits Pay Incentives and benefits Appraisal and career management Appraisal Career planning and management CONCLUSION ‘The hallmark of ESP courses is their specificity in relation to student needs. But what exactly do we as trainers mean by specific? And is our perception the same as our students’? I believe that we can do a lot to explain to our learners the precise range of course choices that are available to them. In this first chapter I presented three ESP course types. Of course, ay with any customised product, we don’t need to limit ourselves to these hybrids. We can offer, for example, a soft-core course with some hard segments; in other words a language course with some work on key content areas. Or a communication skills course with some remedial soft seaments; in other words a communication skills course with feedback on problematic language arcas. Finally, ESP means that learners can exercise choice and one of our tasks, as trainers, is co present the choice and help them decide how they want their course prepared.| | DISCUSSION | Which of the three (language, communication or content) dominate your teaching? 2 What role do cross-cultural aspects have in your teaching? 3 Do you think Business English teachers need to concern themselves with management skills? TEACHERS OF BUSINESS ENGLISH As we have seen, Business English is a multi-faceted subject. As would be expected, those who work as teachers in this profession can be found in a range of institutional and non-institutional envirenments. Just as there is no single Business English, there is no single profile of a Business English teacher. The profile is fashioned by the characteristics of the working environment and its view of Business English, as well as by the demands of the learners. However, it is important to remember that the majority of teachers, as in other branches of ELT, are non-native speakers, largely trained within the local community. Here are some typical teaching positions/jobs in the Business English world: 1 Freelance. Freelance is to teaching what consultants are to business. In other words, the freelancer provides his/her specialist expertise in designing and/or running courses for an organisation. The organisation may be a company, a school or a training organisation. By the nature of employment regulations, those who choose the freelance path will typically work with (as opposed to for) a number of different organisations. This flexibility can be attractive both for the freelancer and the organisation: ® ar times of high demand, freelancers can, in theory, negotiate their own contracts and fees @ a range of teaching environments can help to increase knowledge and skills by providing opportunities for running courses for learners from different backgrounds as independent workers, freelancers can choose when, where and how much to work However, when work is scarce, the contrary is true and the freelancer may find the demands of searching for work less attractive. In addition, freelance work can be rathet solitary without the backup and companionship of workplace colleagues. Teachers in the following categories may be freelance, permanent full- or part-time or a combination of these. 2 In-company. Some companies, both large and small, have their own language training department. The courses offered in-company can include both general English and Business English programmes. Teachers who spend a lot of their time working for one company or in one sector are likely to build up an in-depth knowledge of activities within that area as well as an insight into corporate life. This can provide an additional dimension to the teacher's job, satisfying a need for continued professional development on two fronts ~ pedagogic and corporate. This can be especially motivating where the teacher is given an opportunity or is encouraged to learn about the company. In fact, it is not unknown for in- company teachers to move into management positions, specially in the field of Human Resources. A second result of this increased specialisation is that in-company teachers can make themselves indispensable in developing hard ESP programmes, where content is an essential clement in the course desigh. OF course, narrow specialisation can also be limiting — both personally and professionally — and teachers who have spent a long time in one setting may find it difficult to adapt to the demands of a different working environment — a dilemma faced by many professionals as companies restructure and downsize to better face business challenges. 3 Language schools, Language schools typically offer general English programmes for students from different backgrounds, grouped according to language ability. However, many language schools have added Business English to their portfolio of subjects in order to target a wider range of students, Business English may be offered on the school’s menu in one or more of the following ways & intensive group programmes throughout the year = intensive individual programmes throughout the year ® as. an optional part of a general English programme for a set number of sessions per week. In addition, many schools will offer individual (one-to-one) classes on an hourly basis, sometimes as an add-on to a group programme (general or Business English). For the Business English teacher, the language school environment can provide a good mix of opportunities and challenges as courses generally draw their participants from a variety of backgrounds (national and professional) with a range of different needs and objectives. 4 Academic institutions. The teaching of Business English is not restricted to in-service professionals. More and more universities and colleges are launching programmes for their pre-service students in order to prepare them for the professional world in terms of language and business. Typically, a Business English programme will be offered ro students following course in Business Management, Economies or a related subject. This means that teachers who previously provided general English teaching, are being required to offer Business English. However, the scope of Business English varies enormously: between institutions and, in the absence of agreed standards, syllabuses and programmes display very different features, content and objectives. 5 Training organisations. Training organisations resemble language schools in a degreethat they are part of the teaching worlds they differ in that they typically specialise in offering cuscomised or specialised programmes for in- and pre- service professionals. The focus of these programmes covers a wide spectrum of professional training — including technical, management and communication training, And it is within this arcna that a number of organisations have sprung, up specialising in Business English. Teachers working in this environment, normally called trainers, are likely ro be working on short programmes wich students, often called course participants, from a range of different companies. This, therefore, provides a challenging and varied environment. Disc USSION 1 What sort of job do you aspire to and why? 2 What are the advantages and disadvantages of in-company teaching? LEARNERS OF BUSINESS ENGLISH Learners of Business English come from a range of different backgrounds so that trying to categorise them professionally requires a good deal of background knowledge about business. However, we can start with a basic division of learners into: ® pre-service, i.c. those with no business experience ® in-service, ic. those already in business. Besides differences in knowledge of management practices (and perhaps of underlying management concepts, too), this distinction is likely to translate into variations in terms of language knowledge and communication skills. These may, in turn, have implications for course objectives, design and delivery. Based on the scope of Business English, we may find the following features when contrasting pre-service and in-service learners. PRE-SERVICE VS IN-SERVICE LEARNERS General Communication May have equal sen Dead el 2 string Specialise Language Professional Communication| inservice ely fo hivemore —Insartce Maly to have more extensive knowledge veloped sl However, what all learners share is a recognition of the utility of English. This is neither an academic pastime nor a remote subject of study. English is the international language that all learners are likely to have a need for — in terms of listening, speaking, reading or writing or any combination of these skills. Thus for the pre-service student, language learning is seen as acquiring ‘ practical tool even though there may be no immediate need for it. And while language students have chosen to study a language out of an interest in its literature, its culture or simply its linguistic forms, students from other disciplines (management, sciences, architecture, engineering, etc.) may have language stady thrust upon them as part of their programme in order to prepare them for future contacts beyond their national borders. For the in-service professional, either already following, or preparing for an international career, an interest in developing competence (accuracy, fluency, effectiveness) in English may take on greater immediacy. It may be the gateway to promotion, the requirement for an international posting or the means to success in next week’s presentation to management. The motivations for acquiring improved competence are extremely varied and the objectives of individuals on Business English group courses may be difficult to reconcile. Despite these individual differences in background and objectives, it is possible to fit ‘developing language competence’ into a wider framework of needs for the individual with current or future needs for international communication. MANAGEMENT NEEDS wiewiaci & Technical Specialist = Technical Competence & Technical Non-specialist * Interpersonal Skills » Generalist ((eadership,ceam-buildng,...) {political social and = Communication Skil ‘economic trend) for contact with specialist, ‘ron-specalsts and generalists Just as we have summarised ‘language competence’ in terms of knowledge and skills, we can view ‘management needs’ in the same terms, though with different contents. Firstly, well-rounded international managers need to be technical specialists with detailed knowledge of their management arcas. Secondly, with the increasing trend towards team-working, they need to understand (though not in-depth) other areas of management in order to be able to participate in cross-disciplinary teams, And thirdly, in terms of knowledge, the well-balanced manager needs to be aware of general trends in society at large in the realms of polities, economics and social trends. This is a summary of the armoury of knowledge. Using this knowledge base effectively is what gives managers their edge and enables them to operate successfully. So this knowledge needs to be complemented by a repertoire of skills. Firstly, che manager needs to be able to translate the specialist technicalknowledge into technical competence in order to achieve results. Knowing about management (and specialist areas such as marketing, production, personnel, etc,) is the knowledge base; knowing how to manage effectively is the corresponding skill. So, for every area of specialist knowledge there is matching area of technical skill. OF course, having the knowledge does not necessarily mean having the skill. And that is preciscly why we need two sides to thé competence model — knowledge and skills. Yet being able to do the job involves more than just technical skill, Today’s managers da not work in isolation, They are ac once leaders and team players, sharing with colleagues, persuading superiors, inspiting and motivating subordinates. Playing a lead role as well as a team role requires interpersonal skills so that managers can achieve their objectives as well as enabling others ro achieve theirs. By harnessing the talents of a group of individuals, managers ensure that group contributions are greater than the sum of individual cfforts — the synergy effect. The final area of expertise for competent management is the raft of communication skills that enable messages of all sorts to be transmitted effectively. In addition to the professional communication skills themselves (listed in Chapter 1 under the Scope of Business English), we can identify three contexts for communication: between specialists, between specialist and non-specialist and between generalists. The first places the manager in a communicative setting where all the participants share the same technical knowledge. The second is a context where the specialist needs to share his/her knowledge with others who are not specialists in the area under consideration, This would be typical of a project team made up of managers from different disciplines. The third context is removed from day-to-day management concerns and focuses on the type of communication required outside the strict business setting — information exchange and discussions about social, economic or other topical matters. All of these contexts of communication require different skills, as well as different language. (For mote on the language aspect, see Chapter 3.) In conclusion, it is not casy to define the Business English learner. In fact, ir is perhaps precisely because they come with such different track records and such a range of needs and expectations that Business English itself is difficult to pin down, In short, there are as many approaches to Business English as there are course types. Our task, as trainers, is to put together programmes which respond to the needs and expectations of our diverse learners. DISCUSSION | Which would you prefer to teach: pre-service or in-service students? What woulld be the main differences? BUSINESS ENGLISH VERSUS GENERAL ENGLISH: SOME CONTRASTS In the introductory section, we looked at a number of key issues in the teaching and learning of Business English. There are other factors which we will look at in part 2 of the book, when we consider pedagogic and classroom issues. However, at this point, Pd like to offer the following summary chart of some key contrasts between the Business English and the General English classroom 2. What do you consider the most important attributes of a good manager? Business English General English Programmes Focus on developing: Focus on developing: ® accuracy ™ accuracy ® fluency = fluency ® cffectiveness Focus on developing: Focus on developing: ® general and specialist ® general language Tanguage knowledge knowledge general and professional ® general communication skills communication skills Learners ee Drawn from: Drawn from: B Preservice ® Pre-service ® In-service ® In-service Trainers Need the following mix of Need the following mix knowledge and skills: of knowledge and skills: ® ELT methodology = ELT methodology = communication skills training ® knowledge of business content Methodology Based o Based on: ® communicative ELT ® communicative ELT methodology tiethodolagy ® communication skills training | DISCUSSION 7 | How much do you think ESP can learn from General English methodology? 2. What do you think General English teachers can learn from ESP teachers?7 2 DEALING WITH PROFESSIONAL CONTENT CONTENT - THE CONTENTIOUS ISSUE The role of professional content in Business English training is unguestionably the single most controversial issue in the mix of course design. On the one side there are those teachers who clearly see their classroom focus in terms of teaching language, Business is not their domain and professional activities are a slender backdrop against which language knowledge is developed, The contrary view is expressed by many training organisations and in-company training departments. The former are likely to have built up a strong relationship with key clients and can therefore provide trainers with sufficient expertise in a range of professional areas to be able to provide a flexible mix of language and content. The latter, whose trainers have worked extensively within the organisation, are likely to have developed in-depth knowledge of the organisation's activities, It is not my purpose here to enter into the debate about the role of content, but simply to point out the differences in philosophy and approach which exist. Business English is not a clearly-defined subject of instruction but rather an umbrella term for a range of programmes driven by customer needs, What is clear, though, is that language teachers are not content specialists. They cannor be expected to provide management training within the guise of language teaching. However, the limits of their knowledge are vague and are fashioned by usage rather than rules, The in-company language teacher is likely to have developed more knowledge relating to a specialist area, i.e. the company’s activities, than the language school Business English teacher who runs courses for learners from different professional backgrounds. This ig not co demean the latter or to glorify the former. The following diagram charts che roles that Business English teachers may be requested to perform in the classroom, The use of a cline does highlight differences in status and, with it, pay. Language teachers are highly valued bur often low paid, at least in comparison with management consultants, And, generally speaking, the greater a teacher's specialisation or, at least, range of professional expertise, the greater the salary or fee that he/she can command. Having said that, the boundaries between the different points on the cline, as with many aspects of Business English, arc imprecise. In addition, one teacher may occupy more than one position, depending on who the client or learner is. At one end of the spectrum is the role of language reacher/language trainer, representing courses which focus principally on language development within a framework of business-oriented vocabulary. At the other end are THE TEACHING/TRAINING CLINE more specials: contene Ineainng peagramme MANAGEMENT TRANING ‘COMMUNICATION THANING programmes where content, language and communication are combined in order to develop the learner's language knowledge and communication skills. However, the trainer is not a content specialist aiming to teach the management content, but rather a knowledgeable generalist able to tap into the learner’s expertise and use it as a resource in the development of the course. As an example, let's take a course for finance managers who need to develop their language knowledge and communication skills for handling communication and exchanges on professional matters. These professional matters may include financial reports such as balance sheets and profit and loss statements, The type of Business English course prepared for such a group may focus on one or more of the following areas, depending on the needs of the participants and the skills of the trainer: ® developing language knowledge within the context of general business and financial copics = developing professional communication skills within the context of general business and financial topics ® developing specialist language knowledge within the context of specialist financial topics ® developing professional communication skills within the context of specialist financial topics. : Clearly the Business English teacher with little or no experience of the financial world would have difficulty designing a course which dealt with specialist financial topics. This is not to demean the general Business English teacher, but simply to point out the realities lying beneath the umbrella of Business English. As we have seen, the role of content is a controversial issue, As long as Business English remains an umbrella for a wide range of course types, it is unlikely that the position of content will be unambiguously defined. However, for both the existing and the future teacher, the key issues for reflection are: = personal / professional targets along the cline = methods for achieving them. fedDiscussion | Look again at the diagram in this section and plot your position(s) on it for the classroom roles that you are expected to perform. 2 Are there content-based areas where you: = have special knowledge or expertise? ™ would like to develop your knowledge? ORGANISATIONS IN BUSINESS The world of business cnecimpasses rivany areas and activities. Getting an idea of the range is a daunting task even for the experienced business professional. Fortunatcly, the typical middle manager stays broadly within his/her specialism. The wide-ranging Business English teacher may, however, need to train participants from different areas on a regular basis. In the absence of a management background, how can Business English teachers make sense of the corporate world and its workforce? ‘A useful starting point is to look ar: ® the types of business organisations (legal entities) ® management and management activities & the key functions in a business organisation by departmental activities ® the main sectors in which businesses operate. These are the areas covered in the remainder of this chapter, starting with organisation, Ero me 2 + oo Fete ee PROFESSIONAL CONTENT) ego Blame wees seus 2 here tee 2 Sentee a [os : Sone The following analysis is based on Anglo-Saxon company models and Euro-American company organisations. Public Limited Company (ple or PLC). A ple is a legal entity formed for the purpose of conducting business. It is owned by its shareholders, who may be private individuals or corporace institutions. The company issues shares in order to raise capital. Investors subscribe to shares in order to benefit from the financial success of the company through dividends paid out from profits. However if company performs badly, the liability of the shareholders for the company's losses is limited to the money paid for the shares. Shares are traded on one or more stock exchanges. Ple’s are typically large international or multinational corporations. Their activities have a high degree of transparency and are closely monitored by business analysts who report in the business press about successes, failures, take-overs, mergers and restructuring. Private Limited Company (Led.). A limited company is also a legal en is owned by its shareholders, who are typically private individuals. When the company makes a profit, the shareholders expect to receive a dividend from the profits declared. However, if the company makes a loss, the liability of the shareholders is limited ro the money paid for the shares. Limited companies cannot sell shares to of raise capital from the general public. Limited companies are typically smaller than ple’s. Associated Company. A company over which another company has snbstantial influence; for example it owns between 20 per cent and 50 per cent of its shares. Holding Company. A company that owns another company ot other companies and which is sometimes referred to as the parent company. (Most public companies operate through a number of companies controlled by the group's holding company.) Subsidiary Company. A company controlled by a holding company, usually. because the holding company owns (or indirectly owns throngh another subsidiary) more than SO per cent of the subsidiary company’s shares. Partnership. A partnership is an association of two or more persons who have agreed by legal contract to combine their efforts, property, and skill, or some or all of them, to engage in lawful business activities. The partners of an organisation share profits and losses between them and therefore have unlimited liability for the debts of the company. Sole Trader. A sole trader is a person who conducts business on his or her own behalf with full entitlement to all profits made but with full liability for all losses incurred. THE EVOLUTION OF MANAGEMENT Although not every business English student is a manager in the hierarchical sense, all will be involved with the management of resources ~ time, money,people and materials, Therefore an understanding of underlying management principles will help Business English teachers to better orientate their courses to meet the needs of their students. Meeson, Albert and Khedouri define management as ‘the process of planning, organising, leading and controlling the work of organisation members and of using all available organisational resources to reach stated organisational goals’. A rather more accessible definition, or explanation, appears in Mary Parker Follett’s 1918 book, The New State, in which she observes that management is ‘the art of getting things done through people’. This highlights the fact that managers arrange for others to fulfil the required organisational tasks rather than performing the tasks themselves. Together, these two definitions highlight the ambiguity between management as a scientific process and a personal skill. In fact, more detailed reading in management theory and management principles will show that while it is relatively casy to agree on what management is about, it is rather more difficult to identify the precise activities that will achieve the organisation’s goals. This is hardly surprising as there is no single sct of management practices that are held to be universally constant. They change with the changing organisational structures that they are meant to serve. This does nor in any way reduce management to a maverick activity — something that the gifted few are born with — but rather focuses on its proactive and reactive features, responding to the business environment. Over the years these changes in business environment have led to, or perhaps given rise ro, a number of different management schools. SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT This management approach, formulated by Frederick W. Taylor (1856-1915) and others between 1890 and 1930, sought to determine scientifically the best methods for performing any task, and for sclecting, training, and motivating workers. Tt arose in part out of a need to increase productivity at the beginning of the twentieth century, in heavy industrics such as steel. According to Taylor (and beliefs about human nature at the time), people were rational beings, motivated primarily by material gain. A combination of the ideal working environment and the appropriate reward would create the efficiencies required to increase productivity. Taylor’s approach was through a detailed analysis of che operations requiced by any job and the subsequent allocation of the precise human and material resources needed to fulfil it. This would lead to higher productivity — the key to commercial success. In return for higher productivity, workers would be rewarded with higher wages. The four basic principles upon which Taylor based his ideas were: 1 the development of a true science of management, so that the best method for performing each task could be determined. 2 the scientific selection of the workers, so that each worker would be given responsibility for the task for which he or she was best suited 3 the scientific education and development of the worker 4 intimate, friendly co-operation between management and labour. The legaey of Taylor's approach can be seen in the efficiency of modern conveyor belt production. However, the supporters of scientific management, in their quest for ideal systems, overlooked the need for other motivating factors besides money. In fact, it soon became clear that once the workers had achieved a certain level of affluence, they were much more likely to withdraw their labour over job conditions than over salary demands. Thus the rational approach to human nature, where money is the prime motivator, became an increasingly inappropriate basis for a management model. CLASSICAL ORGANISATION THEORY ‘The recognition of the importance of the human factor in che working environment led to the Classical Organisation Theory. While Taylor had concentrated his efforts on increasing productivity, proponents of classical organisation focused on managerial behaviour. Henri Fayol (1841-1925), generally acknowledged as the founder of this school, believed thar ‘with scientific forecasting and proper methods of management, satisfactory results were inevitable’. He firmly believed thar management was not an innate talent bur rather a learned skill. The belief that managers are made, not born, was a reversal of earlier thinkin; Fayol divided business operations into six interdependent and related functional areas: Technical — producing and manufacturing Commercial — buying raw materials and selling finished goods Financial — raising and using capital Security — protecting employees and property Accounting — recording and controlling financial transactions Managerial — overviewing the company’s activities, In this list we can sce the seeds of the departmental organisation found in many manufacturing companies today. Superimposed on the above list was Fayol’s view of what management was essentially about and the skills needed by a manager, These can be summarised as: 1 Planning — drawing up plans to enable the organisation to meet its goals 2. Organising — employing the human and material resources to implement the plans 3 Commanding — providing direction for the workers and getting them to do their jobs 4 Co-ordinating — ensuring that human and material resources are working harmoniously to achieve the desired goals 5 Controlling — monitoring all the processes to ensure they are being carried out correctly. AHRENSIn this way, Fayol added managerial activities to the functional tasks. While Taylor had viewed his workforce as units of production, Fayol took account of human differences, ‘We have to allow for different and changing circumstance, for human beings who are equally different and changeable, and for many other variable elements’. Fayol preferred to talk about principles of management which were flexible tools, capable of being adapted to meet the needs of changing circumstances. However, in comparison with the end of the twentieth century, organisations at that time were relatively stable and the principles formed a well-balanced yet flexible approach for managing large but simple organisational structures. While many of Fayol’s principles have stood the test of time and can be widely seen in today’s management practices, organisations have changed (and are changing) regularly and dramatically. One distinct arca is through work specialisation. On the one hand, increased focalisation has produced specialists with narrowly-defined areas of activity; on the other, cross- fertilisation of ideas has created cross-functional groups, where participants share specialist knowledge in order to find innovative solutions ro complex challenges. A second distinct arca is in the recognition of the human factor in organisations — an organisation is its people. BEHAVIOURAL MOVEMENTS The classical schools helped introduce people into the management equation, but failed to solve the frustrations that managers felt when people did not behave in predicted or predictable ways. Two emerging human sciences, psychology and sociology, were called upon to provide insights into human behaviour. The results were known as the human relations approach and the focus of its proponents was on how to deal more effectively with the people in the organisation by addressing social needs. The human relations movement (from the Second World War on) has developed and improved the classical approach by highlighting three areas: 1 the functional areas where management is needed, based on Fayol’s analysis 2 the organisational skills required for effective management, based again on Fayol’s analysis 3 the human skills required for effective management, in other words how to manage people — not only as individuals but also as groups. This has led co an emphasis on improving the work environment in order to increase productivity. Initiatives such as job rotation, labour-management councils and training opportunities have been employed to increase job satisfaction and worker motivation. The results show that although these factors do, in many cases, contribute to incteased job satisfaction, there is no automatic correlation between improved working environment and increased worker ouput. When it comes to the work environment, the human condition responds variously and unpredictably. This cteates problems for es those trying to establish a scientific basis for human behaviour, for without constancy there are only variables Subsequent researchers have further developed this behavioural approach, continuing to stress the importance of people in their work environment. This group, known as Behavioural Scientists rather than Human Relations Theorists, believed that various forces were at work in the motivation of ‘social man’. Maslow, one of the most famous of the group, showed the needs that we are motivated to fulfil or haye fulfilled through a hierarchical representation, ~ fo “self. \ sjletuitiedtiodl fp needs \ Esteem needs Belongingness nceds ff Safety needs . r =. ee . 7; Physiological needs % Maslow’s proposition is that an individual's lower leyel needs must be satisfied before higher level needs can be met. However, in our society, many lower level needs are satisfied outside work or are taken for granted in work. For example, a safe work environment is not considered a motivating factor for the average worker, where the expectation is that the employer will provide low-risk equipment and a safe workplace, Therefore, for our working environment to he motivating, it needs to satisfy those higher level needs, And it is important for superiors to recognise this when trying to motivate subordinates. Some later rescarchers argue that Maslow’s analysis does not take account of the complexities of human nature. They argue for “complex man’, saying that for some people, work is only a means to an end — vo satisfy their lower-level needs; for others, work provides an opportunity for meeting and satisfying higher-level needs. The Behavioural Scientists, including the Human Relations Theorists, have been very influential in forming the discipline of modern management. Their contributions haye been particularly useful in fields such as: & individual motivation = group behaviour ® interpersonal relationships ® the importance of work to human beings. p=}me Raf | ‘The findings have helped managers become more sensitive and sophisticated in their dealings with colleagues and subordinates. They continue to offer insights into current management concerns such as leadership, team building, delegation and communication. MANAGEMENT SCIENCE The Management Scientists represents a third major movement, Born out of the need to find solutions to complex, multi-disciplinary problems, teams of specialists from different areas are teamed together to build a mathematical model to simulate the problem. ‘This synergy, coupled with the technological power now available, has produced solutions in areas such as capital budgeting, production scheduling and inventory control, The strength of the management science approach is in pooling expertise to solve cross-functional problems; its weakness is that it has not yet found ways of integrating the insights from behavioural models. As a result, implementation of actions fails because the psychological and behavioural aspects of the workplace are not adequately considered. CONCLUSION These three schools of management thought have merged over the last hundred years, cach developing and reacting to its predecessor. All continue to exert an influence on management thought today and co-exist as management science continues to evolve DISCUSSION In what ways is the background information in this chapter useful for: understanding management? understanding managers? {@ designing Business English courses? THE DIVISION OF LABOUR In the first part of this chapter, we looked at the legal organisation of business, which provided a starting point for understanding the structure of business entities. We then saw how management practices evolved to handle complex organisations and activitics. By breaking down the work into manageable units, managers were able to exercise control; and by creating hierarchies they were able to delegate tasks to subordinates. These practices are translated into the company hierarchy, which gives us a further insight into the organisation of the business world. The organigram (company flowchart) is traditionally a top-down representation with power flowing through levels of management, from senior management through middle management to junior / lower management. ers | j } ; ifn eee France] [Fare] [Fence] Praca [RAD ta _ _| While a company is required by law to conform to one of the entities described earlier, the company hierarchy does not follow such fixed rules. For example, in Company A, the personnel director may be part of the senior management team; in Company B the personnel function may be carried out by a middle manager in the administration department. However, there are some constants based around the core activities that companies need to carry out, to fulfil their business activities as well as their legal requirements, These constants do, in many cases, translate into departments with clearly defmed titles and responsibilities. However, it is important to remember that the corporate hierarchy is not set in stone; and in recent years, many companies have sought to remove whole layers of management in order to become more responsive, less hierarchical and more efficient. (Terms for this have included restructuring, down-sizing, slimming down and have included all grades — from senior management down to the shopfloor). There is another reason why the functional hierarchy is a useful starting point for exploring a company’s activities: simplicity. Even the most complex company needs a closed-ended and transparent structure. In other words, it would be pointless to duplicate efforts by having two or more departments with identical functions; similarly, it would be impractical for one individual to have a large number of bosses to report to. Therefore, what one tends to find in an organigram is a discrete number of areas, each devoted to one key function, ina pyramidal form, with power flowing down from a senior position. Thus it is possible to get an overview of the functional structure without underscanding the technicalities of the underlying responsibilities The following flowchart is a classical model based around the notion of a traditional company hierarchy, which serves to show the link between departments and core activities. It can also be thought of as an identification tag for the manager or director inasmuch as it shows ane way of answering the question; What do you do? As work plays a formative role in our identities, the responses are likely to include: = I'm in personnel, ® [work in the personnel department. ® T work as a personnel manager.ee re ee All of these replies give usa link co the individual's function, position or both, And this, in turn, leads us to the company hierarchy. Managing Director (US: Chief Executive Officer) Administration J Customer Service | Distribution Finance Research & Development This organigeam is a template for exploring and understanding corporate structures, It is nor prescriptive, Configurations differ between similar organisations. So trainers may find themselves working with participants from these areas, but differently organised. For example, in some companies sales is part of marketing, personnel is part of administration and customer service is part of sales. In addition, the above list is not exhaustive and trainers may find themselves working with participants from other professional areas, such as: Design Legal Public Relations Engincering Logisties Quality Environment (including distribution) Secretarial Health and safety ‘Materials management Security Information technology Project management Training While the Managing Director is always a member of the company’s senior management and sits on the Board of Directors, the status of the other senior members will be a matter of a specific organisation's practice rather than a fixed regulation. So, the heads of the above departments may be either senior managers or middle managers, depending on convention, A brief description of each department and the key functions follows: ‘The Managing, Director (US: Chief Executive Officer) is responsible for the day-to-day management of a company. He or she is supported in that activity by a number of departments. ‘The Administration Department provides ways of checking on, watching over and supporting the operations of the company. In many companies, the data processing section, which provides information and data about finance, production, sales, etc. is located within the administration department. The Customer Service Department deals with customers before and after a sale. These services are also called pre-sales and after-sales. The department looks after customers’ orders, complaints and after-sales. ‘The Distribution Department [or Logistics Department) looks after the flow of materials into and out of the company or factory. The Finance Department is responsible for all aspects of a company’s finance. These include forecasting, budgeting and controlling all transactions coming into and going out of the company. ‘The Legal Department handles areas which involve the law. These can include contract drafting and matters involving legislation and litigation. The Marketing Department is responsible for a spread of activities which aim to inform existing and potential customers about a company’s products and services, and ultimately lead to sales. The Personnel Department is concerned with the company’s people. This includes forecasting manpower needs, recruitment, selection, training and development, compensation and benefits, community links and environmental policies. ‘The Production (and Operations) Department is concerned with the transformation of inputs into outputs. Ina manufacturing company, the production work revolves around the factory unit where the conversion of raw materials into finished products takes place. In a service company, operations is concerned with tasks related to the company’s core activities e.g. typing letters, advising clients or providing training. In both cases, two central concerns are how to inerease productivity and how to improve quality. The Purchasing Department is responsible for buying goods and materials needed for the company’s activities. These may be raw materials for the production process or office supplies for other departments. The objective of purchasing is ‘to purchase the right quality of material, at the right time, in the right quantity, from the right source, at the right price, to be delivered as, when and where necessary’. By centralising purchasing, companies can develop relationships with suppliers to ensure quality produets at competitive prices. The Research and Development Department carties out scientificae Bre | investigations which can lead to new products or services or the improvement of existing ones. R & D has been described by management guru Kotler (in his book Marketing Management), as ‘the life blood of the company’. ‘The Sales Department is responsible for selling the goods or services which a company offers. A company may use various methods for selling: face-to-face using sales representatives in charge of a territory or a (number of) key account(s), or telephone sales involving, regular phone calls to existing or potential customers. KEY ISSUES IN MANAGEMENT For the Business English teacher, it is also clearly useful to know something of the key issues that managers and their teams from different areas have to face. These concerns are partly general and partly local. The general part stems from the type of management function and the nature of the job; the local part stems from factors affecting that company in its own setting (geographical, financial, etc.). This depth of understanding will depend on a number of factors, including: @ learner expectations ® client requirements ® trainer interest. The following lists are intended as a helpful starting point for exploring different management interests and concerns. In general, the key concerns are linked to basic business concepts. An introduction to key vocabulary related to these areas is given in Part 3. GENERAL MANAGEMENT The following five categories illustrate concerns for all managers: Planning mi establighing goals and standards ® developing rules and procedures @ developing plans forecasting and projecting the future Organising = giving each member of the management team a specific task a establishing departments m delegating authority establishing channels of authority and communication ® co-ordinating the work of the management team Staffing w® deciding what type of people should be hired setting performance standards = evaluating performance Te) ® counselling Leading, ™ getting others to get the jab done @ maintaining morale ® motivating subordinates Controlling ™ setting standards ® checking to compare actual performance against standards ® taking corrective action, as needed ADMINISTRATION Information systems Information flow Technology and equipment for providing, information CUSTOMER SERVICE Satisfying customer needs so that the customer has: ® the right product (availability and quality) ® at the right place (delivery) © at the right time (phasing) ® at an acceptable and agreed price (pricing) Having, qualified staff to handle: ® customer enquiries about product availability and product features ® customer returns for various reasons, including delivery of wrong or non- quality products ® customer complaints because of non-quality produets DISTRIBUTION ‘This includes the movement of goods from the manufacturer’s production centre (factory) to the customer's reception centre. Having qualified staff ro manage the movement of goods Having the right documentation to ensure the correct movement of goods Having the means of transportation which is: ® well-maintained, in the case of own transport reliable, in the case of third party contractors ™ economic, in both cases Having the means of transportation to get the goods to the customer ® at the right time ® in good condition ™ at an economic price FINANCE Financial accounting ®™ recording the results of business transactionscollecting income and paying debts preparing statutory financial statements Treasury ensuring the company receives the best return on cash not presently used providing enough cash to pay debts foreign cxchange transactions providing information on cash flow for reporting and budgering Management accounting recording, interpreting and analysing financial information for internal planning, control and decision-making Systems planning computer strategy reducing complexities in the availability and flow of information providing database financial and non-financial information selecting computer equipment implementing computer systems Internal audir examining and reporting on the effectivencss of policies, procedures and programmes advising on new control procedures examining areas of the business for improved value for money LEGAL Responsible for legal affairs of the company, in particular: contract drafting legislation affecting the company’s activities, eg health and safety regulations company rules and regulations litigation selecting specialist legal advisors dealing with government departments advising internally on legal position MARKETING These activ 1 wre th MOS ies ate often referred to as the four (or the seven) P's: Product — the goods or services to be sold Price — the cost of the product Promotion — means of informing people shout the product or service, eg. advertising Place — the means of getting the product or service to the customer Packaging — the weapping or box for the product, but also all added- value or intangible assets People ~ everyone involved from producer to consumer Phasing — everything to do with time, eT) PERSONNEL Job analysis (determining the nature of cach employee's job) Planning manpower needs Recruiting and selecting job candidates Orienting and training new employees Compensation (wages and salaries) Providing incentives and benefit Appraising performance Face-to-face communication Management development ‘The legal framework (cqual opportunities, health and safety, labour relations} PRODUCTION Planning operations costs, economies and capacity ® facilities location ® facilities layout Organising operations @ job design and work measurement ® project management, project planning and project scheduling Quality management m the dimensions of quality ® inspecting and sampling for quality ® Total Quality Control (TQC) and Toral Quality Management (TQM) Controlling operations ® controlling processes ® inventory Human resources management job evaluation wages ergonomic factors people and machines PURCHASING Quality of material ® suitability for use m price @ availability Quantity of material = continuity of supply ® minimum investment in stocks ® conforming to safety and economic requirements ® maintenance of records of demand and pricesTime ® buying at right time to gain price advantages & delivery at agreed dates Prices ® purchasing ar lowest price consistent with quality and service = balancing low purchase prices against other factors, e.g. higher costs in use Source ® selecting suppliers = evaluating supplicrs ® avoiding dependence on one supplier RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT Source: in-house or bought-in Cost: expenditure Methods @ design new ideas ® testing new products or processes Effect: link of R&D effort to profitability and performance Managing R&D ® achieving innovation ® implementing new idcas SALES Sales personnel ® number of staff @ selecting ® taining ® rewarding Sales techniques communication and contact with existing and potential buyers support from marketing and other departments making deals order processing Sales results sales profitability cost of sales G@tatene a . DISCUSSION Choose one of the areas above and discuss what implications the range of functions might have for the language and communication needs of students For example: Research & Development: in-house or bought-in training source? If company has its own in-house R&D function, a team of people will have to be managed and this will involve a wide range of language and communication (handling meetings. making presentations and maybe writing reports). If a company out-sources its R&D, it will have to communicate with a range of suppliers — for example, university departments, private labs etc. This will involve meetings, presentations and written communication but externally rather than internally. BUSINESS SECTORS In the Organisations in Business section, we saw that one way into the content of Business English is through the organisation of the company and an individual’s function within the hierarchy. The question: What do you do? would be likely to yield some information about position and function However, the response to the same question could include information about the individual's company, for example: ® | work for a pharmaceutical company. ® [ma partner in a law firm. ® I’m responsible for a team of portfolio managers in a bank. Here the key information is the business sector in which the individual works. The structure of a company, as shown by the organigram, will show a series of linked boxes with power flowing from senior management through the managerial ranks. However, the hierarchy is a complete picture. There are no loose ends ~ at least not in the flowehart. In contrast, the list of business sectors is huge and there is very little or no overlap between areas. So, while the list of company departments is closed-ended, the list of business sectors is virtually open-ended (as a quick look at the Yellow Pages will show) However, the list below is another starting point for exploring content areas in Business English. Kor the in-company trainer working in a single business environment, it is easier to develop some knowledge about the company’s activities. For the teacher required to work with participants from many different areas, understanding the range of professional sectors represents a real challenge, as is shown from the list of business sectors on the next page. 33| LaVvd MANUFACTURING. Aerospace Agriculture & food production Automotive Chemical Cloching & footwear Construction Cosmetics & personal care Furniture Gas ‘Mining Petroleum Pharmaceutical Plastics Power generation Pulp & paper Rail SERVICE Accounting Law Advertising Medicine Architecture Military Banking & finan- Music cial services Polities & i Communication government services Printing (including Real estate broadcasting) Security & ‘Consultancy prorection Dyes & pigments Road Environment Tax Electrical Rubber Health & healtheare Touriem Electronics Telecoms Hotels & restaurants Training Fnergy Textiles Insurance {including Engineering Water International relations education) Food & drink & organisations Transportation International wade (including shipping) Journalism Utilities " DISCUSSION tl Choose two or three of the above business sectors: | What products or services do they provide? 2 Who are the customers? 3. Which companies have a major presence in your area? 3 THE LANGUAGE OF BUSINESS ENGLISH the legitimate scope of our pedagogic activitics as Business English trainers is 10 design and deliver courses which aim to increase language knowledge and communication skills. In this chapter, we will look in more detail at two areas of language knowledge: grammar, and vocabulary. The third area, pronunciation, will nor be covered in this book as there are no specific rules relating to the pronunciation of Business English. I Chapter 1, we explored the scope of Business English and I stated that Business ENGLISH LANGUAGE KNOWLEDGE presencations meet telephoning report writng veee = pronunciation GRAMMAR Js there a grammar of Business English? To answer this question, we first of all need to decide what grammar is. Here are two definition 1 the rules and conventions of language shared by a group of native speakers 2 the structure of the caregories of language. Under the first point, we can debate whether a particular language form is right of wrong in standard language, i.e. whether it is grammatically correct. Under the second point, learners study the A — Z of grammatical structures, Grammatical accuracy is, in most cases, black or white. The rules of grammar point unambiguously to the mistakes in the following sentences: ® This presentation will covers... ® | have divided my talk into four mains point ® Let's look on the first point There are, of course, some grey areas, even in standard language. As a result, educated native speakers of standard British English might have differing views about the correctness of: & There's three companies in the group @ Is it you or me who should sign this report? ® Can you speak a little slower, please.In one sense, as least, language is a living entity. And, as it develops, yesterday's grey areas change their hue, while new grey areas appear, adding to the ammunition of the language purists campaigning against language change. Another dimension to grammatical variation can be found in some specific varieties, such as British English, American English, Australian English, Indian English, West African English. A typical contrast can be seen in the following pair of sentences: ® I’ve already finished the report. (BE) m | already finished the report, (AmE) But in the arena of grammar, both the grey areas and the geographical differences pale into numerical insignificance when compared to the indisputable cases of convergence between speakers of standard language. The tules of grammar are set in fairly solid stone. As a result, language teachers may feel reasonably confident about correcting ‘mistakes’ in the language produced by their students, With regard to the question about the existence of a grammar of Business English, 1 do not think that there are any language categories specific to Business English. Business English can utilise all the language forms which exist in General English: the nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, prepositions and determiners; none are excluded. Similarly there are no new categories which have been created for Business English, What one may find, however, is that certain grammatical forms are more prevalent or less prevalent in Business English discourse patterns or genres. In analysing the grammatical forms of a language, much attention has traditionally been paid to phrases, clauses and sentences. Discourse, however, looks at patterns of language beyond the level of the sentence to see how different parts are ‘chunked together’ in order ta create a coherent and cohesive whole, Discourse studies focus on areas such as ® connections and transitions between ideas connections and transitions between sentences connections between clauses turn-taking in conversation establishing 2 new topic of conversation, Discourse patterns vary hetween different uses and users. The discourse of spoken colloquial language will reveal very different features from the discourse of a written technical manual, Compare the following examples: 1 You can use whatever type of paper you like. The printer will work anyway. 2. The printer will work with all paper types. The meaning in both sentences is that the printer will work irrespective of the paper used. However, the sentence structure varies. Example 1 is more typical of spoken language; example 2 is more neutral and could be used in both a spoken and a written form In addition, each of up has our own individual features or idiosyncrasies in speech and writing. ‘These may well be identified as a penchant for using (or overusing) a particular grammatical form, However, except in very restricted discourse (e.g. instructions) or specialist discourse (e.g. contracts), the language categories will include the familiar panoply of nouns, verbs, articles, prepositions, etc, A detailed frequency analysis may reveal that certain grammatical categories are more widely used in one type of discourse than in another, but a chorough analysis is unlikely to find the absence of a whole category. In this respect, the grammar of Business English needs to cover all the core grammatical areas of general English. While discourse looks at ways of establishing coherence and cohesion in longer chunks of spoken or written text according to form and function, genre analysis focuses on communicative acts according to their communicative purpose. A typical example is a newspaper advertisement. Put in front of a group of people who share the same cultural conditioning, it will be recognised for its communicative purpose. In other words, the viewers would be able to recognise the link between the form of the advertisement and its objective(s). By extension, genre analysis looks not at the linguistic form but at the uniquely shared features of specific communicative purposes or communication acts. In Business English, this could inchide activities such as product presentations, briefing meetings, internal informational memos or cold- contact promotional letters, each of which could be recognised and classified according to its communicative purpose. But is there a grammar of Business English genres? Is there a specific subset of language patterns which are unique to product presentations or product advertisements? Again, I feel that there may be language forms which predominate in a written or spoken text, and that these patterns may well be characteristic of that particular text. However, Business English, as a wide-ranging area encompassing all communication activities used in business interactions has no limits as far.as grammar is concerned. So, while specific genres may have distinctive grammatical patterns, Business English is characterised by the full range of forms. VOCABULARY Vocabulary represents the main building blocks of functional meaning in language. The list of words in English 1s huge. he most nearly complete dictionary of the language, the Oxford English Dictionary (13 volumes, 1933) contains 500,000 words in English. It has been estimated, however, that the present English vocabulary consists of more than one million words, including slang. and dialect expressions and scientific and technical terms, many of which only came into use after the middle of the twentieth century The English language is said to contain more than half a million words, Yet the average native speaker is able to get by with around 5,000. The words are bound together by grammar, but without words, normal interaction fails. a7Lek | Business English, inasmuch as it covers areas and topics not commonly used by general speakers, has its own specialist vocabulary. And, as in general English, vocabulary is central to communication where clearly defined topics are under consideration. So, how can we forecast the vocabulary that will be needed for different topics to he covered in business interaction? One starting point is to identify the types of, or contexts for communication. ‘These may be summarised as follow 1. specialise specialise 2a, specialist non-specialist 2b, non-specialist specialist 3. generalise gencralist 1 Specialist to specialist. This presupposes the need for a range of vocabulary dealing with shared professional issues. The precise lexical items required will depend on the topic under consideration. However, it is possible to predict the range of specialist vocabulary needed to treat topies within key management areas. 2 Specialist to non-specialist / non-specialist to specialist. Today’s broadly based professionals will nced to he equipped to handle a wide range of management issues both within and outside their specialist areas, The increasing importance of team working and multi-disciplinary workgroups has led to a need for the multi-faceted manager. Multi-skilling includes language knowledge. To be effective in such a work environment, managers need the vocabulary knowledge not only of their own areas, but also of other areas of the company’s operations. 3 Generalist to generalist. This refers co the wider contexts in which professionals communicate outside the strict confines of corparate offices and boardrooms. A popular maxim is that successful business relationships are built on successful personal relationships. So the social side of communication must not be ignored ~ the ability ro converse about social, economic, political, environmental and personal issues. And this competence required its own set of vocabulary In addition to the context-driven and topic-driven vocabulary, there is clearly. anced for ‘general purpose vocabulary’, derived from a common core of basic terms, This latter approximates to the language taught on general English programmes, although there will be some overlap berween terms from the common core and those for generalist to generalist communication. While vocabulary lists can be daunting for the learner, they are a useful starting point for exploring the range of terms drawn from key areas within business. Of course, the role of the traincr is to serve the terms in digestible b chunks. The word lists in the Checklist on specialist vocabulary in Part 3 of this book are offered asa way in to the specialist language of Business English. 38 4 COMMUNICATION SKILLS IN BUSINESS ACCURACY, FLUENCY AND EFFECTIVENESS In Chapter 1, we explored the scope of Business English and I stated that the legitimate scope of our pedagogic activities as Business English trainers is to design and deliver courses which aim to increase langvage knowledge and/or communication skills. In the same chapter we looked at learners’ objectives, which I summarised as aiming to develop one or more of the following: LEARNERS’ OBJECTIVES KT” \) ACCURACY - Linguistic accuracy is, in most cases, black or white. The rules of grammar state what is right and teachers, in contrast, (are often asked to) point out what is wrong. In the domain of vocabulary, a word is either right or wrong in a particular context. Te is only at the level of pronunciation that foreign Ieatnets’ efforts to approximace to the sound system of English are allowed greater latitude, as the goal of achieving native-speaker pronunciation is regarded as unrealistic. ACCURACY OF LANGUAGE KNOWLEDGE % words © grammar ® pronunciation eCHowever, when we look at fluency and effectiveness, the same categories of black and white do not apply. Rather we are looking at a cline with zero competence at one end and native-speaker competence at the other. In the middle are many levels of flucncy. The same is true for effectiveness, which, in professional communication, is different from fluency. So accuracy is yes/no, while fluency and effectiveness are more/less. What makes the assessment of fluency and effectiveness so problematic is the absence of scientifically measurable criteria against which to grade performance. FLUENCY FLUENCY OF COMMUNICATION = speed of speaking ® effort of speaking The word ‘fluency’ is derived from the Latin verb fluere, meaning to flow. ‘The Concise Oxford Dictionary defines the adjective ‘fluent’ as ‘expressing oneself quickly and easily’. “Speed of speaking’ is, indeed, objectively measurable, but there is no agreed ‘speed limit’ within which speech should flow. Listeners will largely agree on which speakers are outside acceptable bounds; where a speaker is groping for words so that there are uncomfortable gaps in delivery; or where a speaker rattles on in English without concern for the comprehensibility of the message. So rather than a single standard of fluency, chere is a range of delivery speeds within the ‘fluent’ band. We need also to consider individual differences. All native speakers have their own natural ‘speed of speaking’ — some faster, some slower; and this speed will itself vary, depending on the sinuation and topic So, what might be a natural delivery speed for speaker A in context Y might well be quite different from speaker B in context Z. It is the perception of the listener(s) which lies at the heart of fluency. Does the speaker achieve a natural flow in the language? If they feel thar a speaker is speaking too slowly, their impression will be of lack of fluency. Yer among non-native speakers, there could, indeed, be a real advantage to “slow? speech since it could aid the comprehension of listeners. For example, if 2 non-native speaker speaks at a relatively slow speed — slower than a comparable native speaker talking about the same subject — the listeners may not notice the lack of fluency or may consider the speaker to be fluent since Oi the slowness of delivery helps them to decode the message. So speed is a variable rather than an absolute factor of fluency, ‘The second criterion in the dictionary definition is ‘ease of speaking’. Here we are talking about the effort of speakers in formulating their message, But how are we to measure effort? The only way is to ask the speaker about the level of difficulty experienced. So how is this to be validated and how can it be compared between speakers? It is clear thar fluency, one of the objectives often expressed by learners of both general and Business English, has no scientifically measurably basis and depends on purely impressionistic features of speech. EFFECTIVENESS EFFECTIVENESS OF PROFESSIONAL COMMUNICATION ® impact of delivery ® variety of media ® conciseness of communication General English courses tend to focus on developing accuracy and fluency. Business English programmes, influenced as they are by communication skills training, also need to concern themselves with the criterion of effectiveness. While the key word for fluency is flow, the core of effectiveness is impact. Effectiveness is a stylistic feature of communication, It is at once part of the message and part of the medium. One speaker may kill an altogether interesting message by ineffective delivery; yet an effective communicator can bring even the most mundane message co life. As with fluency there are no absolute rules of effectiveness. What works for speaker A may seem totally inappropriate for speaker B. In the middle there are a number of behavioural parameters to be experimented with in order to achieve a style which is both comfortable and effective. In the training room, the trainee can separate the techniques from the message and work on strategies that have the required audience impact Like fluency, the elements of cffective communication are not susceptible to scientific measurement. They include behavioural features, such as ® use of hand and arm gestures use of eye contact vocal variety use of visual aidsok ® movement within the audience area @ handling questions ® handling difficult audiences. Effective communicators will develop their own strategies and techniques ~ personal styles which transcend the use of a foreign language, but which can enhance the message of many less fluent and less accurate language users. So these three objectives ~ accuracy, fluency and effectiveness — require different knowledge and skills. I have taught many learners who have been at very different “levels on each of these scales, There have been those who have built up an impressive knowledge of language forms, particularly in terms of grammar and vocabulary. And given time and tolerance on the part of the listener, they can produce well-formed (accurate) language. However they have neither fluency (smooth flow), nor effectiveness (impact). Another category includes those who are fluent, yet inaccurate. They can express their ideas and convey information by filling all the uncomfortable gaps with noise, yet their communication lacks focus and impact and is marred by lapses in basic linguistic accuracy. The third group is characterised by those who can communicate effectively for short periods. They have (mastered) the techniques of effective communication, especially in presentations, but have, in fact, only limited linguistic tools at their disposal, Once outside their specialist area, cheir competence rapidly declines as the gaps in language knowledge needed to express their ideas become more apparent, In this section, we will look in more detail at the core profess communication skills listed below. mal Business ENGLISH OMMUNICATION | = grammar © presentations = vocabulary = meetings © pronunciation | negotiations = telephoning written documentation All learners will agree that these skills are central to the communication of today's business professional. And many trainees will see their reason for attending a training course in rerms of improving these skills. What is more difficule to pin down is the precise meaning of ‘improve’. Some learners see improvement in terms of better language control and fewer mistakes, i.e accuracy; others see it in terms of greater spontaneity and more flow, ise. 42 fluency; and a third group ace ie in terms of impact on listeners, i.e. effectiveness, Many will ideally want to improve in all areas, But, as trainers, we need to provide a realistic service and guide learners towards a practical compromise in which they can improve (and register their improvement) within the learning parameters set by the course — duration, intensity, group size, etc. PRESENTATIONS : A presentation is a talk given by one individual to one or more listeners. The exact format is not clearly defined and can include anything from a rigidly- formatted ten minute conference talk about new techniques in cardiovascular surgery, to a loosely-structured three-day training session on a new piece of celecoms equipment. However, in all cases ir should be prepared for a specific target audience. This is the starting point for preparation, whether the presentation is to be given in the learner's first language or in English. Presentation training in Business English may be offered either as a short course in its own right or as part of a longer Business English programme. In both cases, the trainer should aim to give every participant at least one opportunity to give a full presentation. In my experience, 15 minutes is a good length of time fora speaker to practise using the technigues for effective presentation. While preparation is the starting point for a good presentation, trainees on in-service courses usually prefer to focus on the practical skills required to deliver a message to an audience. And though learners may perceive these skills in terms of improving their accuracy or their fluency or their effectiveness, they generally see the classroom as an arena for practising and getting feedback on their performance. Thus the feedback given may focus on one or more of these areas. The key to improving overall performance is firstly to agree what constitutes an effective presentation. The following model seems to resonate with most learners and provides a uscful template for performance feedback and evaluation. PRESENTATION SKILLSContent refers to the information that the speaker has chosen to convey. Has the speaker made a good choice in terms of: level (does the presentation correspond with the needs and interests of the majority of the audience?) 8 quantity (does the speaker atcempr to convey an appropriate amount of information in the available time?) = accuracy (is the information correct?) Structure refers to the organisation of the information’ chosen package — the presentation. Is it effective in terms of: ® organisation of presentation (docs the presentation have a clear beginning, middle and end?) @ transparency of organisation (jg the’structure of the’ presentation clearly signalled to the audience so that they can see the beginning, middle and end?) ro an overall Delivery refers to the techniques used by the speaker to have an impact on the audience. Is there effective use of: ® voice (is there enough variety of volume and tempo to maintain audience interest?) ® body language (does the speaker appear open, confident, interested, ete.?) ® eye contact (does the speaker establish rapport with the audience?) ® visual aids (is there sufficient support to reinforce the speaker's message? does the speaker make good use of the support chosen?) Language refers to the traditional categories of language forms, which are the main tools to communicate the message. Are these used correctly, particularly in terms of the: ® grammar ® vocabulary ® pronunciation? In order to derive the greatest benefit from classroom time on short courses, it is important that trainees are told to prepare their presentations in adyance and to bring with them any visual aids to support their presentation, This means that once the clements of effective presentation have been agreed, classroom activities move through a series of mini-practice sessions in which the learners aim to improve their performance in an observable way in one or more of the above areas, Below are the objectives of a typical presentation skills programme, ran as a two-day course for a group of in-service professionals, and agreed by trainees at the beginning of a course. COURSE OBJECTIVES = To develop presentation skills in terms of effective organisation ce ® ‘To improve presentation techniques in order to have greater impact on the audience ® To learn appropriate expressions for presentations ® To practise presentations and get feedback on strengths and weaknesses = To review design and exploitation of visual aids. ; Ic is important to point out thar the area of content rarely features in the ‘course objectives identified by trainees at the beginning of a course. This does not mean thar it is not commented on during feedback sessions. In fact, where the trainees come from the same professional arca, a lot of feedback deals with the complexity, quantity and accuracy of information. However, content training is not within the scope of the Business English trainer's remit, though, of course, it is a vital concern for the trainees. Central to the programme development is the following model, which is used asa flexible guide for the practice sessions during the course. PRESENTATION BUILDING BLOCKS Greeting Introduce yourself Based on these course objectives and the building blocks of the presentation, the programme would move through the following stages: 1 Elements of effective presentation, Video model followed by round table discussion. 2. Structure of presentation. Discussion Introduce your talk Outline talk ] i Present main part Of presentation building, blocks (see divided into: above) Point L 3. Practice 1. Each participant gives a Point 2 two-minute presentation, This | Point 3 cover Summarise ® greeting the audience ® giving an introduction of main points themselves and their talk © outlining the main points of the Conclude talk + talk, tt — Each practice is followed by Invite questions ] feedback around the cable on content, structure, delivery and language — both strengehs and weaknesses, Where necessary, a participant may be asked ro repeat this part. 4 Transparency of presentation structure and link phrases, Discussion of importance of signalling structure to audience and focus on key phrases. 5 Practice 2. Each participant gives a ten-minute presentation of the main part of their prepared talk. Each practice is followed by feedback around the table PART ion content, structure, delivery and language. This practice session is typically videoed so that participants can view (part off their performance. (As working through six or more presentations in succession can get boring, this practice can be divided into two ot more parts.) 6 Visual aids. Discussion of good and bad overhead transparencies; discussion of good and bad exploitation of overhead transparencies. 7 Practice 3, Each participant presents a transparency (2 — 3 minutes), practising ® appropriate language ® appropriate techniques. Each practice is followed by feedback around the table on delivery and language, 8 Body language. Discussion of appropriate techniques. 9 Summarising and concluding, Discussion of importance of a strong and memorable ending, 10 Practice 4, Each participant summarises and concludes their presentation. Feedback as before. 11 Practice 5, Each participant gives a complete presentation, Feedback as before, 12 Question handling. Discussion of place for questions (during or alter Presentation), rechniques and language for handling both easy and difficult questions. 13 Practice 6. Each participant gives part of their prepared talle, while the audience interrupts with questions. Feedback as before. 14 Practice 7, If time permits, further practice of part of the presentation, the complete presentation or another complete or part presentation. Fecdback as before. For a list of linking phrases for presentations, sec the Checklist at the back of the book. Training can help presenters improve the effectiveness of their presentation skills, By focusing on the four areas of content, structure. delivery and language, presenters can increase their confidence in their ability to achieve the desired result from their message. Training undoubtedly improves communication skills, And in particular, presentation structure and delivery can be improved quite markedly through classroom practice and constructive feedback. In general, all presenters can make noticeable progress in a short time in targeted areas and complete a course with clearly improved skills. While training helps to improve performance, there are those communicators who defy che conventional common-sense approach 10 communication skills. They give memorable performances simply by breaking the rules which most less confident people find helpful. Giving a commendable performance is, in my experience, within the geasp of every presenter, but giving a memorable presentation requires basic communication techniques plus a good measure of performing talents. While the former can be developed quite rapidly hy means of training, the latter is something which an individual basically either hay or hay not gor. For those trainers working with trainees whose aim is to achieve a commendable performance, here is a short list of tips: The Five Principles of Effective Presentation 1 ‘The principle of clear structure. Your communication should have a clear beginning, middle and end. 2. The principle of multimedia. Your audience will remember better and longer if there are multiple stimuli. 3. The principle of two-way communication. Your communication will he more effective if you audience have an opportunity to participate actively. 4 The principle of cultural sensitivity. Remember and pay attention to the sensitivities of your audience, 5. The principle of memory. People tend to remember the information they heard last (and forget what was said at the beginning of the talk). DiscuSSION 1 Think of the memorable presentations that you have heard. What was it that made the performance memorable? 2. Do you agree that presentation techniques can be taught? | 3 Patterns of communication vary between cultures. Do you think presenters should try to adopt the cultural communication patterns of the audience to which they are speaking? MEETINGS Business people spend a lor of time in meetings. In fact many would argue ‘too much time’. Although part of their frustration stems from the view that meetings are often seen as preventing them from ‘real work’, there fap a genuine fecling that many meetings are badly run, Streamlining procedures and improving outpucs are, therefore, highly desirable goals. _ As with presentations, the exact format of a meeting is not clearly define and there are many types of gatherings which may be classed as meetings: Briefing meetings. Here the purpose is to inform others of a new eesdevelopment, new procedures or a new solution. Obtain participants is not central co the purpose of the meeting. 2 the views of the Brainstorming mectings. Here the aim is to collect ideas from all participants around the table, Often the ideas are given randomly, without evaluation of their appropriacy. Decision-making and problem-solving meetings. Here the aim is to reach a decision ot solve a problem, The meeting provides the participants with an opportunity to present their views, persuade or dissuade and finally make a decision. Committee meetings. The meeting is actended by two or more interest groups. A chair is elected and decisions are reached by a majority vote, Company meetings. The annual general meeting (AGM) is a legal requirement for all companies and involves fixed procedures, including the chair’s (usually the chairman’s) report, the company’s accounts and resolutions. In addition to the general meeting, a company may call a ‘special meeting’ to deal with one or more specific topics Although business meetings don’t have a fixed format, they should have the following characteristic ‘The gathering together of a group of people for a controlled discussion with a specific purpose It is the last two points in the definition which differentiate a business meeting from a social meeting and which, if followed, help to ensure the effectiveness of the procedures and the success of the outcome. Meeting training in Business English may be offered either asa short course in its own right or as part of a longer Business English programme. In both cases, the trainer should aim to provide opportunities for both controlled and free practice, as well as sharing feedback on the successes and failures of the techniques used. While preparation is not a guarantee of a successful outcome, most meeting participants would agrce that if the pre-mecting procedures have been carried out, then there is, at least, a better chance of satisfactory outcome. ‘The list of pre-meeting tasks includes: B deciding who is to attend ® deciding on time and place preparing the meeting room (tables, chairs, flipchart, audio-visual equipment) a8 ® inviting participants preparing the agenda ® circulating documentation a These preparatory activities are rarely the concern of Business English trainees, Their interest, as far as training is concerned, is to focus on the practical skills required to control meetings (as chairperson) and to contribute to meetings (as participants). And the classroom is seen as an arena for practising and getting feedback on their performance in terms of ° acctiracy, fluency and effectiveness (or a combination of these parameters). ; ‘These criteria should, therefore, be the basis for meeting training, meeting practice and meeting feedback. The key to improving performance is firstly to agree on whac constitates an effective meeting. The following model, though not exhaustive, captures many points which are relevant to different types of meeting. And, as with the corresponding model for effective presentations, it provides a useful template for performance feedback and evaluation. MEETING SKILLS What makes an effective meeting? PROCEDURE ene) People refers to everyone involved in the meeting and their roles: the chairperson / the participants / the secretary & the boss / the subordinate = the expert / the non-expert. Are the right people present in order to achieve the purpose of the meeting? Do they know what roles they are expected to fulfil Procedures refers to the steps and stages of the meeting and their management. The chairperson is responsible for overall control, in particular: opening the meeting stating the purpose/objectives of the meeting introducing items on the agenda agreeing the ground rules for the meeting (contributions, timing, decision- making, ete.) asking for contributionsinvolving all the participavts keeping the meeting on target (time, relevance, decisions) clarifying, when necessary summarising, when necessary closing the meeting. ‘The participants are responsible for: making relevant contributions observing the agreed procedures for the conduct of the meeting, ‘The secretary is responsible for: keeping a record of participants present, points discussed, conclusions reached and actions to be taken distributing the minutes within a reasonable time. Are all these stages managed effectively? BUS eNae eee Results refers to the outcomes of the meeting. A lot of meetings fail because che participants are unsure of the purpose and therefore dissatisfied with the results, Therefore effective meetings depend entirely on: = communicating the purpose = satisfying expectations © clarifying the outcome in terms of action. Language refers to the cradicional categories of language forms: =® grammar = vocabulary ™ pronunciation. Are these used correctly? In order to derive the greatest benefit from classroom time on short courses, it is important that classroom activities focus on meeting practice and feedback. This means that once the elements of effective meetings have been agreed, classroom activities move through a series of mini-practice sessions in which the learners aim to improve their performance in an observable way in one or more of the above areas. Below are the objectives of a typical meeting skills programme, run as a three-day course for a group of in-service professionals. COURSE OBJECTIVES ® To develop meeting skills in terms of effective procedures To improve techniques for controlling and participating in meetings To practise presenting information at meetings To learn appropriate expressions for controlling and participating in meetings ® To practise meetings and get feedback on strengths and weaknesses So, referting to the effective meetings template, the main concerns of typi Business English learners can be summari = the procedural elements ® the linguistic elements m practice feedback. These learning objectives can be translated into a training programme in meeting skills based around the following procedural steps, which can be used as a flexible guide for the practice sessions during the course. Procedures for the chairperson Open the meeting State purpose/objectives of meeting Welcome new participants, if necessary Give apologies for absence Read secretary's report of last meeting, Deal with Matters Arising from report Introduce agenda for current meeting and review/amend/prioritise, as necessary Introduce item 1 and invite oral report Invite discussion, if appropriate Summarise points discussed Lead into decision-making process, if appropriate Conclude point and thank presenter Introduce next item and invite report, until all points have been covered or time has run our : Summatise points covered and decisions made. Relate to objectives Invite Any Other Business (AOB) Agree time, date and place for next meeting Thank participants for attending Close mecting Go through agenda Procedures for the participants Present information in the form of an oral report or mini-presentation Participate in discussion, involving: giving and seeking opinions interrupting ...commenting “agreeing and disagreeing . advising and suggesting requesting information and action schecking and confirming, information. 3 Procedures for the secretary. To record: 8 the names of the participants @ the topics discussed eebrief details of arguments for and against decisions made voting details follow-up actions to be carried out (who, what and when) the date, time and place of the next meeting, The above procedures are fairly exhaustive. Many meetings (c.g. brainstorming) will not be bound by procedures. However, the complete communicator will need a command of these procedures so that they can be drawn on as and when necessary. Some are rclatively mechanical (welcoming participants) whilst others (summarising) involve complex skills. Improving a student’s abilicy to summarise will mean looking at the way information and ideas can best be structured; in order to handle the decision-making process in a meeting, students need to show both understanding and decisiveness at critical moments, Effective management of or participation ina meeting can be achieved if trainees are firstly made aware of the process of meetings and then given a set of tools to guide them through this process, The tools which enable these procedures to be effectively carried out are mainly linguistic, inyolving oral and written communication. The list of phrases in the checklist at the back of the book shows the language corresponding, to the steps to be carried out, Before looking. ar the phrases themselves, it is useful ro put them into some of functional context, according to the purpose(s) they fulfil. While link phrases for presentations (see checklist), signal to the audience, as he/she moves through his/her presentation, recent and planned progress, the forms required by the chairperson are ‘control language’ so that the meeting Participants know what stage the meeting has reached and what steps they are expected to take next. As with the earlier list of link phrases, the ‘control phrases’ in the checklist are intended to start trainees thinking of the kind of language suitable for meeting procedures. The list is not complete: trainces should explore the range of phrases and, in the light of the type and climate of the meeting, choose those that best suit them, and the context. Training can help improve the effectiveness of skills by focusing on the procedural and linguistic elements involved in running and participating in meetings, Beyond the control language is, of course, the heart of the meeting itself — the topics to be discussed. For meeting skills to he practised, agendas of points for discussion need to be drawn up. There are basically two approaches — student-generated or teacher-generated, Where students share the same professional background, it usually requires little effort to get thom to draw up a list of key points for discussion, information- or opinion- exchange or even decision-making. These points can then be fashioned into an agenda around which to practise meeting, skills, Where the trainees come from different areas and backgrounds, the trainer will often need to provide an agenda. Points must necessarily reflect ff Ny issues of universal interest. The following sample list includes items of 4 human, ethical and practical concern, all of which can engage trainees an provide a platform for serious discussion, AGENDA FOR A SIMULATED MEETING Inter-Departmental Liaison Committee Meeting agenda eon One - favizomentally Feiendly office e the nation’s tap companies are. determine now environmentally triendly Before the eavironmantal audin, you want to improve the corrent situation. What cat be done? You already have some ideas, you mould like some: more. Proposed measures: . Incentives to-encourage staff te use public transport . Reduction of building temperature by 5c . Recycling bins for waste materials Item Two - Japanese Visitors A group Of twenty visitors from visiting your company. They Feasibility. of sebting uo a néw car plant. : desparately needed in your region. Plan the one day visit for 1 dea mix of business and culture che vapenese Ministry of Industry: is in your area to leck at the Trivaed investment is 7 ission Statement create @ new mission statement which will represent your company's values through to the year 2000. Decide what this: mission statement should be, the values that it represents and how best to communicate it to your employees and your customers. - Business Gifts quality single malt Scotch whisky. it is clear that the neads to establish Clearer guidelines on what is and what is accontable ton Five - Training Budget Tue a tether poor results, last year, the Cechnigel, @anagenent and lanauaue treiniwy. consider nérite and allocate the budget om a percentage ba: ten Six - Internet oir coneciy a e sployees lage month, However, Simeus, Erployeca ate apeading bath \orkeine. and frectime wn the and péthaps establish dew guidelines. walning budget has: had Lo jes of the relative xenet and World wide web available Lo its @ gosts are proving to be Ee]ee ae As with all communication skills, the key is practice and feedback. The trainer needs, therefore, to set up a context for communication (a practice agenda, or part of an agenda), an agreed template against which to evaluate performance (checklist of steps and procedures) and a climate in which ) constructive feedback can be shared around the table. | DiscUSsION _ | Think of good meetings that you have participated in. What was it that made them good? 2 Do you agree that meeting techniques can be taught? 3. Patterns of communication vary between cultures. What problems do you think you might face when running a training course in meeting skills for participants from different national cultures? TELEPHONING Presentations and meetings may play very critical roles in the lives of business people, but often much of their day-to-day business is carried out over the phone. A business phone call can be defined according to its purpose. These include: giving information requesting information confirming information making arrangements persuading the called party, as in telephone selling negotiating with the called party complaining to the called party. There are two parallel structures for telephone calls, depending on whether one is the caller or the called party. These structures can be broken down into the following building, block: ‘Telephone building blocks ~ caller ‘Telephone building blocks — called Identify yourself to caller to switchboard Greeting Identify yourself to called |Cover main part according to | Cover main part according to purpose ger information purpose: 2 give information 5 give information @ cte. ® make arrangements @ ete. Pre-dlose call, e. summarise main points @ thank called © respond to thank: mt. lose call J These building blocks give us a starting framework for the steps or procedures involved in a phone call. For the purpose of programme / development, we also need a template for evaluating performance, so that we can share feedback with our trainees. This could be based around the following model: confirm main points thank caller respond to thanks TELEPHONING SKILLS What makes an effective phone call? PREPARATION 14Preparation refers to the state of ‘mental readiness’ to implement the clearly- defined purpose of the call. This may be to: give information . request information confirm information make arrangemencs persuade the called party negotiate with the called party complain to the called party. Has the caller carried out the necessary preparation for an effective call? Is he/she prepared for the foreseeable range of scenarios, once he/she has dialled the number of the person being called? { Structure refers to the stages of the call. These are shown above under telephone building blocks’. Does the caller have an awareness of the steps to be taken to manage the call effectively, aecurding to his/her purpose? Docs the caller have the necessary skills (organisational and linguistic) to advance the call effectively through its various stages? : mass refers to the techniques used by the parties to achieve the purpose of the call effectively. As there is no visual contact between the parties, the message relies heavily on the voice for its effective transmission. To be effective, there should be: & clear and comprehensible specch, i.e. the speakers must avoid mumbling jargon, complicated sentence steucturd, etc. , & regular and appropriate feedback, eg. 1 sec, | understand, uh-huh, etc appropriate vocal tone for the purpose of the call, e.g. polite, helpful, persuasive, etc. , x - an appropriate action during the call, i.e. don’t leave the caller or the called hanging on for more than ten seconds without warning & offers of appropriate follow-up action, where necessary. Language refers to the traditional categories of language forms @ grammar : = vocabulary ® pronunciation, Are these used correctly? As with other oral communication skills, the key to improved performance is to: ; # agree on the clements of effective phone alls ™ practise phone calls to integrate the clements into performance ® share feedback on strengths and weaknesses, in Although presentations and meetings are often run as training courses their own right, telephoning typically appears as part of a wider course — either a broadly-based Business English programme or a Secretarial Skills course. Below are the possible objectives to be incorporated into the module dealing with telephone skills MODULE OBJECTIVES To develop and practise the professional communication skill of telephoning in terms of telephone manner and telephone phrases . To practise phone calls and get feedback on strengths and weaknesses. Practising phone calls requires both a bank of short phone exercises to be used for developing techniques and language, and longer activities requiring more detailed interaction between the parties. Published materials provide both, though where students share the same professional background, it usually requires little effort ro get them to draw up a list of typical calls they need to make and receive. These can then be quite easily turned into relevant phone activities. ‘As with the communication skills considered earlier, the key is practice and feedback. The trainer needs, therefore, to set up contexts for communication through practice calls drawn from published material or the learners’ own experiences/needs, an agreed template against which to evaluate performance (telephone building blocks and associaced phrases) and a climate in which constructive feedback can be shared around the table. DISCUSSION | Think of telephone calls that you have received. What are the types of behaviour that irritate you? 2. What is the effect of good telephone manner? 3. Patterns of communication vary between cultures. What problems do you think you might face when teaching telephoning skills to participants from different national cultures? NEGOTIATIONS A negotiation is a special type of meeting in which the parties (usually two) need each other’s agreement in order to achieve an effective result. One of the biggest problems for Business English trainers is to make sense of the competing models of negotiations offered by management gurus. These include both tactical aspects and procedural aspects, as shown in the extracts from the following negotiation programmes and models: edThe negoriacing process Determining the basis for give and take Styles Wdentifying, your negotiating style Incerpreting the seyles of others How styles interact, conflict, or mesh Watching for non-verbal messages and signals Overcoming traps; gaps, and barriers Using Cost-Price Analysis as a Negotiating ‘Asset How to determine the real costs 3 Pre-Negotiation Planning Steps Negotiating profits and margins aia your specific needs Getting. all of the fmancial facts Yow 10 Sort out your options 6 Dealing With Conflice Creatively Getting all of the fats Handling differences and disruptions ang ‘out the bottom-line need of the Leaming to assert yourself seller Proventing their problems from bec Identifying your “teading cards” your problems a 4 Effective Communications in Negotiations Naess Ianracdmecrpiee tal the Cor Exeaive rcpt Coli of Paice wee ines Admineson, Uae of Heston, Hea, Ton USA 1 The negotiation process — how negotiations develop 2 Planning negotiations ~ assessing poiver, framing objectives, defining iasues, setting positions 3 The meeting ~ setting the dinate, presenting your case, getting useful informaticn controlling movement, using adjournments : 4 The negotiating ream — advantages and possibl vantages and possible problems, managin, 1s cfc 5 Influencing skills oer © Dealing with conflict ~conflcr in the team, conflict ith the other side, indirect conflict 7 ‘The contract ~ what it should contain, use in negotiation 8 Reaching agreement ~ ensuring implementation, building in contingencies From Gin Senvee College, Larch Avon, Ascot, Berkshite SES OOP, UK Five negotiations inv every negotiation: 1 competitive 2 co-operative 3 organisational 4 attitude/personalitics 5 personal The three pillars of negotiation 1 planning 2 phases 3 behaviour The Model of Communication Rapport Building How to build rrusr and responsiveness, both verbally and non-verhally. How 16 pace and lead in any communication, Non-verbal clues Leading with language How to move language to and from the artfully vague 1 the specific Personality and persuasion How to understand other people's model of the world and how to develop the flexibility of style to influence them The Seven Step Approach for plannin; 1 defining the goal z 5 4 who's got the power 7 attend to the details ‘The phases of negotiation 1 opening stance 4 packaging Perlonmsance Babareoment Led, UK 2 listening signal 5 bargaining 6 closing 2 what's happened before 3 specify objectives 5 strategy ind tactics 6 plan arguments 3 adding to the proposal Negotiation training, in Business English may be offered either as a short course in its own right or as part of a longer Business English programme. In both cases, the trainer should aim to provide opportunities for both controlled and free practice, as well as sharing feedback on the successes and failures of the techniques used. All the models listed above stress the importance of pre-negotiation planning. While preparation is not a guarantee of a successful outcome, most negotiation participants would agree that lack of preparation is one of the key factors leading to failure. A list of area’ for considering before the negotiation includes: @ Assessing power = Establishing your specific needs and objectives © How to sort out your options ™ Getting all of the facts . . . Defining issues Setting positions Finding out the bottom-line need of the other party. As with the tasks in preparation for a meeting, the above activities are rarely the concern of Business English trainees. Their interest, as far as training is concerned, is to focus on the practical skills required to negotiate effectively in English. And the classroom is seen as an arena for practising and getting feedback on their performance in terms of accuracy, fluency and effectiveness (or a combination of these parameters). These criteria should, therefore, be the basis for negotiation training, negotiation practice and negotiation feedback. ‘The key to improving performance is firstly to agree what constitutes an effective negotiation. The following model, though not exhaustive, captures many points common to all kinds of negotiation and provides a useful template for performance feedback and evaluation. NEGOTIATING SKILLS What makes an effective negoti People refers to everyone involved in the negotiation and their roles, in particular:Le eae | ™ are all the right people present for the negotiation? ® do you have a well-balanced negotiating team? ® do both teams have decision-making power? Planning and Procedures refers to the steps and stages of the meeting in which the negotiators meet face-to-face. These include: creating the right climate presenting the case collecting information controlling movement managing, conflict summarising, when necessary using adjournments clinching the deal closing the mecting Results refers to the outcomes of the negotiations. It is important that: © all parties are committed to the agreement reached = the terms of the agreement are clear to all parties % the cerms are capable of implementation Language refers to the traditional categories of language forms: = grammar ® vocabulary = pronunciation. In order to derive the greatest benefit from classroom time on short courses, it is important that classroom activities focus on negotiation practice and feedback. This means that once the elements of effective negotiating have been agreed, classroom activities move through a series of mini-practice sessions if which the learners aim to improve their performance in an observable way in one or more of the above areas __ Below are the objectives of a cypical negotiating skills programme, run either as a three-day course for a group of in-service professionals or as part of a broadly-based Business English programme. COURSE OBJECTIVES = To develop negotiating skills in terms of effective procedures To improve negotiating techniques and tactics To practise presenting information in negotiations To lean appropriate expressions for negotiating To practise negotiations and get feedhack on, strengths and weaknesses So, referring to the effective negotiations template, the main concems of typical Business English learners can be summarised as the procedural elements the tactical elements the linguistic elements practice feedback. ‘These learning objectives can be translated into a training programme in negotiating skills based around the following model which combines both : behavioural and procedural aspects Creating the right environment Defining the issues Establishing opening positions Handling the offer and counter-offer Testing the other side’s case Strengthening your case Handling, stalemate Clinching the deal Getting it in writing The legal aspects. Beowanaune The elements identified above take Business English quite far into the area of specialist communication skills and away from the traditional area of language. This is because management training providers promote success in negotiating as requiring tactical and behavioural skills, which translate into communication skills, Typically, their training products focus on a specific model with its own implicit approach. For the Business English trainer the dilemma of which model to follow can be aggravated by the possibility thar learners may have followed different negotiating skills programmes as part of their earlier management training. Therefore, subscribing co someone else’s model may lead to a clash of views about effective negotiations. 5 ‘A safer position is to focus on the procedures and avoid the tactical manoeuvres which underpin the models presented earlier. In practice, this requires agreement on the steps involved in negotiation — a framework for practice — while leaving participants with their own tactical repertoire. In order to translate the agreed procedures into actions, trainees need a set of tools. The tools which enable these procedures to be effectively carried out are largely linguistic, involving oral and written communication. So, the suggestions in the checklist at the hack of the book show the language corresponding to the steps to be carried out. As with the other lists, it is not complete, and trainees shoul explore the range of phrases and choose those thar best suit the context in the light of the eype and climate of the negotiation. ‘As with all communication skills, the key is practice and feedback. Thetrainer needs, therefore, to set up a context for communication (a practice negotiation, or part of a negotiation), an agreed template against which to evaluate performance (checklist of behavioural and procedural elements) and a climate in which constructive feedback can be shared around the table ‘The contexts for negotiation can be either student- or reacher-generated. Where students share the same professional background, it usually requires little effort to get them to draw up a context for negotiation, based on their own experiences. Where the trainees come from different areas and backgrounds, the trainer will often need to provide an issue requiring negotiation. Ideally, the negotiation should be based around a problem which can be easily understood and quickly prepared. The following are examples of contexts which provide a platform for negotiating: 1 Buyer-seller. Negotiation over: ® price ® discount ® delivery ® payment terms. 2 Employer-employec. Negotiation over terms of employment, including: = salary = additional payments = holiday entitlement ® additional benefits. 3 Licensor-licensee. Negotiation over terms of licence, including: = financial arrangements ™ geographical area @ exclusivity ® term of licence 4 Budget allocation. Negotiation over allocation of either company or departmental budget. The company budget negotiation could be based around the competing claims of various departments, including: ® marketing (needs more money for advertising and promotion) = research and development (needs more money for product development) ™ training (needs more money to train up company personnel) ® production (needs more money for investment in new equipment) ® administration (needs more money for new office equipment) ® ete. DiscussION 1 Do you think that negotiating skills can be taught? 2 Do you agree that Business English trainers should provide training in negotiating tactics? 3 Pear of communication vary between cultures. What problems do you think you might face when running a training course in negotiating skills for participants from different national cultures? WRITTEN DOCUMENTATION Written documentation can include everything from a short internal memo to a lengthy article for a journal, However, the most typical requests on Business English courses are for work on: ® correspondence (letters, faxes and e-mail) memos (short notes for internal consumption) reports technical documentation and specifications, Each type of document can be compared to a communication skill in its own right with its own stylistic features according to purpose, readership and, of course, writer. However, to make sense of the area of written L communication, we need some general standards to follow when teaching and also when evaluating writing performance. ‘Ac the beginning of this chapter, we introduced the factors of accuracy, fluency and effectiveness, particularly with reference to oral communication skills. The same parameters can, with modification and refocusing, be applied to written communication, STANDARDS IN WRITING Accuracy refers to the correct use of language forms, in particular: ™ grammar ® vocabulary ™ spelling. Ce PART 1Fluency refers to the mechanics required by the writer to produce a document, in particular: ® spced of writing = effort of writing ® flow of writing. hed document has on the Effectiveness refers to the impact that the fi readers in terms of: ® physical layout conciseness of delivery coherence and cohesion appropriacy of style variety of features, c.g. use of visual aids, tables and other textual and non-textual devices. These issues translate into a range of different writing programmes, which can be run either as courses in theit own right or as modules on Business English courses, Typical objectives for such courses could include: COURSE OBJECTIVES FOR A WRITING MODULE WITHIN A SECRETARIAL SKILLS PROGRAMME To improve writing skills for producing commercial correspondence, especially letters and faxes To develop letter-writing style in terms of appropriate tone in letters and faxes & To extend knowledge of standard phrases for commercial correspondence % To practise writing letters and faxcs and get feedback on strengths and weaknesses, especially in terms of accurate language use. COURSE OBJECTIVES FOR A WRITING MODULE WITHIN A TECHNICAL WRITING PROGRAMME ® To improve writing skills for producing technical documentation, especially instcuction manuals for equipment users ® To review parameters for effective layout of user manuals = To develop an appropriate writing style for giving technical information and instructions, especially in terms of conciseness = To extend knowledge of suitable phrases and structures for written technical communication = To practise writing (parts of) technical communication and get feedback on strengths and weaknesses, especially in rerms of accurate language use and effective communication style. 64 COURSE OBJECTIVES FOR A GENERAL WRITING MODULE WITHIN A BUSINESS ENGLISH PROGRAMME ® To improve writing skills for producing correspondence and short reports To develop appropriate style for correspondence and short reports To extend knowledge of standard phrases and structures for correspondence and report-writing, = To practise writing correspondence and short reports and get feedback on strengths and weaknesses, especially in terms of accurate language use and effective communication style Within the scope of all writing training are the following stages: 1 agreeing the criteria for a good document and good processes for producing it 2. studying documents which represent models of good writing and discussing which features can be adapted to the trainee’s own writing style 3. practising writing 4 evaluating writing according to criteria identified at stage 1. Ic is outside the scope of this book to provide detailed criteria for good written documents of all types which Business English users are likely to need to write. So, the following list provides criteria which can be applied to a wide range of document types and their production. However, each item should be considered in relation to the document being written. Content choose the correct information to be conveyed to the readers choose the cortect quantity of information for the readers Layout Layout is to a written document what structure is to a presentation: overall organisation of document should help the reader to move from introductory, general points through detail to conclusion, ‘The structure should be clearly segmented and reinforced, where appropriate, by the use of a title and contents page, separate sections for the main body, a summary and conelusion appropriate use of fonts for easy readability consistent use of lettering in terms of font type and size, capitalisation, bold, italic, underlining; consistent use of spacing between lines, paragraphs and sections; consistent use of headings appropriate use of numbering, bullet marks and indentation appropriate use of columns and tables and other non-textual information Conciseness use uncomplicated words and phrases write readable sentences by limiting their length and the quantity of information ame we PART 1put information and ideas into a logical order (see also coherence below) use as few words as possible use precise words to convey the exact meaning make sure to edit work to make it more concise Style tyle is to a written document what delivery is to a presentation establish the right relationship with the reader create credibility in the eyes of the readers use textual and non-textual techniques effectively to give the right impression co the readers use language appropriately to achieve the right tone according to the Hoes OF eherdoeanient use language clearly to transmit ideas and information Language use language forms correctly choose appropriate vocabulary remove unnecessary jargon ensure correct spelling and punctuation use abbreviation, acronyms and short forms appropriately Coherence and cohesion ensure that overall organisation follows a logical development from hepincing en end put linked information and ideas together organise the linked information and ideas into sections and paragraphs use a topic sentence at the beginning or end of a paragraph ensure that information and ideas within a section or paragraph follows a logical sequence use ‘connectors’ to link information and ideas together Variery of features vary sentence length to avoid monotony vary vocabulary to maintain audience interest use non-textual fearures to reinforce or complement the message Speed of writing limit the writing time for any document limit the length of any piece of writing use a standard format or standard wording, where possible, to reduce writing time ® use bullet points for lists rather than continuous text. BOM Mee Be eYh eee Beeoenane Models can provide practical examples of the above criteria. They are a good starting point for examining aspects of layout and style and learners can gain a lot from looking at well-designed and well-written documents. OF course, the objective of writing training is not for learners to replicate these models, but to adapt them to personal style and specific documents. ‘Therefore, the writing practice sessions should be based around: Published materials can provide the former; the trainees themselves the later. controlled activities to develop competence in specific formats, techniques and language / free activities to integrate these into documents relevant to their workplace. 2 DISCUSSION How important is the written word in your culture? Are people prepared to make agreements in speech or do they prefer them in writing? Do you think the need for writing will increase or decrease in the business community in the coming years? Do you agree that accuracy is more important in writing than in speech? 67 PART 1S MANAGEMENT SKILLS IN BUSINESS the legitimate scupe of our pedagogic activities as Business English trainers is to design and deliver courses which aim to increase language knowledge and/or communication skills, However, both language knowledge and communication skills are tools that enable their users to fulfil their business or management roles. So, it is important for Business English trainers to understand: 1 the professional content at the heart of the communication 2 the management context(s) in which the communication takes place, I Chapter 1, we explored the scope of Business English and I stared char Viewed from the latter perspective, effective communication is important for managers and their teams for two reasons: 1 Iris the main process by which managers achieve their four key management activities: planning leading organising controlling. I is the activity to which managers devote the majority of their time. If they are bad at it, this will have a major impact on their overall effectiveness as managers and on the general well-being, of the organisation. If communication is the ‘lifeblood? of the organisation, then poor communication or communication breakdowns are its ‘cardio- vascular malfunctions Leeee This section will provide an overview of the current prcoccupations of today's managers which are considered to be at the heart of successful management: ® Leadership in order to inspire and motivate colleagues and subordinates = Team building in order to harness the synergies of individuals brought together from different disciplines and with different specialisations ® Delegation which aims to share responsibility, empower subordinates and free up superiors. : And at the heart of these three management skills is communication. So the objective of this chapter is to provide background knowledge for Business English teachers so that they can bevter understand the environments in which the cools they are teaching are used. This is different from teaching the management skills themselves, which is the role of management trainers, cry LEADERSHIP Leadership is by no means a new quality, We have had military, political and religious leaders, both good and bad, since time immemorial and history is dotted with their successes and failures. What is new is the emerging interest in business leaders. As business has come to occupy a more central role in society, we have come to recognise the importance that business leaders play in the health and wealth of the nation. And this has brought with it an interest in the managerial qualities and attributes of those who lead. EARLY TRAIT-BASED MODELS By definition, leadership implies an ability to ger others to follow. But what lies at the heart of this exceptional skill and how docs one achieve it? Early systematic approaches by psychologists focused on identifying the personal characteristics of leaders, based on the view that leaders are born, not made. These researchers studied the traits of leaders in order to identify what made them different from followers. However, these studies of leadership traits failed to uncover any features that unambiguously and consistently differentiated leaders from followers. Although leaders as a group tend to be cleverer, taller, more extroverted and more self-confident than non-leaders, these characteristics are no guarantee of effective leadership nor are they exclusive to leaders, In addition, there are leaders, such as Napoleon, who do not fit the mould. In conclusion, the weakness of the trait-based approach to leadership is thar leaders do not have a single identifiable set of traits that sets them apart from non-leaders. BEHAVIOURAL APPROACHES Stoner, Freedman and Gilbert tell us that the failure of the trait-based approach led researchers to investigate other features, in particular behaviour. The focus in the behavioural approach was on what leaders do (or did) rather than what they are (or were). This has included analysis of activities such as: ® delegation ® communication ® motivation of the subordinates ® task completion. The underlying idea is that as behaviour can be taught, the above leadership skills can be trained. The weakness in the behavioural approach is that effective leadership skills cannot be isolated from the business or even departmental environment in which they thrive. So what may work in one industry or with one department may not succeed when transplanted into a different context. PART 1‘CONTEXT-BASED MODELS Current management thinking favours the view that the context or situation plays an important role in the success or failure of a particular leadership style. The situational variables identified by researchers include: personality past experience expectations and behaviour of superiors expectations and behaviour of subordinates task requirements organisational culture and policies expectations and behaviour of peers. The above characteristics have spawned various schools of thought on the relationship between leadership and the management situation: 1 ‘The contingency approach attempts to identify which of these situational is most important and to predict which leadership style will be more effective in a given situation, 2. The Hersey-Blanchard situational theory of leadership suggests that leadership style should vary with the maturity of subordinates, moving through four phases as subordinates develop achievement, motivation and experience. 3. The path-goal approach focuses on managers’ abilities to dispense rewards. The leadership style a manager uses will affect the types of rewards and the subordinates’ perceptions of what they must do to earn those rewards, 4 The approach characterised by Fiedler suggests that leadership styles are relatively inflexible and that, therefore, leaders should he matched to an appropriate situation, not the situation changed to match the leader. 5 The transactional approach to leadership determines what subordinates need to do to achieve objectives, classifies those requirements and helps subordinates become more confident so that they can reach their objectives. 6 The transformational approach is based on the ability of leaders to motivate their team members to do more than is expected of them by raising their sense of importance and the valuc of the tasks. This model is based around the ability of charismatic leaders to effect major changes in a short period of time and transform major companies. 7 A tecent American study by Unabridged Communications on the usage of lead, leader and leadership in selected newsprint media provides the following attributes as perceived by followers: ® Visionary ® A doer ® Innovator ® Experience ®@ Trusting/trustworthy = Intelligence ® Education (good character) ® Likeable = Accomplishment ® Risk taker 79 CURRENT DEVELOPMENTS. Research into leadership continues, moving in diverse directions, some focusing on individuals and their qualities, some on situations and their defining characteristics and some on the followers and the influences exerted on them. Experience, particularly past experience, has often been used as a primary criterion on which ro judge potential leadership capability. However, research from The University of Southern California’s School of Business Administration shows that traditional leadership screening based on demonstrated skills is insufficient, They suggest a new model relying on other assumptions: 1M The future will require different skills from the past = Successful executives aren't born that way but develop with experience & Leaders need a variety of characteristics to be effective. LEADERSHIP AND COMMUNICATION For the purposes of the Business English teacher it is useful to note the importance attribmted to leadership in today’s business circles; and understand the background to the debate about innate characteristics versus Icarned skills. However, it is important for the Business English teacher to think about the implications of language and communication in effective leadership. DISCUSSION 1 Do you think that leaders are born or made? 2. What links are there between the qualities of a national leader and a business leader? / 3. What is the role of language and communication in effective leadership? TEAM BUILDING In The MNM Team Building Process for Printers, Michael P. O'Connor and Becky Erickson, partners in the consulting firm, The COS Group : International, have produced an excellent resource and reference material for people involved in quality and team development in any industry and any size business. Although the book addresses the management challenges of the graphic arts industry in particular, it is useful to anyone interested in step-by- step instructions for turning, a staff into a sclf-managing team. The ideas in this section derive in large part from their work. THE BASICS " Reduced to the simplest of definitions, team building involves combining and integrating the talents, skills and energy of individual employees to solve problems and accomplish goals and objectives that may be difficult or 7 PART 1Le ee | impossible to achieve by management of other individual efforts alone. In essence, team building is about synergy, where the results exceed the sum of the individual input. Basic to team building is the idea that employees are capable of taking on much greater personal accountability and responsibility. With this in mind many day-to-day decisions that historically have fallen to the owner or manager gradually evolve into a group process in which the staff or team assumes a more participatory role. As an end result, fully developed teams will routinely come up with highly innovative solutions to complicated issues on their own, without the constant supervision and guidance of the owner or aa, Probably the most difficult challenge to an owner/manager wantitig to begin a team building initiative will be learning how to delegate decision making and transfer control to the staff. In a team-oriented business the role of the owner/manager is one of coach and resource rather than supervisor. For many owners/managers, this change in function requires a significant leap of faith and will require considerable time and effort. Yet, with faith, commitment and perseverance, experience has shown thar the results are well worth the effort and anxiety, WHY DOES TEAM BUILDING WORK? Most successful businesses can tell you that the most effective way for a company to improve production is to focus on improving quality. Quality is determined by machines, materials, methods and people. While machines, materials and methods are important, most business owners/managers would agree that the people part of the quality equation is critical to consisrently producing a quality product and providing quality service. Here's where team building has its greatest impact. Team building improves quality for several reasons. Central to these reasons, though, is the simple fact that in the team experience the importance and value of cach staff member's contribution is continually reaffirmed. In this environment of mutual respect and support, doing, the right thing the first time becomes the standard, and pride in workmanship (quality) is a wa of life. . As any sports fan knows, there are teams and then there are high performance teams! Here are the key characteristics and responsibilities of a high performance team member: = Each team member has a good understanding of every other team member's individual role and function, and will at all times try to help thar person be successful in their role, cven if it only involves being sensitive to the problems that person may be experiencing at the time. ® Each team member understands the importance of constant : communication and feedback, and is aware that to be effective, communication must move freely and openly in all directions, cr © Each team member understands the value of being willing at all times to share knowledge, skills, ideas and time. ‘ach team member strives to create a work environment where team members feel comfortable at all times in sharing their individual thoughts and feelings when discussing or disagreeing on an issue. There are many other reasons and testimonials that could be given in support of the effectiveness of teams, The bottom line, however, is that by implementing a team building, programme in any business, more can be done, with fewer errors, in less time than is possible in a command and control environment! That means higher sales, better profits, and ... most likely. opportunity to take that well-deserved, worry-free vacation! an STEPS NEEDED TO DEVELOP A TEAM Team building is nor difficult work to do, although it does require certain attitudes and approaches which may be different from the way a business was traditionally managed, Before beginning to work with the staff to build a team, there are three issues to be considered. 1 Commitment. Commitment means being willing to devote a significant amount of time and patience to the team building initiative. Team building, unlike many management improvement schemes, is not a quick fix. It is a long term strategy of sustained and continuous improvement. Once begun, the commitment to team building will be tested numerous times while working through the process. 2 Re-evaluation. This means developing (or reassessing) the company's overall goals and guiding principles, Mission, vision, guiding principles and values define the purpose of and provide critical guidance in the on- going development of any business. It has been proven that people perform better when they have a clear sense of purpose, and when they know where they are going and how they are going to get there. This is true whether they are crew in a sailhoat race, on the steering committee for a local festival, or part of the staff of a business. Yet for many businesses, mission, vision and guiding principles have never been formally articulated or written down. Often they exist only as partially completed thoughts tucked away in some corner of the owner's mind. It is essential, therefore, to take the time to clearly define the mission and vision of the business and then share those definitions with the staff. 3. Sharing. A major component of ream building involves sharing the decision making process with the employees. For many businesses this may be a new experience both for the staff and for the owner/manager, Yet if approached properly, the experience shouldn't be uncomfortable. In fact, in the team building process described below, the transfer of control in decision making cvolves effortlessly over a period of several months. There are many ways in which the owner/manager can handle decision making within the company, ranging from absolute control to complete PART 1delegation. Which is best? ‘The short answer is that most of them will yield results. When it comes to developing a high performance team, however, the participation and delegation styles will yield the best and quickest results. Many owners/managers are accustomed to making most, if not all, of the decisions. Does this mean that they cannot implement team building? No, not at all! Fortunately, a team building initiative can begin no matter what the present management style is, as long as the owner is willing to consider change and the possibility of sharing the decision making process with the staff once there is evidence that they are capable of and willing to take on this new responsibility. How YOU BUILD A HIGH PERFORMANCE TEAM When a group of people work together with a common focus, they become a team. One method (in simplified form for illustration purposes) of building the staff into a team involves the use of staff meetings where everyone participates. These meetings are very different from traditional staff meetings where the owner/manager speaks and the staff listens. Instead, during these team building staff meetings, the facilitator (who could be the owner or manager or another person with training in ream building) helps the staff focus on an in-depth analysis of the company as it currently exists. Meeting every other week over a petiod of several months, the staff — with the facilitator’s guidance and input — explores the strengths and weaknesses of key areas of the existing business, such as facilities, equipment, products and services, vendors, customers, competition, and marketing and sales. ‘The objective of these meetings is to produce a “snapshot in time” of the existing business. Then, using this snapshot as a reference, the facilitator, owner/manager and staff work together to discover and explore the opportunities these strengths and weaknesses present. By the time this is done, the staff and owner are comfortable with the meetings formats and can hegin to work on defining the characteristics of their ideal team. Then they will see how they each stack up against these characteristics that they helped define, and work up an improvement plan for those areas where they’ve determined they need help. Towards the end of this work, the staff (and probably the owner/manager as well) will be quite surprised to realise that they have evolved into a high-performance’ team. And the owner/manager will begin to see that more work is being produced and less rework has to be done. These participatory staff meetings are only one part of an overall team building initiative. Other areas that are addressed include identifying critical areas of needed company improvement, devising strategics for achieving them, defining short-term and long-term goals for each sector of your business, and finally, developing a plan for continuous, ongoing improvement to avoid slipping back into the old ways of doing things. All of this is done 7a with the goal of developing the full potential of the staff and the business. TEAM-BUILDING AND COMMUNICATION For the purposes of the Business English teacher it is useful to note the importance attributed co team-building; and understand the procedures involved in building cffcetive teams, It is also important for the Business English teacher to think about how language and communication can be used in building effective teams. If we review the steps needed to develop a team, it clear that ¢flective ommunication is central to the processes involved in: achieving the commitment of all team members defining the mission and vision of the business and then sharing those definitions with the staff sharing the decision-making process with the employees = running and facilitating participatory staff meetings. Our role is to train Business English users in the appropriate language and communication tools ro accomplish successfully che processes needed to build cffective teams. DISCUSSION 1 What type of tasks do you enjoy doing as a member of a team? 2 Are teams always better at completing tasks than individuals? 3) What is the role of language and communication in effective team building? DELEGATION Delegation is part of the repertoire of management skills aimed at increasing a manager's overall effectiveness. It is recognised that no single person can carry out all the functions in today’s complex organisations. By delegating tasks to others, managers can achieve more. It is linked co other areas of current interest such as time management, people management and decision- making, In contrast co leadership, delegation isa skill that ean (and must be) be learned, if managers are to work effectively in their roles. International Management Centres define delegation as the act of passing to a person (or position) the whole (or part) of the formal authority and accountability for carrying out specific activities, When delegating, the manager gives authority to the subordinate. The manager gives enough responsibility for the subordinate to perform the task. The subordinate accepts responsibility for the performance of the task but the manager keeps overall responsibility. For this reason, delegation can only be effective if it is linked with a system of control based on known targets and standards so that the manager can assess the results achieved Delegation is a contentious area, Few managers like to think that they are ei PART 1bad at this, for poor delegation often means poor managerial ability. Some people take naturally to delegating work, others need co train their delegation skills. Any system of delegation must follow logical concepts and techniques, remembering that there are no simple solutions, only general guidelines. All delegation needs to be carefully planned, but the manager must remember that the test of any management system is whether it works in practice. To produce comprehensive personal planning systems likely to suit all managers’ needs is impossible. However, we can draw together the main features needed to utilise the enormous capacity of the human brain. In this way we can obtain maximum results in minimum time, with reduced feelings of stress. FACTORS IN DELEGATION Factors in delegation that also apply to the operation of any institution include: 1 Policy — contributing effectively to the objectives of the enterprise, 2 Organisation — providing everyone with work of adequate nature, scope and range. 3 Procedures and techniques — ensuring that each person uses suitable tools or techniques. 4 Technology — making sure that everyone works in an appropriate setting. Leadership effectiveness or motivation; giving everyone a chance to use their own specific skills Used properly, delegation can result in: the advantages of specialisation ® freedom for the inanager = a defined pattern of responsibilitics ® a system of training. To be effective, delegation demands: ® fall passing and acceptance of authotity and responsibility an accepted and workable system of control ® freedom for the subordinate within their terms of reference an environment where everyone accepts the benefits of delegation. TRUST The key te successful delegation lies in the trust between the manager and the subordinate, Trust relies on: & mutual confidence in each other’s ability, reliability and honesty = working together to make trust grow ® the acceptance that trust is fragile = a culture that encourages its growth. Trust is increased if: = the manager has some say in picking his subordinate co the boundaries of the area of delegation are clearly defined control is directed towards ends not means parameters, objectives and control mechanisms are agreed jointly action is the responsibility of the subordinate. DELEGATION IN PRACTICE iffective delegation depends on forethought and planning. Because two people are involved, it is necessary to plan in more detail and to use both manager and subordinate in the planning process. ‘The importance of delegation is recognised in most large organisations by the use of job descriptions. These lay down the casks to be done and the duties and responsibilities of the person employed. Unfortunately, this loses the idea that delegation is a contract between the manager and the subordinate. A job description can be criticised because: ® it applies to the job nor the job holder, taking so account of their personal skills and aptitudes = it becomes too rigid and does not apply to the everyday operational aspects of the job. In contrast, delegation can combine flexibility with continuity and nor become: too rigid. The need for delegation arises when a position becomes t60 busy or too complex. The manager tries to reduce the burden on time, energy or personal skills and passes over some of the workload. In all cases, the manager passes on certain duties while keeping overall responsibility. Note that we have used the words manager and subordinate, but that it is also possible for a task to be delegated upwards to a superior, of sideways to a colleague. Delegation can be considered a8 a routine, almost inevitable factor associated with growth in size or complexity. In practice it is more complicated. It can be to an individual, a team, a machine or to a system. However it is done, the overall responsibility rests with the manager. The manager is responsible for: ® ensuring that the subordinate is trained, competent and trustworthy @ laying down precise terms and conditions of appointment = incorporating a system of accountability and control. DELEGATION TO NON-HUMANS Even more difficult problems occur when work is delegated to non-humans. Increasingly, computers are taking over aspects of management previously carried out by staff solely responsible to the manager. Now the task is shared between the information provider, the software designer, the computer itself, and the person interpreting the results. In the short term, this means thar delegation must be very carefully designed co show the paths of accountability. In the long term, it becomes a matter of organisational ces PART 1change and development, How To DELEGATE? Peter Drucker (in The Effective Executive) answers this most simply: get rid of anything that can be done by someone else, The main factors that stand in the way of such a simple solution are: ® the delusion that only I can do that task ® a natural reluctance to relinquish any job that you enjoy doing © the difficulty in accepting that a job can be done satisfactorily by someone with less knowledge, skill ot understanding © lack of understanding that delegation is a means of preparing subordinates for positions of greater responsibility = not understanding that a task is delegated to a person as well as to a position. When a new subordinate takes up a position, it is essential to review all delegation to match the tasks to the new person ® failing to recognise the true narure of responsibility and accountabilicy in a delegated task ® the subordinate is accountable to the manager who retains overall responsibility to whatever superior authority exis STEPS IN DELEGATION Delegation is not an ad hoc activity to be carried out as and when a manager feels under pressure. To be'effective, it needs to be integrated into systematic working procedures and carried out through a serics of planned steps. These can be summarised as: ® deciding what to delegate % deciding who to delegate to = delegating the task & establishing a feedback system for information to be transmitted hack and forth between all partics involved in the delegated activities. DELEGATION AND COMMUNICATION Each of the management skills considered so far in this chapter have becn associated with communication, Delegation is no different. At its core are, of course, decisions about what to delegate and who to delegate. However, the conceptual clements involved in the what and who need to he matched by communication skills if the delegation itself is to be effectively communicated, For the Business English teacher, it is useful to note the importance attributed to delegation in large organisations; and to think about the skills required to communicate the delegation and to ensure the feedback system for information is well carried through. Effective communication is central to the processes involved in: 1 explaining the tasks to the people to whom you are delegating 2 understanding their reservations and concerns B43 3 getting their agreement and commitment 4 sharing feedback on progress of delegated tasks. Much of this communication will take place in face-to-face meetings, where the skills necessary for running a meeting will be important in establishing the right climate and dealing with core issties. As sts other management skills, our role is to train Business English users in d — appropriate language and communication tools to accomplish successfully the processes needed to delegate tasks effectively. DISCUSSION . 1 Do you try to delegate certain tasks or do you prefer to do everything yourself? ; a 2. Is delegation always the best way to achieve the best results ; 3. What is the role of language and communication in effective delegation? dads eet6 COMMUNICATION ACROSS CULTURES $ we saw in the last chapter, communication is what managers and Ae teams sperid most of their time doing. It is their main tool for carrying out the following management activities: ® leadership in order to inspire and motivate colleagues and subordinates ® team building in order to harness the synergies of individuals brought together from different disciplines and with different specialisations ® delegation which aims to share responsibility, empower subordinates and free up superiors, However, there is another level at which we can see communication — namely in terms of its role in a cross-cultural environment. In the second half of the twentieth century, business people have secn their organisations become more complex in two areas. Firstly, in the world of work the range of business knowledge and skills needed to perform effectively has increased. Today's business people are required to be much greater multi-specialists than their forerunners. The neat compactmentalisation which characterised the scientific management approach (see The Evolution of Management in Chapter 2) has been replaced by a complex series of competences in specialist, semi-specialist and generalist areas. Sccondly, in the inrernational working environment, business people are much more likely today to find themsclyes together with others from different national and cultural backgrounds, The internationalisation of the business world, the breakdown of national barriers and the mobility of business people has provided a new challenge for Business English teachers: how to prepare learners for the range of cultural settings in which their learners may be required to use English, The concept of culture has become a popular topic when talking about companies. At one time, IBM was often quoted as an example of a business culture that transcended national boundaries. As IBM had such power in the high technology marketplace, it was believed that IBM culcure was stronger than the national culcares of the countries in which it operated, As IBM expanded its business operations around the world, it set up offices with the characteristic IBM culture in terms of business values, working styles, etc, So, if you were an IBM manager, you would expect to find a familiar business culture throughouc IBM offices world-wide. (Since then the company’s dominant position in the compater markerplace has been under attack from a whole range of equipment manufacturers and suppliers, and today it has lost much of its business and cultural supremacy). So, what exactly do we mean by eultur A useful starting point for understanding the scope of culture is the following model, Here each outer layer of the ‘onion’ impacts on the inner layers, until we reach the individual, who is a product of cultural influences and personality attributes, “THE CULTURE ONION’ ONTRE OMPAN, COMPANY The first major influence is national culture, which may be defined as everything relating to a nation’s identity, in fact everything that could be considered to have contributed to the present attributes of (a group of) its people. The second is company culture, particularly where a company strives to form and disseminate a set of corporate values, as in the case of IBM above, The third level is tcam or department. Here we are looking at the specific written or unwritten rules which govern a particular group. For example the finance personnel of many companies see their role in terms of controlling the expenditure of money, and this might be viewed by other departments as a salient cultural feature of the finance department. This may lead to conflict in cases where other freer-spending departments feel that corporate objectives cannot be met because of the difficulty in gaining access to funds for new projects, new products or new strategies. ; John Mole, author of Mind Your Manners, defines culture simply as * the way we do things round here’. This is in marked contrast to the long lists of these ‘clements of culture’ produced by culture scholars to describe in detail where we come from and what has fashioned our thoughts and behaviours, Here are some key categories: Ideas Behaviour Products beliefs gestures literature values customs/habits dress. institutions language folklore art and music National characteristics show themselves in many areas of activity and undoubtedly also play a role in shaping company life and culture. So when we refer to business culture, there are a number of visible and invisible features that the members of this culture should share, values char they should subscribe to, norms that they should follow. In an ideal world, the synergistic efforts of che like-minded would encourage everyone to pull PART ibe | together ~ to the ultimate benefit of the company. In this ideal envitonment, employees will feel committed and motivated when they can work within the accepted standards and fit into the cultural setting; employees are likely to be ill at ease where they do not feel empathy for the company culture. Here are some factors which affect national and business culture. Some originate from and are based in the world of work itself; others originate in the local environment and influence the world of work. Work Social Physical Company organisation Roles of the sexes Space between people The importance of hierarchy Priorities of personal life Contact Attitudes to authority and work Handshakes Respect for leadership Dress Gestures Delegation Punctuality Fxposnre of body Planning Ways of addressing others Facial expressions Co-operation vs. competition Openness of conversation Speech: volume, speed ‘Team ys. individual Formalicy Acknowledgement of International attitudes Taboos speech Industrial relations Humour Smells The working day Organisation and running of meetings Company communication: = written/spoken = tone/style ‘Mobility of personnel John Mole has produced a template for charting company culture from just two of the above parameters: leadership (from individual to group) and organisation (from organic to systematic). His map of Europe looks like this: INDIVIDUAL iE . SPAIN aes D uUsA E PORTUGAL BELGIUM R GERMANY s LUX H IRELAND I 5 E P MISEEE UK DENMARK GROUP ITALY NETHERLANDS ORGANIC SYSTEMATIC ORGANISATION ———<— Culture is not an issue ~ except where there are conflicts, This is true both in the wider society and in narrower groupings, such as companies, departments or teams, Corporate cultural conflicts can arise in a variety of ways and for a variety of reasons. Firstly, where a company draws its teams from different backgrounds (national or corporate), it is important to establish common ground for members to work together. Where this does not happen, there is the pocential for culture conflict and this can, in turn, lead to dysfunctional working. In other words, rather than achieving synergy, the team does not achieve its true potential. Secondly, where a merger, acquisition or joint venture creates a business entity whose management does not share the local culture, national or corporate, there is scope for culture conflict. There are many examples of expatriations of senior managers ending in failure, either because the manager has nor heen adequately prepared for the ‘cultural work setting’ or because the family has not been able to adapt to the ‘local cultural norms’. Although it is difficult to put a precise figure on it, the costs of these failures are estimated to run into billions of dollars for US companies alone. The reasons for raising the issue of culture in a book on Teaching Business English are twofold: 1 Business people learning English are likely to have contact across national and cultural borders, both incoming (foreigners moving into their local culture) and outgoing (their own contacts outside their local culture) Thus, they should have some awareness of cultural issues affecting the work and working relationships. 2 Language is embedded in the culture(s) in which it is used. (Some would say that language is a product of culture). ‘Therefore, while teachers of English cannot be expected to know all the minutiae of English-speaking cultures world-wide, some knowledge is going to help their learners become more aware of the behaviours that will help them achieve their business objectives and avoid blunders, both inside and outside che company setting. The role of the Business English trainer is to teach language and communication. It is not within our core responsibility to teach culture, change behaviour patterns or act as informants about national or corporate cultural values, As with other clements which are extraneous to the central Business English teaching mix, it is important that we are aware of the interrelationship between language, communication and culture. In this way we can help our learners: better understand the interrelationship for themselves & avoid conflicts atising out of the negligent or innocent use of inappropriate language or communication = avoid the pitfalls that may lead to a dysfunctional working environment, aeLe a Be | Discussion | What patterns of social behaviour are characteristic of your culture? Think about dress, body language, physical contact, the ways of addressing others, openness in conversation, formality, taboos, humour, etc. 2 Using John Mole’s parameters, where would you place the business culture in your country? 3 Both culture and personality combine in forming a person. How do you see the balance between the two? PART / TWO PEDAGOGIC ISSUES FOR TEACHING BUSINESS ENGLISH PART 27 PRE-COURSE includes all the steps between the student's decision to attend a course and the start date. The period of time may be longer or shorter, depending on a number of prevailing conditions. Courses may be extensive (for example one or two ninety minute lessons per week for twelve weeks) or intensive (for example, a full-time course lasting one or two weeks). For our purposes here, I shall take the intensive course as an efficient model for learning Business English. Some trainees are able to plan their intensive training well in advance (up to six months before a course starts); for others the decision may be made at very short notice. This may be for a variety of reasons: 1 because a slack time at work allows training to be fitted in 2 an urgent need for training has arisen 3. short-term planning for areas such as training is the norm. In all cases, it is up to the training organisation to respond with details about the course itself as well as about payment; and, in the case of an intensive course, about travel and accommodation as well. Each organisation will have its own procedures for handling thesc areas, either through pre- printed material, personalised letters, phone calls or a combination of these. In this chapter, we will concentrate on the pedagogic pre-course aspects of setting up a Business English course. NEEDS ANALYSIS AND COURSE OBJECTIVES T= pre-course phase is partly administrative and partly pedagogic. It Business English belongs pedagogically to ESP, the key to which is the degree of specificity of the course in relation to the students’ needs, Specificity can be viewed in a number of different ways ® the content should be based around the learners’ professional background(s) & the language knowledge (specialist vocabulary) should be drawn from the learners’ professional backgrounds the communication skills taught should practise the skills needed in the real professional world the training style should be adapted to the learners’ preferences = the programme may include content-based training, provided by specialists in professional content, management skill or corporate culture, ‘These points are not exclusive to the Business English classroom. The General English classroom may also draw on the learners’ language background and target skills in developing a teaching programme. However, Business English trainees typically have more precisely defined needs from a course and these needs translate into a more clearly-cut programme. 87 PART 2; ln order to get the fullest picture of the trainees and their training objectives, it is useful to see the needs analysis stage as consisting of three separate but linked elements 1 the range of communic a ation and language required in the trainee’ ainee’s prese’ or future professional role —_ : ie current ability of the trainee in terms of language and communication 3. the actual objectives of the training programme. ; Meematielly speaking, the content of the training programme should ¢ based on the formula: 1 — 2 = 3. However, student needs (1 — 2) do not always equal 3 (actual objectives): . In order to complete this phase, we must firstly address the questions: What types of information do we need to get? = How can we get this information? . How can we translate the information collected into objectives? in the earlier chapters, we summarised the scope of Business English in oe of developing language knowledge and developing communication skills, Our needs analysis, therefore, needs to add some substance to these foundations, as shown in the following diagram. NEEDS ANALYSIS COMMUNICATION SKILLS, I valu: cel 1 General Specialist General Professional General language knowledge. The range of areas likely to be identified here are: = extending general purpose vocabulary . # extending topic-based vocabulary, e.g. politics, Jaw and order, social trends, etc. , enriching range of expression through idioms, synonymy, antonymy, ete extending knowledge of key phrases for social contact reviewing core grammar extending knowledge of grammar correcting grammar mistakes improving pronunciation. Specialist language knowledge. This normally involves extending specialist Posabulicg around key professional areas. This may include not only the individual’s own area, but also other areas of interest co the trainee. General communication skills, The range of arcas likely to be identified here are: & developing skills in social communication, including language for travel, restaurants and general social contact. This can include both listening, and speaking, and, in some cases, reading documents such as public signs, menus, timetables, etc. ® developing skills for discussion around topics of gencral interest. Professional communication skills. This wide range can best be summarised under the heading of the four skills or skill combinations: Speaking / Listening. The two-way process of communicating and understanding communication in: presentations = meetings — controlling and participating negotiations = interviewing Listening. Understanding the gist and detail of different types of speech models including: native speaker normal speed (colloquial) e.g. native speaker normal speed (formal) eg. TV news broadcast m native speaker reduced speed, c.g. FLT audio cassette m non-native spcaker — strongly marked in terms of vocabulary, grammar and pronunciation @ non-native speaker - weakly marked in terms of vocabulary, grammar and pronunciation Reading. Understanding the gist and detail of different types of texts, including: correspondence (letter, fax, memo, e-mail) ® reports # technical/professional documentation, eg. contracts, instruction manuals, product descriptions, academic papers, ete. ® realia from the general native speaker world, e.g. public notices, street advertising, ete. @ newspapers, magazines, journals, Internet, etc. Writing. The ability to produce different types of texts, including: ™ correspondence (letter, fax, memo, e-mail) = reports technical/professional documentation, eg, contracts, instruction manuals, product descriptions, academic papers, etc. general discussion The degree to which these needs are accommodated by the training programme will depend on the course type: Individual courses. This is, in many ways, the ideal situation for a tailor-made course. Individual training provides the opportunity for the ctainee to have a progtamme customised in terms of content, pace and training approach, PART 2Closed group courses, A closed group should be a more or less homogeneous group of trainees. Closed groups may be composed of individuals from: = the same company, but from different specialist areas (single company course) the same professional function within one company, including its subsidiarics (marketing course) @ the same department (personnel course} = the same team. In each of the above situations, there can be a terms of course objectives and entry levels. lesser or greater overlap in Open group courses. An open group course (sometimes called a public course) may draw its participants from a wide audience, In open Business English or Executive English programmes, the trainees typically come from different geographical, corporate and professional areas. Therefore, such Kinds of general Business English programmes need to tread a judicious path in order to satisfy the possibly diverse objectives of the participants, In terms of satistying needs, the individual course offers the most straightforward teaching situation and the open group course the most complicated. In order to facilivate the process of satisfying necds, jt is important to carry out some kinds of neds analysis. This can be done cither Pre-course or on the first day. The rigour and detail of any pre-course needs analysis will depend, largely, on systems for collecting data. The following data collection methods require varying levels of human and technical resources: COLLECTING Data Asout NEEDS © questionnaires ® interviews observation = case studies B® tests Questionnaires. Most training organisations have some form of registration document which participants complete when enrolling on a course (see below), This can include a questionnaire about objectives for the training programme, Course Registration Form PERSONAL Names Nationality: Mother tongue, bate of birth Company: Business addreas: ‘Telephone: Pax: E-mails Company activity: PROFESSIONAL esent job? ves oO Do you Heed English for your present jo = your future job? ves O a Your job title: principal job activities: COURSE OBJECTIVES Please indicate your prior: La SEEN yout general lenguage knowledge, 2 vocabulary: and grammar 2 To develop your specialist Tanquaye knowietige, i.e. vocabulary/expreseions in your specialist field 3 To develop yout genexal communication skills, i.e and secial rontact ; 4 Vo develop your professional communication skills, i meetings, presentations, teléshoning and writing other: for your training. (1 highest, 4 general scussion PART 2COURSE REGISTRATION FORM (continued) B - Now indicate which areae are = imporcant for you to cover the following table. . _ Speaking Presenting ut meetings or eontereiees using the celepnone Participating in informal meetings @ - 6 people} chairing ‘meetings or conferences ners particivating in negotiations. giving instructions and training socializing with visitors orha: Distening following training courses understanding Giseussion at meetings listening to conference: spesches/lectures/ete erence § ft fs Writing writing letters / faxes / e:iails writing reports dnd minutes other; Reading reading letters / faxes / e-mails teading journals / mat Wazines / newepay papers Please give any othe# relevant details nav using Feleeiig aigh! Medium [Low | Please circle the number of the paragraph which best describes your level in English. 9 I Use an extensive range of English’ equivalent to that T use th ny own language and suitable for all business occasions 8 Iocan use a fell raoge of English in @11 business: situations) with proficiency approaching that in my ovn language, with only occasional minor problems. 7 I cen use English effectively in most business: situations with few problema. My communication in business English is effective and consiatent, with few heeitations or uncertainties. 6 E can use English competently in a variety of bu: put with noriceable faults. I caf usually communicate effectively in english and, when difficulties arise, communication is restored easily. ness situations 5 T ean usually Communicate oy message in most busines and social Situations. I still have problems saying what I want te say and understanding other people. 4 I Gen communicate in familiar business and social situationa. 1 make a lot of mistakes and I have problems understanding other people. 3 T can manage simple business communication, e.g. on ehé telephone and in a meeting, if other people speak slowly and clearly. 2 T can have # simple conversation in English. a TI can use only a few words of Snglish ; ¢.g. gree vecognise public notices and signs. 0 I do not understand or speak any English. qs; and I can Give detaile of English studies and/or visite to English-speaking countries. PART 2Interviews. A second method of collecting data about needs is through an interview. If the training organisation is locally based, then a member of the pedagogi¢ staff can arrange a face-to-face interview with the prospective trainee(s). If this is not possible, then the interview can be carried out by phone. The following communication nerwork is derived from a face-to-face interview. It aims to identify: = who the learner communicates with in English for professional purposes how the learner communicates (communication skills) ® what the learner communicates about (professional content) ‘The starting point is to write the traince’s initials, in this case GS, and his¢her job title in the centre of a whiteboard and then to proceed with questions about who, how and what, COMMUNICATION NETWORK Key © GS are the trainee’s initials and his job title is project engineer for international activities. @ 1,2 and 3 represent his main lines of professional communication in English (who) ® The first column shows the communication skills required with 1, 2 and 3 (how) ® The middle column shows the topic areas or subjects he communicates about (what) The interview provides not only a method for collecting data about the trainec’s needs for English, but also an opportunity for an initial evaluation of language knowledge and communicative ability. However, this type of job description works best where both interviewer and traince are face-to-face, sharing information written (either by the interviewer or the traineo) on the board. On the phone, without the support of sharing the information on the whiteboard, the job exposition can become a much more complex task for both parties. And if this is their initial contact, it can be daunting and possibly damaging for the training relationship. A simpler approach for a telephone interview is via the following questions, which aim to provide the interviewer with an overview of the trainee’s track record, before moving on to the more complex area of training needs The information on this form is elicited by interview. questions (which can, of course, also be used in a face-to-face interview.) Interview Assessment PERSONAL Name: ib names 2 Languages spoken: PROFESSIONAL The present Sob title: Department: Work of department: Job ducies: English use in present job: The past. Previous jobs The future. Future job pla SOCIAL Hobbies: COURSE Course objectives: INTERVIEWER’S ASSESSMENT PART 2Observation. In some cases it is possible co gain access to trainees’ professional environment and observe them at work. Though work shadowing can provide some first-hand knowledge about the scope of communication needs and present level of competence, the data collected will need to be supplemented by interview in order to complete the communication network. In theory observation represents an attractive method of gaining realistic daca; however, in practice it usually presents strategic difficulties in terms of physical and informational access. $o, while in-company trainers may occasionally be invited to watch their prospective trainees in action, external training organisations are unlikely to be encouraged to intrude into the work environment. Observation, however, is not limited to listening to oral communication in action. Where writing is a training priority, trainees can be asked to provide samples of their written work, usually on condition that they are handled confidentially by the training organisation. This can provide a good insight into: = the types of document to be produced the content areas and topics to be covered the range and fields of specialist vocabulary the current level of writing competence, both linguistic and stylistic, Case studies. A case study is a detailed, intensive study of an entity, such as a company, a department, a division or a team, that stresses factors which contributed co its success or failure. As such it is mostly commonly used as a group training tool to enhance management knowledge and skills on management training courses. The knowledge and skills gained can later be applied by trainees to their own professional contexts. In the classroom itself, tramees study a case and then explore (either through discussion or in writing) aspects relating to the entity's performance, The idea of using a case study as an evaluation tool is thar it can provide a multi-disciplinary platform that a group of crainees could discuss. During the discussion (and from any follow-up writing), the trainer can collect valuable information about the current level of language knowledge and communication skills. It is a useful device for a number of reasons, the main ones being: 1 itis related to the professional environment, though not specifically to the trainees’ own day-to-day experiences 2. it combines within one context a number of professional management areas, enabling trainces with different management backgrounds to contribute to the task 3. it can provide a platform for the full range of communicative tasks and activities, i.e. discussion, presentation, meeting, negotiation, as well as writing, reading and listening. ‘Tests. There are many types of test formats, They range from the formal right/wrong norm-referenced test paper (grammar and vocabulary) to the less formal better/worse fluency rating based around communicative tasks. All test formats have their role to play in assessing the trainee’s level of competence, though it is important to recognise the strengths and limitations of each test type. $0, while case studies can be considered a type of test as described above, they typically provide a method for evaluating a wider range of language and communication around management-oriented themes. Formal norm-referenced tests, on the other hand, can best be used to check: language knowledge listening comprehension reading, comprehension writing skills ; comtrolled or semi-controlled speaking (in interview with the tester). So, as data collection inseruments, tests are most useful in telling us about the trainee’s current of competence rather than his/her present language or munication needs. somat the beginning of this chaptét, 1 stated that the aims of the needs i ye are: Bee ae sisicaomigeat exmmtmunenaT langage cen in the trainee’s present or future professional role = to assess the current ability of the traince in terms of language and communication. / / Having considered a number of methods for carrying out this stage, it is for cach training organisation to decide which activities of those listed, either singly or in combination, will yield the most reliable information for course planning purposes. FROM DATA COLLECTION TO COURSE OBJECTIVES — The data collection itself is not the final stage in needs analysis, as present needs minus present competence does not always equal course objectives. A key feature of ESP courses is the negotiation and agreement on course objectives. Therefore it is important to recognise that the information about present needs and present competence are only inputs into the next stage of objectives. oe On individual courses, the task of agreeing objectives is simple. The trainee is the only customer whose wishes need to be considered. This gives the trainee enormous flexibility in specifying the precise objectives of the course. For example, an individual may want to polish a presentation for a key speech to be given to senior management, If this is the only objective, then the available time can be devoted to geiting this absolutely right. ; Clearly this could not be done with the same intensity and attention to detai in a group course. Reaitret iy Group courses usually involve compromise. As a trainer faced with 2 Ped PART 2disparate group of individuals, either on an open group course or even on a closed group course, one cannot normally satisfy all the people all the time, Therefore, it is important to: explain this to the trainees © cake all of their objectives into account ™ reach a negotiated agreement, which aims to satisfy all the people some of the time The first stage is to collect the objectives. This can be done either by referring to the registration document or by asking them to write down their objectives on a piece of paper. The next stage is for the trainer ro transfer this information onto the whiteboard, stressing common themes around the key words of language and communication. By judicious arrangement it is usually possible to summarise the objectives within the main areas of: ® general language knowledge ® specialist language knowledge = general communication skills (including listening) "professional communication skills. Below are some examples of objectives negotiated at the beginning of the course for different types of individual and group programmes, As you will see, the above themes recur regularly, though the phrasing varies according to the trainee’s views and expressions. Objectives for Individual Course for low level learner ® To develop oral skills, especially for presentations and discussions © To improve knowledge and conttol of grammar = To increase specialist vocabulary Objectives for Individual Course for high level learner ® To develop oral communication skills for general and professional contact ® To improve writing for professional purposes ® To extend general and technical vocabulary # To improve language knowledge and get feedback on language accuracy, especially grammar and vocabulary Objectives for a ‘Business Communication in English’ Open Group Course = To develop general language knowledge in terms of general grammar, general and business vocabulary and expressions ™ To develop specialist language knowledge in the participants’ professional areas ® To develop and practise the professional communication skills of meetings, presentations, telephoning, and writing = To develop and practise general communication skills in order to increase fluency through social language, general discussion and case studies on business issues. Objectives for an ‘Effective Professional Communication for Personnel Managers’ Closed Group Course & To improve professional communication skills in terms of presentations and meetings / nite ; ® To improve language knowledge in terms of professional and general vocabulary — ® To exchange information and opinions in discussions around shared professional issues m To get feedback on language mistakes. Objectives for a ‘Presentation Skills in English’ Closed Group Course ® To develop presentation skills in terms of effective organisation te & To improve presentation techniques in order to have greater impact on the audience & To lean appropriate expressions for presentations & To practise presentations and get feedback on strengths and weaknesses ® To review design and exploitation of visual aids. Course objectives are not written in stone to be slavishly followed throughout the programme. Just as they are negotiated at the beginning of a course, there should be opportunities to renegotiate them at significant points during the programme. Regular feedback sessions are a method for the trainer to involve the trainees in the programme and its direction. This is particularly important on extensive courscs and intensive courses of more than about four days, where priorities can change as trainees better understand cheir own strengths and weaknesses. dats a e4 DiscUSSION , a | What methods do you use to collect data about your trainees’ needs? What problems, if any, do you face when collecting data? 2. What are the typical needs identified by your trainees? ASSESSING ENTRY LEVELS Assessing, cury level is important for two reasons. Fitstly, it is the mostly widely asked question by trainees: how is my English? Secondly, assessing, a traince’s entry level is one of the mayor prerequisites for course design. Crudely put, course objectives minus current ability should apysaio ts programme outline. However, it is difficult to find a wholly satisfactory solution as the whole area of assessment is fraught with difficulties due to the absence of a complete sct of agreed criteria for scientifically assessing what we are teaching: competence based around accuracy of language knowledge, fluency and effectiveness of communication. Although we can testaccuracy-based knowledge, we must depend to a lesser or greater extent on Our subjective judgement when ic comes to fluency and effectiveness. So, withour a coherent framework for measuring competence, all attempts at evaluation must accept a mix of objectivity and subjectivity. This mix is shown in the following scale, developed by the English Speaking Union, which combines the notions of accuracy, fluency and effectiveness discussed earlier, As a tool, it covers the relevant criteria and is easy to administer and to understand, It can be done as part of the needs analysis during an interview, observation or a case study. The result is that the trainer can quickly give the trainee a score between 0 and 9, representing the entry level. This goes some way to satisfying the trainee's curiosity, as well as providing a user-friendly scale for training managers and others to understand. In some organisations, a more formal test is cartied out to evaluate entry level. This could then be similar to the type of testing procedure described in the earlier section on Needs Analysis. As noted there, tests are one of the Tepertoire of tools that trainers have to evaluate trainees’ competence and are particularly useful if assessing discrete norm-referenced, accuracy-based elements involved in: ™ correct use of language forms listening comprehension reading, comprehension writing skills controlled or semi-controlled speaking (in interview with the tester) _LANGUAGE PROFICIENCY SCALE 9 | Has a full command of the language, tackling the most ditticuit tasks with consis ent accuracy, fluency, appropriate usage, organisation and comprehension. at exceptional level of mastery, not always reached by edutated ones tive epeakers, even quire 8 Uses a Tull range of language with proficienay approaching that | 3 the learner's own mother tongue. copes well even with demanding and complex language situations. Makes occasional minor lapses in accuracy, uency, appropriacy and organisation which do not affect comunivation. Only rave uncertainties: in fonveying or comprehending the content of the message. 7 |uses language effectively In most situacions, except Tim very complex and difficult. A fei lab88 in accuracy, fluency, abprepriacy and organisation, but conmunication is effective and consis ent, with only 9 few ufcertalrities in conveying or comprehending the content of the mégzage, LANGUAGE PROFICIENCY SCALE (continued) ses the language with confidence in moderately 4iffoult \ n accuracy, fluency, appropriacy. situations. Noticeable lapses and organisation in complex situations, but communication and ‘on are effective on most occasions; and are easily comprehens estored when difficulties arise ly and effectively in all familiar and ses language independ moderately difficult situations. Rather frequent lapses in accuracy, fluency, appropriacy and organisation, but usually communicating and comprehending general message ent for faniliar and non- succeeds t @| Uses basic range: of language, suffic. pressuring situations. Many lapses in accuracy, fluency, appropriaey and -crganisation, restricting continual m, #0 f¥équent efforts are needed communication and comprehen! to ensure communicative intention is achieved 3| Uses a limited range of language, sufficient for simple practical needs. In more exacting situations, there oe frequent problems in accuracy, fluency, approsriacy and sation, so that normal cévinuni¢ation ane comrelieasion lt to keep going organis frequently break down or are diffi a equate for basic needs 2| Uses a very narrow range of language, adequate for bi and simple situations. Does ot really have sufficient lasquaye to cope with normal day-to-day, real-life communication, but basic communication is possible with adequate opportunities for assistance. Uses short, often inaccurately and inappropriately worded messages, with constant lapses in fluency @ Few words or phrases such as common greetings, and ms. At the lowest ievel 1 | us recogni, es some public notices or a used. recognises which language is be. 0 | Zero competence DISCUSSION a 1 How do you assess entry levels? 2. Where do the majority of your students fall in the above scale? 3. Are you satisfied with the entry level assessment tool you use? If not, how could it be improved? PART 2PROGRAMME OUTLINE AND TRAINEE BRIEFING Just as the data collected at the needs stage provide an input into the course objectives, the course objectives are the starting point for agreeing on the programme outline, The aim ac this stage is to agree on: the length of time to be devoted to each element identified in the objectives = the types of input and output to be used for each clement identified in the objectives the ways of working for the group, including che types of training approach to be used by the trainer. None of these elements are fixed for the course duration and it is important to reconsider them at significant points during the programme, Length of time for each objective. On individual courses, the trainer can accommodate the trainee’s wishes and adapt as the programme develops. For BFOUp courses, it is necessary to reach some kind of consensus, taking into account the priorities of the participants. It is equally important for course planning for the trainer to know what proportion of the course is to be devoted ro each element. Inputs and outputs. Inputs refers to the types of material which are to be used in the classroom. These can be either raw materials, such as pring, audio or video not developed for the ELT classroom, or published materials, specifically developed for the ELT classroom. Outputs refers to the themes and activities for communication practice. In terms of inputs, trainees may have been asked to bring wich them televant material from their professional area, which can be used as the basis for materials development or lesson development; on the other hand they may rely on the trainer to provide material from the training organisation’s resources (either raw or published), At the programme outline stage, it is useful for the trainer to present the options and agree the types of material and activities to be used in relation to each objective. Ways of working. This refers to the roles of trainer and traince(s) and involves: = how the trainer and trainces will work together to achieve their objectives: the trainces' expectations of the trainer and trainer's expectations of the trainees ® who will be responsible for what in the classroom in terms of preparing inputs and outputs = what types of preparation/homework are expected outside the classroom. fiers Trainee briefing, Developing competence in a foreigh language requires effort, commitment and discipline. All trainees embarking on a training course want to improve their competence — in terms of accuracy, fleiane effectiveness, or a combination, However many of them have been ot ais language learning environment for some time and, despite having a chee of their objectives. they may not have reflected on the procedures needed ¢0 achieve them. It is therefore useful to spend some time on explaining how to develop competence in a foreign language, the role of study and pecs ‘The following diagram can he used as a starting point to discuss language and communication development. DEVELOPING COMPETENCE SKILLS, STUDY PRACTICE PRACTICE FEEDBACK FEEDBACK Together the elements considered in these qwo chapters prepare the groundwork for the course by establishing a set of agreed peepee Bt programme development. Having teached consensus on these points, the training programme can start. DISCUSSION aki a | Do you include other items in the programme 2 2. Do you think it is useful or necessary to provide some form of learner training at the beginning of a course? / : 3 Are ae any other elements, not mentioned in this chapter, which should be included in the pre-course phase? PART 28 ON CourRSE he pre-course phase includes all the steps between the student’s decision to attend a course and the start of the course. The on course phase also includes a range of administrative, areas. Here we will concentrate on the teaching side remember that, for intensive courses especially, it is t training, accommodation, social activities and administrative support which lead to customer satisfaction. If onc element is unsatisfactory, it is likely to have an impact on the trainee’s evaluation of the total package In this section, we will concentrate on the pedagogic on-course aspects of Tunning Business English courses. Teaching, of course, covers a wide range of disciplines. T have chosen the following areas, as being of special interest to Business English teachers: lesson planning earning styles and training styles ® giving feedback ® one-to-one teaching and group teaching. PLANNING A LESSON social and pedagogic However, we should he total package of There is no doubt that communicative methodology has revolutionised all areas of ELT, including ESP. Pre-1975, the emphasis of most language teaching was on developing knowledge of the language forms in terms of gtammar and vocabulary. Identified through linguistic analysis, these clements were subsequently organised into teaching programmes and coutse materials. Students learned about the I language rather than how to use it. The communicative revolution of the mid-scventies clearly established fluency as the prime objective of language teaching and language training. Out went language drills; in came pair work and small group communicative activities, Thus the communicative approach is one major influence on Business English methodology. As the scope of Business English also includes communication skills training, classroom practices have also been influenced by approaches derived from other disciplines, including management and communication training, Yer in the attempts to push forward the state of the profession and provide a varied diet for our learners, there is the risk of losing sight of the essential, basic model of learning. BACK =n COMPETENCE XY crrd Thus the feedback loop is central ro developing competence, sre hopefully, will result from the practice and feedback provided both inside 4 and outside the classroom. However, this model, though simple, is Rarer with learning not with learners, and with training, nor with trainers mt chapter we will explore how this basic mode! can be translated into a lesson plan. Finally, of course the dominant influence om taining isthe train's ‘own personal style. However, this point is for the practitioners themselves to consider. / ; ‘A lesson is a series of interrelated steps which aim to develop an aspect of language knowledge or communication skills, according to the course objectives. Viewed in terms of the global aim of improving competence, ir is a small part of a very large whole. However, each lesson should have its “ ce and outputs. own unique aim(s), coherence ani The following Business English lesson plan presents a flexible model, consisting of up to six stages. A Classroom Model STAGE 1 INPUT TEXT: FOCUS ON CONTENT Listening or reading text chosen for its informational content + task focusing on content What text? what task? Oral presentation information transfer ag on questions STAGE @ FOCUS ON COMMUNICATION Presentation of communication STAGE 2 FOCUS ON LANGUAGE Presentation of language points features ig aa What features? one Presen don structure Fapet ions contralling Letter organisation Pronunciation STAGE 5 COMMUNICATION PRACTICE What tasks? Wini-presentat-ions. Meeting execer Controlled letter-writing STAGE 3 LANGUAGE PRACTICE Controlled activities to practise the points presented at stage 2/é What exercises? Gap/#ili Sentence manipulation Word families STAGE 6 OUTPUT TASK: PUTTING IT TOGETHER & speaking or writing task based around + a conmnicativel activity co develop £ +a communication? activity to develop e The context for either activity will be * Wourse materials and/er + the trainees’ own professianal or per: 4. cotumclife ii piacere i Ue to Sat nat deb ei 2 d around a real world skill and is primarily designed 10 develop eflecriveness 4a communication active is PART 2Stage 1. This stage provides informational content about a business or professional area. In order to provide focus for the task (a reason for listening or reading), the input text should be accompanied by an appropriate task. The inpur text used asa model may be either a listening or a reading text. If the objective of the lesson is to develop communication skills, the input text should provide a model for the output task (Stage 6). In other words, a presentation proyides a suitable input model far developing presentation skills, a mecting for developing meetings skills, etc. Stage 2. Whereas the first stage focuses on the informational content of the input text, stage 2 focuses on the language content. This may be a grammatical area, a functional area, key vocabulary or pronunciation patterns. One text may lend itself to different language foci and the teacher will need to decide which focus best meets the students’ needs, The trainer's role at this stage is to present, usually at the whiteboard, the key features of the language forms. , Stage 3, While stage 2 is conccrned with the presentation of language forms and patterns, at the third stage the student gets an opportunity to practise those forms and patterns through a range of controlled exercises, The aim of the controlled exercise is to focus the trainee’s attention on the forms presented and provide an exercise ro check the ability to manipulate the forms correctly. - Stages 4 and §. While stages 2 and 3 focus on the language forms presented in the input text, a parallel operation may be carried out for communication skills, for example presentations, meetings, phoning, interviewing, report- writing, letter-writing, crc. In this way the fourth stage would look at models for a particular mode of communication in arder to raise awareness of: ® procedures ® behaviours as well as @ associated language. The models can be presented by the trainer him/herself, Where this is impractical, then video or audio models can be used to present the key features. In the same way as stage 2 focuses on the forms and functions of the language, stage 4 analyses the techniques and strategies of communication, as well as associated language. Examples are: Presentations % opening a presentation ™ linking ideas in a presentation © summarising and concluding a presentation delivering effectively to an international audience in terms of tempo, volume, visual aids, cte. : = Meetings ® chairing a meeting = controlling a meeting, & inviting contributions to a meeting ‘The elements above are examples of the types of building blocks of communication, parallel in some ways to the grammatical building blocks of language. Once identified, they need to be organised as training elements in a coherent sequence of steps to form a programme of instruction for the communication skill areas of presentations, meetings, negotiations, etc. Just as stage 3 provides controlled practice of the language forms, stage 5 provides controlled practice of the communication strategies and techniques. This can be done by practising elements of the communication skill in order to check that techniques and associated language can be used effectively. Stage 6. So far stages 2 — 5 have presented and practised language forms and communication strategies. The final stage provides the opportunity for free practice, Where the lesson focus is on language, then the objective of this stage should be to enable the students to use the language forms presented and practised in earlier stages in a free context. Where the lesson focuses on communication, then the aim at this stage is to provide an opportunity for free transfer of the communication techniques presented and practised. To make a smooth transition between the stages, the context for communication should he based on and correspond with the model presented in stage 1. And so the lesson has almost finished, The only element not yet mentioned is feedback — the indispensable element for developing competence. This will be dealt with in later in this chapter. At the beginning of the chapter, I wrote that E would present a flexible classroom model, So there are two issues to be considered: = Do the stages need to follow the sequence outlined? = Are all the stages necessary? Having cxperimented with the model over many years and having written a number of Business English course books based around it, it is second nanure to me, However, the model is the servant in the teaching process, nor the master. Therefore it is up to cach trainer to find permutations which work for their own training style and for the learning style of each trainee group. While stage 1 provides a platform from which to develop the lesson, the other stages can be followed in a variety of permutations, for example: More traditional: Stages 2, 3 and 6 Stages 4, 5 and 6 Stages 6, 2 and 3 Stages 6, 4and 5 Stages 6, 2, 3 and 6 Stages 6, 4, 5 and 6 Less traditional: Other options bra PART 2These are by no means all. What is important for the coherence of the lesson plan is to stay within the focus of the lesson — either language or communication, But by not slavishly following the model, both trainer and trainees will henefic from a more varied diet, _ Discussion | | To what extent do you plan your lessons? Which stages of your lessons typically require the most planning? 2 What factors cause you to change your plan in the classroom? | LEARNING STYLES ‘The next question is: how far can we apply the model presented in the last chapter to classroom teaching? As we have seen, it is concerned primatily with learning as a process, and nor with learners as people. So, it needs to be validated by a model of learner behaviour and then modified in classroom practice. Valuable work in the arca of learning styles has been done by the educational scientists, Honey and Mumford. They suggest that cach learner has a preferred learning style that he or she brings to a specific task. In their book, Manual of Learning Styles (1992), they identify four styles. Using these four learning styles as a starting point, we can identify the following four types of learners and their learning characteristics: 1 The activist learns by doing the task, In the language classroom, these are the learners who enjoy the communicative tasks or the communication practice. They enjoy using the language and experimenting with communication, 2 ‘The theorist learns by understanding the underlying theory. These are the learners who want to know why a particular language form is used in a specific situation or why a particular communication technique is appropriate in a particular setting. 3. ‘The pragmatist learns by practising in a controlled environment. These learners enjoy the security of controlled practice exercises. They often feel that this stage gives them the confidence to use language forms or communication accurately, 4 The reflector learns by watching others doing the task. These learners are likely to feel insecure about their ability to perform in the language. However, in a secure environment they become willing to participate in the range of communicative tasks and communication activities. So, given a task, such as learning twenty new words in English or improving presentation techniques, cach trainee will approach the task with their own preferred learning style, And, as we all know, some learners will be more successful than others. If we can adapt our training style to their learning style, we can go some way to helping them achieve their learning bres) objectives more effectively, This approach involves identifying and being aware of our trainees’ learning styles & providing classroom tasks adapted to their style. It is important to point out that the aim of the leaming styles approach is hot to try 10 change our learners’ preferred learning styles. In any case, it oe Se ny Mumford have devised a questionnaire which identifies an individeal’s dominant learning style. Although ic is a useful analytical tool when dealing with = large mumer of people whom one doesn’ knows the teaching situation, trainers quickly get to know the crainees and soon reach, by observation, the same conclusions as the questionnaire. oe Having identified the dominant learning styles, we can next match up the lesson stages from the previous chapter against learner types above. Stage 2 and 4. The focus on language forms and communication patterns should appeal to theorists as they fit the new information into existing knowledge. Stage 3 and $. This controlled practice should appeal to the pragmatist who likes to test out the practical applications of the forms and techniques presented. gas Stage 6. As far as learning style is concerned, this final stage appeals both to the activist and to the reflector, who will benefit from and develop confidence from seeing the activist ‘in action’, Honey and Mumford suggest that the four learner types are equally spread throughout the population. Therefore, if the Business English classroom were drawn from a cross-section of the population, a lesson planned equally around the stages identified in the previous shat would ke an approptiate starting point for lesson development. However, classes are rarely typical and it is by adapting the plan to the learners that trainers can carn the learning-centred plan into a learner-centred one. “The types of adaptation can be: / ® to select lesson stages according to preferred learning styles to modify the time allocated to lesson stages so that less popular, though tant, areas are covered : = mtoreca ‘order lesson stages according to preferred peg styles. In this way the trainer can respond flexibly to the learners and their learning styles.Discussion | What are the preferred learning styles of the trainees that you teach? Tags extent can you adapt your training style to your trainees’ learning styles? 3. Do you find that you have greater problems with some trainees than with others? Which learning style group do they come from? GIVING FEEDBACK One way of looking at training is as a closed-loop system based around the following. stages: . 1 identifying needs 2 designing training programmes (methodology and materials) 3. delivering training 4° evaluating (programme and trainees). Phase 4 feeds back into stage 1, so that modifications to subsequent programmes can be made. Phase 4 also feeds hack into other phases so that the enrrent programme of instruction can be modified and improved in order to maximise the trainees’ learning, identifying needs evaluating designing training pri srogrammes (programme and trainees) fate (methodology and materials) delivering training There are three types of evaluation: 1 trainer self-evaluation (you decide how effective your training has been) 2. trainee evaluation (the trainces evaluate how effective the training has been) 3 testing and feedback (the process of determining and communicating to what extent the learning objectives have been achieved) In this chapter we are concerned with evaluating: accuracy, fluency and effectiveness. , : Practice and feedback are the essential ingredients in developing competence. And in its widest sense, feedback highlights both steengths and weaknesses, successes and failures. Traditional feedback methods have focused on the accuracy of language forms However, as we have seen, the aims of the Businesy English trainee have grown to encompass other areas of competence, especially fluency of general communication and effectiveness of professional communication; and Business English programmes have followed this lead, Asa result, feedback criteria need to reflect this shift. Giving feedback on language accuracy is usually easy, as the use of language forms is normally right or wrong, However, fluency is more problematic. While we all intuitively know what we mean by a fluent speaker and could grade speakers in terms of their fluency, establishing a set of measurable parameters is more difficult, As we have already seen, fluency is @ flow of speaking ® effort of speaking while flow is perceived in terms of: ® speed of speaking the mumber of hesitations and pauses. There are no absolute measurements in terms of words per minute against which we can assess performance, as speakers have their own natural rhythm of speaking, some faster and some slower. So, each speaker’s fluency is intuitively assessable according to each listener’s own scale of better or worse. Evaluating effectiveness involves using some right/wrong criteria and some hetter/worse criteria. Our earlier features of professional effectiveness included: @ impact of communication ® variety of media conciseness of communication, These were subsequently translated into building blocks (procedural, behavioural and linguistic) for the purpose of teaching professional communication skills such as presentations, meeting, negotiations, etc. (see Chapter 4). If we view training as a closed loop system, then these building ( blocks are both the basis of programme design and the criteria for the evaluation of effectiveness, Two practical examples are shown below: LadaPresentation Evaluation Record Of Observations Note down your comments. Make a note of some words opinion. STRUCTURE 1 Wid the speaker mention what she/he was going to talk shout? 2 d the spesker begin in the audience's. area of interest? 3 Was any outline given? 4 Was there a clear developrent of the speakers ideas trom intradaction to conclusion? DBLIVERY - general Did the speaker establish rapport at the baginning of the presentation throvgh: @ greeting, 8 smile, eye contact, ete? § Did the speaker maintain setficlent. eyo contact with the audience during theopresentat ion? bid the speaker appear engy ed in his/her message? & What was the speaker's manner like? (nervous - unsure — frightened shy caln persuasive - self-confident @uperior — arrogant) What was the speaker’s body lenguage like? (static - tense — fluid - over-uynanic) l0Were there any features of the speaker's délivery that you found eepecially effective? il Did the speaker have any mannerisms that you found irvitating? i2has there enough variety in the presenration interest? Consider * variety of tempo; fie. mot all at rhe: game speed *veriety of volume, including use cf pauses «variety of sentence structure, especially of sentence lengths ety of stimuli, such es use of examples, visual aids and other techniques to vary the focus DELIVERY - specific 13.e you wonsider the speaker made a goud cholce of visual aids 14De you corigider that the visu. ids were well designed and laid out? Consider: suse of gt suse Gf text vsize of text and use of Fonts + use of colours I§Did the speaker present the vicual aide well? conside saudience contact during presentation of wisval aida «visibility of visual aids to audience + convergence between speaker's x TANOUAGE LOWE he language understandable in terms of: + length of sentences? of words? h of pauses? dink phrases? of [acts per utteraice? to ‘Support your to maintain your voice modulation se of questions, mix ice and visual aids OTHER OBSERVATIONS cae Meeting Evaluation Record Of Observations Note down yout comments. Make a note of ‘some words to support your opinion. PREPARATION - + Have the participants been informed of: date, time, agenda, a objectives, specific preparation, documentation, specific roles? PURPOSE Do the parti¢ivants . + share the same expectations? * have clear objectives? + understand the scope/limits of the meeting? PROCEDURE cos + Has the procedure (formal chairing, informal brainstovming, ete.) been agreed? + Has the agenda been agreed and understood? + Are the time limits clear (duration, finish time; date of next. meeting)? clearly understood? + Chairperson ~ How much control is appropriate? + Micute-taker - detailed minutes or just a summary? + Participancs - general and/or specific contributions? alia * De the participants understand each other » Is there a positive atmosphere? « Is the a clear outcome to the meeting? CE wae the language understandable + length of sentences « choice of words + number of facts per utterance * lensth of pauses + use of link phrases re terms of: OTHER OBSERVATIONS PART 22 or ee We have now fitted evaluation into the closed-loop system of training and provided a coherent approach to evaluating traince performance in relation to: 7 accuracy (traditional categories of correct/incorrect use of language forms) effectiveness (performance criteria based around building blocks of effective communication related to specific skills. We haye also noted the difficulty of establishing. criteria for evaluating, flucney on any measurable seale. , Evaluation should not be a mystery. Just as we negotiate the objectives of the Srunies peramomes and the roles that trainer and trainees are to play. we should involve our trainees in the evaluation i ainees process, In general terms feedback should be: = = Soe i.e. it should not not be used as a stick to beat our trainces will : = balanced, i.e. it should highlight strengths and weaknesses ® transparent so that trainees know what criteria their performance will be judged by ® reasonable so that trainees have a reasonable chance of fulfilling the performance criteria & shared so that trainees act as evaluators, where appropriate In practice, the next stage is to agree with our trainees: ® who will provide the evaluation = when it will be given = how it will be given. THE EVALUATORS The following chart brings together: % the range of targets of the Business English classroom ® the types of activities to promote those objectives ® those able to provide evaluation. TARGETS, ACTIVITIES and EVALUATORS TARGETS | ACTIVITIES | EVALUATORS | STuoY —> pnacrice ACCURACY ee ote | TRAINER vs TRAINEES! FLUENCY ee S| TRAINER a —- EFFECTIVENESS reacrice frsbsace TRAINEES/ TRAINER 1 For accuracy-based tasks, which aim to develop language knowledge, clearly the trainer with his/her superior knowledge of language forms needs to be the evaluavor Fluency, as we have noted above, is about flow of speaking and efforr of speaking, Smooth flow is observable (if not measurable), especially over a period of time. In fact, it would be contrary to the normal patterns of fluency development if a foreign language user did not improve just a3 a result of regular language contact and use. On intensive courses, this is the norm; on extensive courses, it will depend on the frequency of use and contact. In both cases, practice is the key, Thus, fluency develops naturally over time with regular practice, either inside or outside the classroom. With fluency (or perhaps as a result of it) comes increased confidence, which, in turn, brings greater competence: another self- perpetuating closed loop, The berter you feel, the better you are. Hence the benefits of alcohol in improving fluency. In the classroom, the smooth flow of language is as apparent to the discerning co-crainees as to the skilled trainer, Therefore all should be encouraged co give feedback on performance. In all cases, it is likely to be subjective. Bur thar is the nature of fluency. Effort, the second parameter of fluency, is in the head of the speaker, not in the ears of the listeners, Only the trainee knows the effort nccded to communicate. And, therefore, it is only the trainee who can comment upon this aspect of fluency. Taken cogether, it is clear that all parties have a role in evaluating fluency: the trainees themselves, fellow trainees and the trainer. 3. Bffectiveness of professional communication skills comes from practice. However, as we have seen above, to give programmes a clear focus, they should be constructed around the building blacks of communication, —_/ These building blocks are both performance criteria (the objectives of training) and evaluation criteria (the measurements of performance). The question is: who is in a position to comment on performance? Our experience is that the best and most valid results come from involving all parties in the evaluation process, The observation checklists above sct the scene and the parameters. All contributors to the communication process (listeners and speakers, presenters and audience, chairperson and participants) should provide their feedback on the effectiveness of communication, Of course, the trainer is in the best position to comment on language. PART 2 ‘THE TIMING OF FEEDBACK ‘The timing of feedback is also a crucial consideration. It can be given during or after the task, Again, the choice will depend on the type of activity and its objective, as well as the range of evaluators involved. During accuracy- based activities, communicative casks aimed to promote the correct use of language forms, there are some trainees who expressly wish (even demand)instant feedback on their mistakes; others prefer to have a round-up of serious or common mistakes at the end of the activity. As it is the trainer who is responsible for language feedback, he/she will need to reach agreement on this point. Although some learners welcome immediate correction, perceiving this as the true role of the language teacher, the long- term effects om accuracy are often minimal. Mistakes once corrected are, more often than not, repeated systematically in the flow of communication. This is especially true for ingrained errors, which are part of the learner's language system. Ingrained errors are very difficult to eradicate; passing correction does little more than raise momentary awareness. To be effective, persistent errors need to be attacked at source, within the learner's language system. And this can only be done through study and controlled practice of the language forms. So, although on-the-spot correction may give the trainee a sense of learning, the best results are achieved through more serious focus on mistakes after the activity. The feedback is then integrated into the learning process, becoming needs in the four-phase closed-loop training system. We have noved the problems surrounding feedback on fluency, namely that it will be impressionistic and subjective, In fact, it may be true to say that in some cases the practice itself, the ability to participate in a fuency- based task, such as discussion, is itself a kind of feedback on the trainee’s ability to perform a cask. Task fulfilment indicates ability; doing is evidence of and feedback on ability. It gocs without saying that any feedback on fueney should be handled after the communication practice. Interruptions to give feedback during language use will clearly stop the flow of information or ideas, and may prevent the development of confidence, a key influence on fluency. This may seem a rather laissez-faire approach to training, However, in the range of classcoom functions to be carried out by the trainer, the role of orchestrator and facilitator should not be underestimated, For effectiveness training, based around tasks such as presentations, meetings and negotiations, the feedback can normally only be given after the activity. (The only exception might be where there is a total transgression of a basic rule of communication, leading to a communication breakdown, Here an evaluator may need to intervene with a repair stratcpy). After the communication practice, notes made during the event, based on observations by all participants, can he used as a starting point for a round table discussion on the successes and failures of communication, GUIDELINES ON GIVING FEEDBACK To be effective, feedback needs to be constructive, balanced, transparent and reasonable. These requirements can normally be satisfied by a common-sense approach in terms of techniques. Below are a number of general points to be borne in mind: 1 Practice is, in most cases, more important than feedback. More time should, therefore, be devoted to practice activities and whatever techniques are chosen, time for feedback should not exceed time for practice, 2. Feedback which involves all the participants, as a team activity, is likely to be mote effective than feedback provided by only one person, / 3. Feedback which concentrates on negative aspects may undermine learners confidence, Effective feedback should highlight both strengths and weaknesses. 4 Balance oral and written feedback, according to appropriacy. Remember that some trainces have a better memory of the spoken word; others the written word. Oral feedback through follow-up discussion of / communication techniques will usually have greater impact than written notes. On the other hand, written feedback, for example on the whitcboard, on language mistakes will usually be more effective than oral correction. 5 Immediate feedback in more effective than delayed feedback. Provide immediate feedback on effectiveness of communication while the activity is still fresh in the trainees’ minds. Language feedback can be provided later for follow-up study, accompanied by practice exercises to focus on language forms. 6 Don't give too much feedback, Base the amount on what you think Icarners can assimilate from one practice activity or from one lesson, Better a few points that are retained than many that are forgotten. 7 Focus your feedback. If the target is effectiveness, focus your feedback on that area; if accuracy, provide evaluation of language. ; ees a Be Discussion 1 Do you normally discuss with your trainees: the types of feedback you are going to give? ® the types of feedback your trainees expect? = the techniques for giving feedback? 2. To what extent do your trainees normally look to you for feedback? To what extent do they see themselves as evaluators? 3 Do you prefer giving oral or written feedback? Which do your trainees prefer? ONE-TO-ONE TEACHING AND GROUP TEACHING No book on Business English would be complete without a section on one- to-one teaching. One-to-one teaching is ESP par excellence, since no other teaching situation offers a greater possibility of programme customisation.Since the trainee is the sole focus of the trainer's attention, all aspects of the course in terms of objectives, programme design, materials and classroom methodology can be adapted exclusively to the learner's wishes. If every Business English group course is different because of the contributions made by the participants, then every one-to-one course is unique since each individual will stamp their singular mark on the course. And the trainer, of course, is there to respond to those special wishes. In essence, what differentiates one-to-one training from group training derives from the context itself. One-to-one is individualised and personalised; groups share the trainer and cach other. Individual training is single-centred and uniquely focused with the trainer's undivided attention on one person. Group training inevitably calls for compromise on the part of trainer and trainees. From the trainer's point of view, the individual course allows for the greatest flexibility and responsiveness. If the aim of the group course is to satisfy most of the people most of the time, then the aim of the individual course is to satisfy one person all of the time. And that is precisely the reason for the trainee to opt for individual training. Beyond these essential differences, there are a number of key points which characterise the differences between one-to-one and group training. Some relate to the trainer, some to the traince and some to the craining, However, none of them are absolutes or certainties, None of them are exclusively limited to one course type. They are all features of Business English 1 Trainee expectations and trainee behaviour. Both should have high expectations of the training they are to reccive. However, there are normally differences between the two course types. The individual clearly expects a personalised approach and this is what should be delivered. Most group participants, on the other hand, recognise that successful groups need team players. However, some group participants expect more individual attention than is possible. This may be because of their unrealistic expectations or their insensitivity to others. All group Participants are individuals, but ac the same time they need to recognise that group courses depend for their success on team work. [f one person dominates the group, for whatever reason, then the atmosphere suffers. Trainee involvement and contributions. Satisfying one person is always casicr than satisfying a group. Therefore the individual trainee can be totally involved in all stages of a one-to-one programme — its design and its delivery. The trainee can even direct the programme in a way that would be impossible on a group course. The trainer can freely allow changes of tempo, focus and activity without worrying about the impact this will have. ‘The trainee shares the driving seat and can decide the destination and the speed. Group programmes, however, need to develop a culture of sharing if they are to be successful, Trainees share all aspects of the course, including its design and methodology and individual differences need to be subordinated to the group's wishes if the course is to be a success. If a single player plays too hard, then the team spirit will suffer, Individual courses provide a unique opportunity for student talk. As the trainee doesn’t need to share the floor with other course participants, oral practice time is limited only by the agreement of how trainer and trainee should work together. For the activist learner, seeking the maximum oral practice time, the individual course is ideal. For the theorist, preferring a more analytical and reflective approach to language learning, the constant requirement for the learner to be active may, if not paced correctly, turn into an ordeal Trainee level, Individual courses are best suited to learners who have aleeady attained a certain level of competence and have a clear aim to improve in certain arcas. While short bursts of individual training are effective for trainees at all levels, only those who have already attained at least level 4 on the Communicative Competence Scale (see the section in Chapter 7 on Assessing Entry Levels) can truly benefit from the intensity of longer individual training, Lower level learners with fewer linguistic resources and less practice of operating in English will usually tire more quickly than higher level ones with greater language knowledge, communication skills and greater experience of using the language. Individual training should be used carefully with all learners, but particular care should be paid with lower level learners to prevent the ‘experience from overwhelming them and turning the learning experience into a gruelling survival test. Trainee objectives, While many of the accuracy- and fluency-based abjectives can be developed equally in group and one-to-one courses, there are some communication skills that the individual classroom is not ideally suited for. For trainees who aim to develop their group interaction skills, for example in meetings and negotiations, the individual course is rather limited. Although the trainer can simulate a one-to-one meeting or even role play a group meeting, there are clearly limitations co what can ctedibly be done to recreate a group meeting with two people. Trainer approaches. As we have seen, at the heart of the contrast is the nature of the relationship itself. This leads to a number of key differences in training style. While all training requires both organisation and flexibility, one-to-one training depends on trainer sensitivity to atmospheric shifts in the traince’s mood, attention, interest, ete. Responding to the trainee’s personal as ial as professional needs and integrating these seamlessly into the taining demands a high level of awareness, flexibility and professionalism. Group participants are not well-received when they bring their personal problems into the group arena. Similarly the trainer cannot throw out the planned lesson because one trainee is clearly preoccupied with an extraneous problem which is affecting concentration. Of course, these factors requite trainer responsiveness, but it needs co be carried out within the overall plan. PART 2NI Group trainers can adapt, but individual trainers can overhaul Trainer characteristics. For the trainer, running individaal programmes Fequires a particular mix of skills beyond the expertise expected of all ESP teachers. The most important are flexibility and curiosity. Flexibility affeers all parts of the training programme from design to delivery, As each programme is based around the learners and their needs, it follows that each course will be different in certain respects, Trainers need to be able to respond co this variety by designing programmes, cach with its own features uniquely adapted to the student. Having designed the outline programme, the trainer will start upon the materials selection phase. Here flexibility is required in choosing, adapting or developing maccrials which are as relevant as possible to the learner's background, Beyond materials comes the delivery stage, which again needs to be geared to the learner's preferred learning style. [n addition, none of these clements ~ needs, programmes and methodology — are set in stone and trainers are likely to find that as the individual course progresses, changes regularly need to be made to ene or more of them. Trainers whe can respond flexibly to the fluid situation will find these changes a challenge to their teaching rather than a burden. Spending between two and six hours a day with one trainee is not everyone's cup of tea. And it must be admitted that not all trainees make ideal companions. However, training is about providing a professional, father than a social, service and we don’t choose our trainers as we do pur iriends. But the context of individual training naturally brings, or gan bring, trainer and trainee close together, usually much closer than in a Group course, As a result, the one-to-one situation allows for a wide Tange of both professional and personal exchanges. This can sometimes even include the unburdening of work and family pressures in the Suppottive environment of the classroom. While there is a danger that the trainer can become a sponge for all kinds of openness, some of it occasionally unwelcome, the rewards of the experience are in the cnrichment that can be gained through the closeness of professional and Personal contact. And those trainers with a healthy curiosity of what makes companies and individuals tick are likely to get the greatest Personal satisfaction out of one-to-one training, Training approaches, As we have seen, at the heart of the contrast is the nature of the relationship itself. This leads to a number of key differences in training style, While all training requires both organisation and flexibility, one-to-one training depends on trainer sensitivity to atmospheric shifts in the trainee’s mood, attenition, interest, ete Responding to the trainee's personal as well as professional needs and integrating these seamlessly into the training demands a high level of awareness, flexibility and professionalism. Group participants are not well-received when they bring their personal problems into the group aren, Sina the einer cannot drow out the planned lesson becas one tans leary preacapied with an extraneous problem acting concentration. OF cous, these isons requite ene responsive, but ied to be cari out within she overs Group trainers can adap, bur individual trainers can overs, ME ee ee esd itealee aes ieraee eva vES is critical. Many trainees on s rie cotally in she learning proesson day one that by day to Ta . caauned or worse sly saturated: On the other hand anther dang ir ea al See ee ola tan athiy Seachinia Hat ANE USEs Eat hecbattoorechellechecked by thé antaiailiisiyy OF the lamin “ experience the inert of the day and the shee vty ofl what has been provided: Threore, its goo practice fo both ener and taies eo dics the advantages a5 well ste pill fil progam i icfing session so that both parties eae ey cae of McaiGe porate BGs He course’s overall success. i nd The contexts for group training and one-to-one egg ie aa s this leads to a range of distinctive features at the level of cen ‘ee 7 -to-one training share i training and one-to-one : delivery. However, both group al pz MTs tt t onalities of Business English. Tra haracteristics, based on the comm : i should see that bath are ways of delivacing & Businéss Hull eraininiz service within different contexts. USSION ; : bees experience, what type of trainees benefit most from one-to-one training? | ‘ 2 What do you consider to best the most important attributes of: ® a one-to-one trainer? ® a group trainer? . a 3 What arate three main differences between materials used on one-to- irse and group courses? 4 Which ope of seni 36 you (a ieule pay rated Ati? : TEACHING OR TRAINING? ‘teacher’ and ‘trainer’ his book, I have used the terms ‘teac en Aldhough teacher" has Sonacitittahs of sehoel lesioustand if ices in ‘trainer’ of professional development, are there any teal site Te meaning? Dictionary definitions distinguish between ‘teach’ an following, ways. PART 2Teach = to impart knowledge or skill % isBBaUEGsledpeso! eqauliecr ® to cause to learn by example or experience ‘Train to coach in oF accustom to a mode of behaviour or performance ™ to make proficient with specialised instruction and practice. So, “teach” is the most widely applicable term for general ediication while “train” suggests concentration on particular skills intended to fir 2 person for a specific role. As the scope of Business English is both wide and narrow, it would therefore be logical to adopt both terms for the renge of activities that we do in the classtoom. On the one hand, we aim to help our trainees extend their language knowledge (teaching); on the other to facilisate the development of the communication skills needed in their professional environments (training). In both eases, the learning and practice in the classroom are not an end in themselves ~ they should act as 4 bridge to the real world in which language is used as a tool for communication Throughout this book, I have particularly highlighte . the wide ranging concent of Business English with infliences déawn from a range of disciplines, including ELT and management training the noeds-driven approach ar the heart of Business English, which requires trainer responsiveness in terms of both content and methodology. Ie is, thercfore, nor surprising that the repertoire of different trating styles which trainers may call upon draws on a range of approaches from different areas, In any case, even without the diversity of content which characcerises Business English, rcaching is a complex area and this chapeet can only touch on some key issues relevant to the Business English classroom, in particular: ® the classroom as bridge ® sharing control ® preferred training styles. THE CLASSROOM AS BRIDGE There are different types of bridges: some suspended from above, some supported fom below, The Businass English classroom can also be seen a8 a ridge, but there are different methods of perceiving and constructing this bridge. — pul clastoom is by its nature, avery different place from the real world which most professionals inbabit. In addition, the majority of trainers are, by virtue of their background and philosophy, guite remote from the real world concerns of the business community. If the classroom is to act as a bridge and prepare trainees for the types of communication that they are likely to encounter in the real world, then trainees need to: = % understand something of the business environment ® include activities which prepare trainees for chis real world. The earlicr chapters on the business environment, communication skills and management skills have explored these issues from a real world perspective. So, how can they be integrated into the classroom? ‘The following reflect the diverse viewpoints that trainers may have about the classroom. Fach then lends itself to a particular range of activities: the classroom should, as far as possible, replicate the real world ® the classroom should develop skills which can be transferred to the real world the classroom should provide an environment from which skills will grow naturally & the classroom should concentrate on helping students acquire a good foundation of language which they can use in the real world. While in each case the classroom is seen as a bridge to the real world, training approaches and activities will vary according to the views held. In the real world approach, the trainer will try to recreate in the classroom a believable professional environment through simulations in which trainees will play their own teal-life roles. Not only will they be expected to work on their communication skills, bur the contexts in which the skills will be practised will aim to simulate professional reality. This may give the classroom a slightly harder edge than the cosy pedagogic norm, but, on the other hand, it can facilitate the development of appropriate skills for use outside the classroom Where the classroom is seen as an arena for developing skills for later transfer, the focus will be on practice around case studies, situations which present a reality, bur not the trainees’ own. These case studies will provide a hackdrop against which communication skills can be practised and developed. However, by merging the professional world with the pedagogic world, the trainer can create an arena and environment which encourages feedback along harder lines, sharing with participants the evaluation of performance against professional as well as educational criteria. For some trainers and some trainees (as well as some lessons), the best results may be achieved by creating an environment where skills can be encouraged to develop naturally. Here, a supportive environment which promotes stress-free learning is the aim, Naturally, tasks can be challenging, but they should be firmly positioned wit}in the ambit of the classroom. Beyond the classroom is another world with its own patterns of behaviour and the trainer's role is to prepare trainces for the demands of this world, but without getting too close to it. In the final approach, the classroom is seen as separate and divorced from the professional world. This is a less obvious bridge, since the trainees will need to make the jump themselves from the classroom. Here, trainers see their role in terms of giving their trainees a secure linguistic base. A goodeducation will stand them in good stead; and a good grasp of language forms will give them the foundation they require to succeed in the real profe world. ‘These viewpoints are not mutually exclusive. Trainers, in their training, may move between all of them, adapting teaching methodology according to: @ che Icarners & their objectives ® their preferred learning styles, sional SHARING CONTROL ‘The programme of instruction can be divided into a number of linked stages or units, such as a learning module or a classroom lesson. And each larger unit could be further divided into a number of moves, Each move is characterised by an activity, on a cline between trainer-controlled at one extreme and trainee-controlled at the other. The notion of control in the classroom is based around the exercise of direction over the proceedings. Under the strict control of the trainer, the lesson stage follows the content and tempo decided by the trainer, without any possible digression from the planned route. As we move towatds a more central position, the trainer allows more and more involvement of and contributions from the trainees. To the right of the central point, the trainees exercise their control over Proceedings — initially with the trainer and later with a greater degree of independence, as they move towards recreating the real world. This illustration highlights the two polarities, but also shows the possibility of many intermediate teaching positions — each corresponding to a different methodological approach, The classroom polarities are shown below. SHARING CONTROL Classroom activities ot lesson stages also lend themselves to different roles. So, the trainer needs to establish a good correspondence between role and activity. For cxample, the presentation stage of a lesson where the teacher is explaining a language point or a communication feacure is best done in one of the ‘trainer-controlled modes’; on the other hand, the transfer stage, involving a communicative activity or communication skill practice, is best done in one of the ‘traince-controlled modes’. The relationship between zs "TYPES OF CLASSROOM Manat TRAINEE oro E tot} Teacher controls by: Trainee(s) control by: ee ee oe Se, + Geter, 2 SST, ieee 2 eer ® evaluating performance ® evaluating performance trainer role and classroom activities in shown below. Here language controlled activities are best done in a trainer-controlled mode, seescel communicative and communication activities in a trainee-contro! mode, TYPES OF ACTIVITIES Runs TRAINEE: CONTROLLED CONTROLLED Language activities ‘Communicative activities ei ifecerexpanacon = iormaton gp Fea Communication action = oe 8 Simulation of communi Bet = Role play Invovng communicadon _Bisewson of copies of erest Of course, communicative and communication activities can be iho / trainer-controlled mode, but then they are less likely to achieve the o pines of increased fluency and effectiveness. The bridge to the real world is a built within a free classroom environment in which trainees are encourage and allowed to develop theit own techniques and strategies. TRAINING STYLES . , Earlier, we explored the mix of learning styles that trainees will bring with them co learning task, in our case language leamning. AS trainers, we ale 7 have our own preferred training style. ee in our role as provide, 0 own preferred training enc may fneed to be subordinated to our ines” learning mode(s). ae fe therarea oF catitigiagiientay ean lime (by fiesta and Wheeler. They suggest that each trainer has a prefertod training style that he or she brings to a specific task and identify four such styles 1 The listencr:cage Bf | = prefers that trainees talk more than the trainer wants learners to be self-directed and autonomous = appears relaxed and unhurried 2 The director B® takes charge gives directions | appears self-confident ® is well organised @ is the final judge of what is learned = tells participants what to do 3. The interpreter separates self from learners and observes uses theory as foundation | presents well-constructed interpretations = wants trainees to have a thorough understanding, of facts and terminology © encourages learners to think independently : ® provides information based on objective data 4 The coach ® allows learners to evaluate their own progress ® involves trainees in activities and discussions & draws on the strengths of the group uses trainees as resources acts as facilitator to make the experience more comfortable and meaningful & jis clearly in charge % uses activities, projects and problems based on real life. Beyond the training styles are the many other roles that trainers are expected to fulfil: planner motivator role model expert follower leader friend human being and even ... vw learner The key to effective training is undoubtedly our flexibility. Although it is important that we are aware of our own preferred style, we must be able to adapt ir to the needs of our learners according to: their overall objectives ® their preferred learning styles ® specific lesson targecs specific features derermined by the current environment, stich as the time of day, the mood of the learners, ete. DiscussiON | How do you regard yourself in the Business English classroom? As a teacher or as a trainer? 2. On the cline from trainer-controlled to trainee-controlled activities, which approach are you most comfortable with? 3. Which is your preferred training style? THE SCOPE OF MATERIALS AND EQUIPMENT Materials includes all stimuli used as part of a training course to: & develop knowledge of business and management content develop knowledge of language forms = practise skills of communication. As such, they can include: = inputs which stimulate the learner and facilitate the learning process, such as audio, video or written marerial around business themes & reference material to be studied and learnt, such as notes on language forms or communication techniques = practice material to check on the assimilation of new language knowledge or communication skills. Much of the training material covered during the course will be carefully stored away by the trainees but rarely, if ever, looked at again once the course finishes. Only the accumulated knowledge and skills that the trainee takes from the classroom into the real world is the true legacy of the training programme. Materials, therefore, are only a means to the end of extending knowledge and skills; and equipment is the technical means by which training materials can be activated. Yer the trainer is expected to keep a sharp eye on the range of available resources and their utilisation, remaining up-to-date with published ELT ates and maintaining an informed interest in other arcas relating to communication and content. RAW VERSUS PUBLISHED MATERIALS: Materials for the classroom come in many forms. One basic division can be made between raw materials and published materials, The idea of raw teva¢ Lavd materials is that these have not been specifically adapted for the language classroom: They may be:in a form for specialist consumption, such a8, technical documentation, of ina form for generalist consumption, such as off-air news broadcasts. a As no materials, neither published nor raw, are ever ideally suited to a learner group, the trainer will usually need to spend time on some form of modification or customisation. In the vase of published materials, the lesson plan tnay include: part of a uné-deawn. from-pablished maserials, with follow-up activities adapted to the learners’ own needs oF interests, Raw imiatatials present @ apecifie challenge lar churarainensines they will ama need some degree of effort (and ingenuity) ro be useable in the: classeoom, This may include designing tasks: — & to check understanding of content Mf foolis-ontlangiiege to focus-on:communication: In addition, especially with lower level learners, the trainer may need to pay particular actencion to the language level to avoid the ‘turn off oad by many learners when faced with authentic spoken or written So, the dilemma for the trainer is to halance the pros and cons of ubUSI ahd Ste materiale'intormernh ™ relevance to learners’ objectives quality of materials as training tools the time needed for customisation or adaptation cen ithe puichase of published marerial versus, che customisation of raw Materials serve a teaching/learning purpose, Therefore neither raw nor published materials are intrinsically better. It is their suitability for the task. according to the above criteria, that determines the final choice. In reality,” Ge RGEEAT GIR Haneda Ulcciyedy Alcanllenmeemangesmneee- serie SablshalELT and dther-raw./More/than anvtbing elke, ardier froma # of sources is likely to be more stimulating that from a single source. _ FEATURES OF MATERIALS While suitability remains the overriding consideration in the choice of materials, other factors then play a role in the trainer's selection. FEATURES OF MATERIALS a eee Serious casei * Taken on Some trainers and trainees see materials as part of a syllabus, an underlying, systemic framework ot which a teaching strategy is founded. (Thus the grammatical syllabus rakes the language, identifies the grammatical units, and reassembles these building blocks into a learning programme}. One approach to Business English syllabus design could, therefore, be based on: identifying the clements that constivute the scope of Business English = selecting materials that fir within the syllabus template. Here, then, the materials are chosen according to the parameters of the syllabus — reflecting the core elements of language, communication and content, At the heart of this choice are considerations of what the materials are. Some are for grammar; others are for communication; and yet others are for content. A second approach moves away from the notion of syllabus, with its formalised characteristics, to classroom activities. Here materials are chosen, not according to what they are, but rather for what they do; and trainers select for the approach that lends itself best to their trainees” specific learning objectives. Approach-driven’ materials may be: deep end — typically authentic video, audio or text materials which the trainees are expected to handle without preparation; they are thrown into the deep end = task-based — typically authentic material around which a task has been constructed input — material to raise awareness of and teach language forms, communication feacures, or informational content controlled practice - material to check understanding, of language forms, communication features, or informational content = transfer — platform material to lead into a communicative activity or communication activity Beyond the organisational principles of syllabus and the practical focus of activity comes style. Style includes features such as layout, variety of design, nse of colour and overall user-friendliness. Trainee expectations are important here — some will expect a serious, academic style (dense text, few graphics, no colour); others will want a more lively, Fun-based style oF presentation and activity THE MEDIUM OF MATERIALS The traditional classroom was a place where the teacher, unaided, imparted and shared his/her unique knowledge with learners. As the world has become more complex, the sources of knowledge more diverse, no ong trainer can possibly he the fount of all wisdom. However, we are no longer all alone in our role as trainers as we are able to bring parts of the outside world to the classroom. Beyond the trainer's ‘chalk and talk’ and the trainees’ language and communication practice are a range of materials in different media, which 129help the trainer to turn the classroom into a varied learning/teaching environment. While printed text remains the most common training medium, today’s sophisticated trainees expect reaching media to bring more dynamic and authentic models of language, communication and content into the classroom. Bath the ELT world and the non-ELT world give us access to a wide range of video and audio material, and increasingly multimedia. Yet the diversity and availability of materials should not blind us to their real aim — to promote knowledge and learning in the classroom. Therefore we should certainly embrace the new offerings from the publishing houses and other sources. However, we must keep our eye firmly on the suitability of materials for particular learning aims, which are highlighted in the rable below. THE MEDIUM OF MATERIALS MEDIUI COMPOSITION USE a a se = as a = woro [so BE enabec:, to review English tense system + to learn ten new words per week Available time: . Two hours per week for ten weeks, based on Half an hour per language study session four times a week COMMUNICATION PRACTICE . . Developing communication skills requires a systematic and regular approach just like developing language knowledge. However, there s one key difference. while developing language knowledge requires study, developing commmication skills requires practice. The basic rule ou’) get. | TP no start with, you Will meed to make sdiné dedi the more you practise, the better ons about the skills you are interested in developing. At the first level, the choice covers the following: + listening * speaking © reading « weiting However, withii each 6£ the above skills, there are a muther of gub-skills. For exemple, speaking includes: + presentations + meetings + telephoning In addition, some skills provide a useful platform for is study. For example, azticles that you read can provide a rici source of: + new vocabulary © examples of key grammar areas 2 Make your plan and fix your objectives. 3 Walle language study requires good learning materiale, communication practice requires opportunities to make active contact with the language - through speaking, listening, reading and writing.3.1 Developing speaking skills. Your job may provide you with opportunities for speaking practice. If it does not, or it does not give you enough, then you'll Heed to look for other possipilities, either by joining a course or by formin an informal practice group among colleagues or friends. (tf your aim is to improve your presentation skills, you can do this by yourself with a cassette recorder onto which you record your presentation). - However, before joining or forming a group, make sure that you have agreed with the trainer or other members what the objectives of the group are. In other worés, 2 geheral conversation class will help you to develop your general fluency, but it won't autamatically help you to improve your telephone techniques. The basic rule is: the more you - practise: your targeted sub-skill, the better you'll get 3.2 Developing listening skills. There is a wide range of authentic listening material that you have access to via the radio and TV. Suggested Tv sources include: + UK Gold + Shy + CNN - mostly American English models Guagested radio sources include: + BBC World Service - mostly British English models 3.3 Developing reading skille. there is a wide range of authentic reading msterial that you have access to. This includes seading for information as well as reading for pleasure. Suggested sources of reading for information include: * Daily British or American newspapers i Magazines such as Time, Newsweek, The Bconomist, etc + English-language publications produced by your Company + Suggested sources of reading for pleasure: include: jreaders’ = simplifies Literary and popular works ot various S Of ifficulty, vi B aC sl Ss ate at ae ty, available from BLT bookshops and When reading, reyember that books provide a rich source of vecabulary and can be used to develop your language knowledge. 3.4 Developing writing skills. Your job may provide you with opportunities for writing practice. If it dees not, or it does not give you enough, then you will need to. look for weys of improving - either by yourself, based on models, or by joining a course. As with speaking, before joining a’ group, make sure that you have agreed with the trainer what the objectives of the group are. (Trainers should recommend their ow preferred self-study materia Model plan for communication practice Objectives: + to practise general conversat. * to improve listening skills + to read for pleasure available time: 2.5 hours per week for ten wecks. Methodology 1. General conversation 45-minute lunch-time meeting once a week with company restaurant, during which only English 4: 2, Listening skills 15 minutes listening to UK Gold twice @ week 10 minutes listening to CNN twice a week 3. Reading skills 20 minutes spent reading for pleasure twice a weel to write’ up new words into a special notebook for vocabulary and to review them regularly. 7 colleagues in «i s ‘spoken. + 15 minutes DEVELOPING FLUENCY Developing fluency of oral communication requires practice, The more one practises, the better one gets. Confidence and competence are interlinked elements in the fluency development process, In terms of follow-up activities, this means that every opportunity to use the language will help wainees maintain the level of fluency achieved during a course. The obverse is also true: lack of practice will lead to loss of fluency over time. Fluency practice can be provided in two ways: either through real-world language use or through classroom practice. In general, to be effective, fluency-based practice needs to be: = Regular. Two hours every week is much more effective than one day a month since the former maintains regular patterns of use leading to better facility in the languages ® Wide-ranging and challenging. The flueney practice should encourage the language user to talk about real issues, encouraging true communication about professional or personal interests rather than controlled practice of language formulae; ® Based around oral activation. Developing flucncy requires speaking, not study. Therefore it is not achievable within the context of self-study. This type of practice is topic-driven. It docs not require training materials, simply an opportunity and a context. As we have noted, fluency practice is its own feedback. No formal procedures are required. Therefore, the most important clements in fluency development are: ® an interlocutor © a topic 8 plenty of chances to speak.DEVELOPING EFFECTIVENESS Effectiveness lies somewhere between accuracy and fluency. On the one hand, it requires practice; on the other it requires Feedback. Although some aspects of communication (awareness raising and limited practice) can be developed in self-study mode, the main thrust will need to be based around practice. Elfectiveness development can be provided in two ways: cither through real-world language use or through classroom training, However, as we have noted above, to be effective, the practice communication needs to be accompanied by feedback. While the real world can provide plenty of opportunities for practice, this is rarely followed by feedback on the effectiveness of communication. It therefore lacks an essential element. In general, to be effective, effectiveness-based practice nceds to be: = Focused. The communication practice should have a clear focus so that the resulting feedback is meaningful in relation to specific aspects or building blocks of the communication skill heing practised. For the purposes of improving a specific communication skill, it is better to work ‘on a clearly identified small area than try and attack the whole skill at once Based around oral activation. Developing effectiveness requires a mix of awareness raising and communication practice. Although the first arca can be approached through self-study, the second cannot, Just as fluency practice is topic-driven, effectiveness practice is skill- driven. It does not requite training materials, simply contexts drawn from the traince’s own personal or professional experience. The reason for loking into the future is to give the trainees some guidelines about how to continue their learning and what they can realistically do in order to further develop their knowledge and skills. Many leave a Business English with every good intention of continuing to work on the English. The reality is that the pressures of work usually prevent these aims from being fulfilled, except within the contexts of the language requirements of the trainees’ jobs. DISCUSSION | How do you end a course? What procedures (administrative or pedagogic) do you need to complete? 2 In your experience, to what extent do your trainees continue to work on their English? What types of activities do they do? 3 What types of follow-up would make your courses more effective? ced REVIEWING THE COURSE The closed-loop system of training consists of the following four phases: ® identifying needs = designing training programmes (methodology and materials) delivering training = evaluating (programme and trainees} Programme evaluation should be an ongoing process, as the trainer collects feedback from the trainees and integrates it into other phases of the course — its design and implementation. For the final evaluation, the trainer is getting feedback on the total process and all the elements that have made up the learners’ experiences. Broadly speaking, the final course review should focus on: the link between phase 1 and the subsequent phases the materials used in the training process the methodology used by the trainer the effectiveness of the trainer him/herself the resulis of the taining The final review of an intensive course may also want to look at other clements of the total training package such as: aot accommodation (where students have attended a course away from home) the social programme the training centre’s facilities the training centre’s atmosphere the support from the training organisation's administrative staff. Although these elements are not central to the course itself, they haye a direct influence on overall customer satisfaction, Lack of quality in one of these areas can easily lead to dissatisfaction with the whole service, including the training course. It is, therefore, important that taining organisations pay attention ¢o their ancillary services. The course evaluation can be carried out in a mumber of ways: 1 by the trainer orally 2 by an impartial member of the training organisation orally 3 by a written feedback questionnaire For each method the feedback can be based around open evaluation of closed scales, either numerical (1 — 5} or judgmental (very good ~ very poor). In ordet to focus the trainees’ attention on the key issues, it is useful to have some form of questionnaire as a guide. Below are three models, showing different ways of running the end-of-course review.ORAL FEEDBACK ~ OPEN EVALUATION ~ LED BY TRAINER In this method, trainees are presented with the questions below by the trainer ~ on transparency, flipchart or whiteboard. They are told to discuss these between themselves and formulate their conclusions. One person, the spokesperson, will then present the group’s consensus to the trainer. During the discussion phase, the trainer leaves the room so that the trainees can deliberate in private. Wich groups of around six participants, the whole Process can be completed in 30 minutes — about half of the time for internal discussion and the other half for presentation of results. FEEDBACK QUESTIONS A How do you evaluate the course in terms of: Materials Teaching approaches Activities (variety and usefulness) Pace Level Appropriacy to needs/interests oneawur B To what extend do you feel that you have achieved your objectives? © Any other comments? ORAL FEEDBACK - CLOSED-SCALE EVALUATION — LED BY REVIEWER There are advantages and disadvantages in bringing an outsider into the evaluation process. The greatest benefit is that it brings a degree of objectivity and impartiality into the process which may encourage the trainees to be more truthful and open about their course than if they have to give their feedback to the traitice. In this method, a reviewer, either another trainer whom the trainees know, a pedagogic co-ordinator or the director of studies, runs the evaluation session. The trainees are guided by the following, questions, which they answer in advance of the face-to-face meeting with the reviewer. At the mecting the reviewer collects their oral feedback and makes appropriate written notes of the participants’ assessments, With groups of around six participants, the whole process can be completed in 30 minutes — about 10 minutes to complete the questionnaire and 20 minutes for the reviewer to guide the assessment session and make notes ces) COURSE EVALUATION ease £112 in this of our poryice the \co-ordinater. (tine) on Student Name Compan Host family/hotel will help us te impreve che 11 dis@uss your Eeedback with you at day) . Pleasé will you rate the following on a 1 to 5 scale by ci the relevant nuiber where applicable: 1 bad 2 not very good 3 satisfactory 4 good 5 excellent Please write your conments on any of these points on the other side of this sheet. 1 YOUR COURSE General assessment Objectives clear? Objectives tollewec? Consents of course Balance between different parte BRB of course programme # 3 4 Pace: too fast / too slow? ae | Level of difficulty 1 2 a 5 Trainer 4 (name: ) £ a 44 trainer 2 (name: ) 1 2 4 5 Your course materiais: «he 4, (course Tile, photocopied material, etc.) 2 OTHER FACTORS ; Jom of Wd Pre-course agministration i 1 Bre-course materials: rom a a & administration during your course # eee 4 Your accomodation (host family/norel) ea 7 & Whe training centre pag és Lunen arrangements Pe} The social progranine a2 3 3 YOUR COMMENTS 4 HOW CAN WE IMPROVE THE SERVICE WE PROVIDE?WRITTEN FEEDBACK ~ CLOSED-SCALE EVALUATION There are three reasons why a formal written evaluation may be preferred: ® individual feedback can be given anonymously ® individual feedback can be given quickly = a formal written recard of individual feedback is produced. ‘Therefore, the written feedback questionnaire is very useful when: = dealing with large group sizes where discussion may be difficult to organise and consensus difficult to achieve either the training organisation or the client needs a written record The following questionnaire is based around a 1 — 5 rating scale, While other ranges are possible, an odd number is generally considered better than an even number and a smaller number is usually better than a bigger one. Psychologically a five-point scale corrclates with: very good good acceptable poor very poor ob Gn In some cultures, these values are reversed so that 5 is the highest grade and 1 the lowest, This questionnaire is used at the end of a general Business English course aiming to develop: ® general language knowledge specialist language knowledge = general communication skills = professional communication skills. It can be easily modified to reflect the design of other more specialised Business English programmes, COURSE EVALUATION FOR LANGUAGE SEMINAR Please answer the following questions by (very weak) to 5 |very good) ing marks fron 1 course Design ri ire 1 @ knowledge component and 4 How do you rate the general language know a a TOs 2a oso isi knowledge component 1.2 How @o you rate the specialist language and materials? 12nd Oo a 4 edimuinication skills 1.3. How do you rate the professional cal nica i components and materials? iO2O704050 1.4 Overall, were you happy with the course? tO202:04¢o080 2 The Groupe ; : 2.1 How do yoo evaluate the eroup size? 1 1] 2 o:o0%030 2.2 Were the groups homogeneous enoug! son Bae: s = point of view of language level? tDeOsaoeoso 3 The Training 7 3.1 How do you vate the trainers? rOerefsaoeoeo 3.2 Did the course move at the 7 ¥ right pace? a 1 O 203040 oO 3.3 How do you rate the variety of the course - activities? 1020304050 43.4 How do you rate the usefulness of the % above activities? 1o2oO9040 560 3.5 Overall, did the course meet your - objectives? 1.O20304#O50 4 Administration 4.1 Was the course efficiently . administrated? 1B20s0#+os0 4.2 Was the social programme . satisfactory? ansohsheoeo 5 Criticiem * - — 5.1 Are there any ways in whith this course could be changed te the better? in 5.2 Which part Gf the course has disappointed you bi 5.3 Which part of the course havé you enjoyed most? 6 Other* Are there any other comments you would like to give in relation to this seminar? Thank you very: much. (Author's note: ample space is provided here for the respondent’s answers to the questions in sections $ and 6.)Whichever method of evaluation is used, the dual objectives of the process should be remembered: ® to collect the trainces’ feedback on their satisfaction with the service they have received to feed this information back to those responsible for the service so that remedial action can be taken, where necessary ‘This means that the training organisation will needs systems for transmitting the data to those involved in and responsible for key areas, In the front line are the trainers themselves and where the feedback has been collected by a reviewer, the information thar is relevant to the trainers should be passed on to them, Other areas, such as feedback on: accommodation (where students have attended a course away from home) the social programme the training centre’s facilities the training centre’s atmosphere the support from the training organisation's administrative staff should be passed on to the appropriate department Feedback has been a key issue throughout this book, particularly for the trainees in the learning process. However, it is equally important for the training organisation to have its own feedback procedures so that it can constantly monitor and improve the quality of the service it provides. DISCUSSION | How do you collect feedback at the end of a course? What areas do you collect feedback on? 2 To what extent are your trainees truthful when giving feedback? _ 3. How could you improve the feedback procedures that you use? DRAFTING THE COURSE REPORT The course report provides a framework in which the following elements can be fitted: = a restatement of the course objectives @ a summary of the course content ® an evaluation of the trainee’s achievements ® recommendations for the furure. The course report itself may go to a number of different people: ® the trainee him/herself @ the traince’s boss ers ® the trainee’y training of personnel department. As the report is a window on the training organisation, it is important that it ® well-designed m= well-presented & meaningful to insiders (the trainee, the training department) = comprehensible to non-specialists (non-training, personnel) As the report is also an administrative/pedagogic it is importane that it is: ® coherent = comprehensible = complete. While much of the report will be based around the past facts (what was agreed in terms of objectives and what was done in terms of course content and activities) and future guidelines (recommendations for follow-up), the report needs to include some form of evaluation of trainee performance. As we have seen in earlier chapters, the whole area of formalised, objective evaluation presents a major challenge, especially where course objectives have included fluency and effectiveness training, This is accentuated at the report drafting, stage, when more rigorous assessment procedures and scales are required. The two main problems the report drafter faces are: 1 Simple evaluation scales do not capture adequately the various parameters involved in accuracy, fluency and effectiveness; and complex evaluation scales are only comprehensible to specialists, 2. The trainee is very likely to have improved in certain areas; but the degree of improvement may not be clearly measurable or meaningfully communicable on the scale provided While it is good publicity for the training organisation to be able to show the traince’s improvement on a measurable scale, they may have to settle for a more oblique method, as in the following report model which evaluates the trainee’s performance according in relation ro the course objectives. The model below follows a simple pattern. It is divided into three section: 1 the preliminaries 2 the course content 3 comments and recommendations. a eeMODEL 1: INDIVIDUAL COURSE REPORT Course Report ‘Student: a Client: B Course type: Individual intensive bates: 16 - 20 Gerober 1995 Job: A ip @ Deputy Director of B, Fespsasible for the construction of new cuilings, Ho is just shout to comlete the construction of a aew microstachronies factory 3m ¢. he fron January 1998, he will he in 0 king et leader of the project group in charge of the constr : mocking of lester of the project aroun in charge of 'che construction In this project, be will + presentation’ + meetings and discussions with: + the legal council + the Area susineas Pare developers + the Construction Management group + architects, engineers and contractors working on the project seory Profile: Communication competence level 3 hes a basic, but limited, knowledge of core ghaumaticai former we ewes ee ated bo wetenainiags especially of technics! and semi-technical terms, is wider. — In terms of speaking, A can express idese and informacion in carefully controlled situations with basie accuracy: and Limited lueney; his listening okille are better std he is able to extravt the gist from more complex Liatening passages; acceptable promineiat ton Course Objectives 1 To develop oral skills, especially for presentations and discussions; 2 To improve knowledge and control of grammar; 3 To increase specialist vocabulary tially necd te communicate in English in: INote: The Entry Profile: is based on the FSU Communicate Competence Scale | Course Content: 1 Oral skills Preseatations and discus yoducing the organs daw ation of the project + stages of project. + the clean room + the Dresden project General + daily Youtines + current projects + past activities + hobbies and lifestyle « family and work lite 2 Grammar areas Qhe present simple and present continuous The past simple and present perfect Future reference er INDIVIDUAL COURSE REPORT (CONTINUED) 3 Vocabulary development General purpose vocabulary General business vocabulary Specific construction and project vocabulary In addition, the daily classroom Actes on cassette provided feedhack on language accuracy and language style areas |Note: Course content: takes each objective as a subsection heading and desenbes ke ‘covered. Comments: B began the course with a cudimentary knowledge of language forms, but with s cormitment to gaining the maximum benefit from his two weeks in York. He has worked hard on developing his language knowledge grammar and vocatmlary) and communication skills (presentations and discussions) in English. 1 Oral skills Hig oral communication ‘uctured, wileh gives hie interlocutors an opportunity vo understand the gist and detail of the information. He is ablé to deliver ideas in a clear and coherent manner, considering the limited means at his disposal. 2 Grammar areas Ho bas now covered thé Gore Granmar verb: forms (past; present and future) and can use these with basic accuracy 3. Vocabulary development He has a basic working knowledge of voosbulary, which, when used creatively, enables him to express fairly complex iseas. Tn general, he needs much more language to operate comfortably and effectively in his new project, but these two weeks have shown him that achieving @ working knowledge of English in within his grasp Recommendations Developing a basic working knowledge of a foreign language takes time, and A has already mde some progress along that pi In general, to develop his competence still further, he needs pra feedback and study. Practice and feedback; in order to improve Fluency and protessional communivation skills; study, in order consolidate and extend his language knowledge. Tm particular he aceds tor » ceview the grammar dovered. dur: materiale purchased «© extend his grammar and vocabulary; if possible with a trainer to give him feedback on the accuracy of his language © practise the communication skills of presentations and discussions, again, if possible, with a trainer to give him feedback on the effectiveness of his communication e a ng the course, using the self-study Nick Brieger, Training’ Consultant [Notes: Comments: takes each objective as 2 subsection heading ard describes performance and improvement achieved during the comrse. Recommendations: general paragraph on developing competence followed by sp recommendations in relation to course objectives nat yet achieved.) | teesMODEL 2: GROUP COURSE REPORT Course Report szudento: stiidént. names and their company nanes cours Business Communication in english 1th Februe: lst Marci S Objectives: ' = To develop general language knowledge 4n terns of general gzamar, general and imsiness vocabulary and express ons + To develop specialist language knowledge in the participants professional areas . es + To develop nd practise ths fe 3 8 ise the profess tond] comtunicacion ekilis of preseatations, neetings, teleshoning, and writing * To develop and practise general conmmication skills in order co ase fluency through social language, goneral discussion and on business issues Course Content: General language knowleage The present Lense: The past tense vs the present. perfect Future reference Conditionals Tm addition, the da ifatening skills Specialist language knowledge Topics covéred: * company organisation + marketing + personnel » finance Professional communication skills The following skills were practised during the course: + presentations + negotiation + meetings * telephoning * writing General communication skills Topic areas included: + spcial language for difterent social contexts + the environment + enteztainment. * business culcures + politics + law ané order * food and drink * travel y TY news: was ed Lo develop [Note on Course Content: takes each objective as a sub . Pitas jective as a subsection heading and describes key areas 148 GROUP COURSE REPORT (CONTINUED) ement : Language learning is a long-term process, but in the’ course these two weeks, everyone in the group achieved greater fluency 8 of their errors and enhanced their listening skills. Although there was some difference in language level, the group worked well together and each participsnt made progress in terms of developing lan- guage xnowledge, improving communication skills or both. and confidence in using moglish, an improved aware’ Nick Brieger and Ann Barker Training Consultants SAMPLE INDIVIDUAL ASSESSMENT Individual Assessment (participant) A Entry Profile: Communicative Competence Level 7 {seo stcached sheet) A has a gdod Kiowlédee Of cove grammatical torms and vocabulary, both general and technical from her specialist area. In terms of communication, she can express her ideas with reasonable fluency and effectivenéss in professional situations; acceptable pronum ation. A participated actively theoughbut the course. She is a competent user of the language, es she demonstrated in her presentation and is Comfortable in meetings and discussions. Her contributions throughout the course dewonstratec quite fluent in English. However, she should now con: make Herself more effective, especially im professionst tion 1 General language knowledge A now has a better grasp of the main verb forme in English and an increased understanding of hes own weaknesses. 2 Specialict language knowleage A hao a very good overs! knowledge of the language forms from her specialist area together with an extensive repertoire of general business vocabulary. 4 Professional communication skill In general A is an effective camminicater ‘who ie able to use a wide range of techniques which enhance the impact of her mes- gage in presentations, meetings’ and on the phone. during the feedback sessions, we identified a number of areas in which eee could improve her overall gerformaace, especially question handling, body language and active listening. All in all, A hae shown that she is able to commimicate vonfurt- ably with people trom different packgrounds (both professional ané national) and shé should be pleased with the progress made during the course. that she ider how te 149SAMPLE INDIVIDUAL ASSESSMENT (CONTINUED) Recommendations Developing competence in a foreign language is a long-term process; and A has alreaty made good progress along that path. in general, to develop her competence still further, she needs pra tice, feedback and stucy. © areas for A are: + effectiveness of professional communication + extension of language knowledge | For the former the key is continued practide, with special empha | sis focus on communicatic ues. For the latter, A should Find ways of systematically increasing her active vocabulary. ‘thie be through reading er listeaing to English - but with « ear rot only for the mésdage but also: for the forme of langage used. This heightened awareness should help her to increase her language knowl edaa. INotes: General Assessment: general statement about the group, their performance and the task of developing competence in a foreign language Indivadial Assessment: takes each objective asa subsection heading and describes performance ail improvement achieved during the course Recommendations: general paragraph on developing competence followed by specific reconutendations in relation to course objectives not yet achioved. | No course report can ever paint the whole picture. Therefore it should aim to strike a balance by being ® complete without being oververbose = comprehensible without being overcomplex. DISCUSSION |) Why do you think that a training organisation should prepare a report on each trainee? 2 What information should the report include? 3 For which audience should the report be written? PART THREE CHECKLISTS PART 3These checklists are not intended to be exbaustive. The intention is rather to give a basic selection of references which you can use as a basis for further development yourself, In spite of attempts to avoid information which is likely to go out of date quickly, some of the references will inevitably change. York Associates hopes in the future to be able to provide updated information via its website. British telephone and fax numbers are given with the local code only. If calling from abroad, dial the national code 44 and then the local code without the first ZerOs CH ECKLI ST 1 FURTHER READING ‘This is a basic reading list for newcomers to the subject of teaching Business English. Books Ellis, M. and Johnson, C. (1994). Teaching Business University Press. Hutchinson, T. and Waters, A. (1987). English for Specific Purposes - A Learning-centred Approach. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, Robinson, P. (1990), ESP Today. Hemel Hempstead: Prentice Hall. Wilberg, P. (1987). One to One. Sussex: Language Teaching Publications. English. Oxford: Oxford REPORTS Dudley-Evans, A. and St John, M. J. (1996). Report on Business English: A Review of Research and Published Teaching Materials. Princeton: Educational Testing Services. JOURNALS Language and Intercultural Training, published by Language Training Services, focuses an language training for companies, available from LTS, 5 Belvedere, Lansdown Road, Bath, Avon BAI SED, UK. PART 3as) es cu io a CHECKLIST 2 PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT FOR TEACHERS OF BUSINESS ENGLISH PROFESSIONAL ASSOCIATIONS The main professional association outside the United States is IATEFL - the International Association of Teachers of English as a Foreign Language. Individual members can also join any of a growing number of SIGs - Special Interest Groups. The must for practising and aspiring BE teachers is the biggest SIG, BESIG, che Business English Special Interest Group, which organises its own annual international conference - usually in Germany in November - and publishes its own newsletter. Contact: IATEFL, 3 Kingsdown Chambers, Kingsdown Park, Whitstable, Kent CTS 2DJ, UK. Tel (01227 276528, Fax: 01227 274415, E-mail: [email protected] BESIG also produces resources indexes from time to time: the last one appeared in 1993. The Management and Computer SIGs also organise seminars and produce informative newsletters. The other (US-based) international professional organisation is TESOL - Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages: 1600 Cameron Street, Suite 300, Alexandria, VA 22314-2751, USA. PROFESSIONAL PRESS The EL Gazette, published monthly, contains news and reviews of interest to BE as well as to General EFL teachers. Available from Sth floor, Dilke House, 1 Malet Street, London WC1 7JA, tel: 0171 255 1969, fax: 0171 255 1972, e-mail: [email protected] JOB AND CAREER INFORMATION ‘The EL Gazette publishes a regular jobs supplement: EL Prospects which contains profiles on pay and conditions in different parts of the world as well as job advertisements. The ELT Guide, published annually and available from the same address, offers useful general advice on bath jobs and qualifications. As well as a job information exchange centre at its annual conference, IATEFL runs an clectronic jobshop on the World Wide Web at heep://www.go-ed.com/jobs/iatefl/ QUALIFICATIONS The best qualification for general EFL teachers who want to have an initial qualification in BET is the LCCI (London Chamber of Commerce and Industry) Certificate in Teaching Business English. Contact: York Associates, 116 Micklegate, York YO1 LJY or the LCCI Examinations Board, 112 Station Road, Sidcup, Kent DALS 7BJ, tel: 0181 302 0261, fax: 0181 309 5169 / 302 4169. PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT Why not & form a Business English Teachers’ development group in your a ® write an article for a BET magazine - or start a magazine yourself? = make a proposal for a presentation at the next teachers’ conference you can get to? write some training materials and circulate them co colleagues for piloting? : ; = contact the author with comments, questions or requests For help? CHECKLIST 3 PUBLISHED MATERIALS FOR TEACHING ENGLISH The trickle of Business English materials in the seventies and early eighties has now turned into a mighty flood and, if possible, you should have a regular browse through the new titles in a specialist ELT bookshop or at a publishers’ exhibition at an ELT conference. PUBLISHERS Write to the major BE publishers to go on their mailing lists for their annual catalogues and news of new publications. The big three are: Cambridge University Press, The Edinburgh Building, Shaftesbury Road, Cambridge CB2 2RU. Tel: 01223 325846, fax: 01223 325984, e-mail: [email protected] ; Longman Group Ltd., Longman House, Burnt Mill, Harlow, Essex CM20 IJE, tel: 01279 623623 / 426721, fax: 01279 431059. : - Oxford University Press, ELT Division, Great Clarendon Street, Oxford OX2 GDP. Tel: 01865 267567, fax: 01865 267831, e-mail: [email protected], World Wide Web heep://www-oup.co.uk/elt Also notable for BE titles ate: Collins Cobuild, HarperCollins Publishers, 77-85 Fulham Palace Road, Hammersmith, London W6 8JB. Tel: 0181 741 7070 Fax: 0181 307 4629 internet: heep://www.cobuild.collins.co.uk Heinemann, Heinemann English Language Teaching, Halley Court, Jordan Hill, Oxford OX2 EJ. Tel: 01865 311366 Fax: 01865 314193. e-mail: [email protected] PART 3 awww-heinemann.cc ching Publications, 35 01273 736344, fax: 01273 720898, Church Road, Hove BN3 2BE. Tel: Penguin English, 27 Wrights Lane, London W8 STZ. Tel: 0171 416 3000, fax: 0171 416 3060. Peter Collin Publishing (for specialist dictionaries}, 1 Cambridge Road, Teddington, Middlesex, TW11 SDT, Tel: 0181 943 3386, fax: O181 943 1673, e-mail: [email protected] Prentice Hall / Phoenix, Campus 400, Maylands Avenue, Hemel Hempstead, Herts HP2 7EZ, tel: 01442 881900, fax: 01442 882151, Books This list is @ selection of the books published mainly over the last ten years Which would collectively form a good basis to a Business English teaching resources centre, For ease of reference, the titles are given first. The classification is imperfect since some titles do nor fie easily into one single category, Coursebooks “ontacts, Nick Brieger and Jeremy Comfort. Prentice Hall 1994, Business Basics, David Grant and Robert McLarty. OUP 1995. Business Challenges, Nina O’Driscoll and Fiona Scott Barrett. Longman 1996. Business Class. Dayid Cotton and Sue Robbins, Nelson 1993. Business Connections. M, Carrier and M. Sneyd. Longman 1992 English, Peter Wilberg and Michael Lewis. LTP 1990. tess Matters, Mark Powell. LTP 1995, Business Objectives. Vicki Hollert. OUP 1992, Business Opportunities. Vicki Hollett. OUP 1994, Business Review. Kay Bruce, Betsy Parrish, Allan Wood. Longman 1992, Business Venture. Roger Barnard and Jeff Cady. OUP 1993, Developing Business Contacts. Nick Brieger and Jeremy Comfort, Prentice Hall 1993, Barly Business Contacts, Nick Brieger and Jeremy Comfort, Prentice Hall 1994. English for Business Communication, Simon Sweeney. CUP 1997. English Works. Robert O'Neill. Longman 1993 Executive Decisions. A. G. Fowles et al. Longman 1995. Functioning in Business. P. Lance Knowles, Francis Bailey, Rosi Jillett Longman 1991 Getting Abead, Sarah Jones-Macziola and Greg White, CUP 1993, Goittg Places. Gillian Porter-Ladousse. Heinemann 1998. International Express, Liz Taylor. OUP 1996, Multilevel Business English Programme. tan Badger and Pete Merwies. Macmillan 1993, New International Business English. Leo Jones and Richard Alexander. CUP 1996, People in Business. Michael Kleind] and David Pickles, Longman Business English 1992, Professional English. Mark Ellis, Nina O'Driscoll and Adrian Pilbeam, Longman 1984, Language . Bud You Business Grammar.“ Bowren, LTP 1996. Business Idioms International. ©, Goddard, Pete siness Language Practice. John Morrison Milne. LTP 1994. — nae Business English Nick Bregee and Simon Sweeney. Prentice ll 197 Language of Business English. Nick Bricger and Simon Sweeney. Prentice ee 199. Language of Business English Workbook. Nick Brieger and Simon Sweeney. Prentice Hall 1996. nin; | ee i ‘Tasks. Patrick Hanks and Jim Corbett, CUP pe —-6i Business Talk. Gareth Hughes, Adrian Pilbeam and Christine West. Longm: iS Executive Listening. Ed. Mark Waistell. Nelson 1993. Make or Break, David Evans, BBC Publications 1992. 7 Social Vocabulary Pack. Jeremy Comfort. York Associates 1997 munication skills eee Training, Anne Watson-Delestie. LTP 1992. Better Business Writing. Alan Ram. York Associates tsslenione! —— Business Reports in English. Jeremy Comfort, Rod Revell and Chris Stott Company to Company. Andrew Littlejohn, CUP 1924. Effective Presentations. Jeremy Comfort. OUP 1994. Effective Meetings. Jeremy Comfort. OUP 1995. Effective Negotiating, Jeremy Comore, OUP 1998 Fffective Sacialising. Jeremy ee a Be i ing. Jeremy Comfort, i ek eam Mark Fis and Nina O'Driscoll ee 1991. Giving Presentations. Matk Ellis and Nina ODriscoll. Longiman 1992, Handbook of Cammercial Correspondence. A. Ashley, OUP 1992, Language of Meetings. Malcolm Goudale. TP 1988. ; sco Making Contact. Nina orpiigall a Fiona Scott-Barrett. Longman 1991, s. Malcolm Goota 7. Tee ie Discussions. Nina O'Driscoll and Adrian Pilbeam. eri Bi - Negotiaing. Philip O'Connor, Adrian Pilbeam and Fiona Scott-Barrett. Longs 2. On the Line, K. Cripwell. OUP 1981 Presenting in English, Mark Powell. LTP 1996. . Presenting Facts and Figures, David Kerridge. Longman 1992 oi Social Contacts. Nick Brieger and Jeremy Comfore. Prentice Hall 1 Socialising. Mark Ellis and Nina O'Driscoll, Langman 1992 Speaking Effectively. Jeremy Comfort oc al. CUP 1994. Take Another Letter. Geolirey Myers. Phoenix EIT 1996. Telephone Skills. David Hough. Heinemann 1993. ing. Longman 1992. racome in English. B, J. Naterop and R. Revell. CUP 1997, PART 3 Vocabulary Build Your Business Vocabulary. John Flower. LTP 1990. ropa Business Terms, Hugh L'Tstrange and Susan Norman, International Business ImagBusiness Words, D. Howard-Williams and C. Herd. Heinemann 1992, Check Your Vocabulary for Business. David Riley. Peter Collin Publishing 1995. Check Your Vocabulary for Computers. David Riley. Peter Collin Publishing. 1995 Check Your Vocabulary for Law. David Riley, Peter Collin Publishing 1996 Check Your Vocabulary for Medicine. David Riley. Peter Collin Publishing 1995. Key Terms in Personnel, Steve Flinders. York Associates 1995, Key Words in Business. Bill Mascull. Collins Cobuild 1996. Key Words it: Science and Technology. Bill Mascull. Collins Cobuild 1997. Key Words in the Media. Bill Mascull. Collins Cobuild 1995, Test Your Business Vocabulary: Accoumancy. Alison Pohl. Penguiti English 1997, Test Your Business Vocabulary: Elementary. Steve Hinders. Penguin English 1996, Test Your Business Vocabulary: Finance. Sirwon Sweeney. Penguin English 1997, Test Your Business Vocabulary: General, Joyce McKellen. Penguin English 1990, Test Your Business Vocabulary Test Your Business Vocabulary: Intermediate. Steve Flinders. Penguin English 1997. Test Your Business Vocabulary: Marketing. Simon Sweeney. Penguin English 1996, Words at Work. David Horner and P, Strutt, CUP 1996. Professional context Accounting. Michael Sneyd. Prentice Hall 1994, Advertising and the Promotion Industry. Maggic-Jo St Jolin. Prentice Hall 1994, At Your Service. Trish Stott and Angela Buckingham, OUP 1995, English: for Computing. Keith Boeckner and P, Charles Brown. OUP 1993, English for International Banking and Finance, Jim Corbett. CUP 1990. English for Law. Alison Riley. Macmillan 1991 English for Telecoms. Tan Simpson and Derek Utley. York Associates 1995 Finance. Nick Brieger and Jeremy Comfort. Prentice Hall BME 1992, Financial English. lan McKenzie, LTP 1996, First Class. Trish Stott and Roger Holt. OUP Insurance. Michael Sneyd, Prentice Hall 1996. International Banking and Finance. Michael Sneyd. Prentice Hall 1992. Marketing. Nick Brieger and Jeremy Comfort. Prentice Hall BME 1992, Marketing. Maggie-Jo St John, Prentice Hall 1992. Personnel. Nick Brieger and Jeremy Comfort. Prentice Hall BME 1992. Production and Operations. Nick Brieger and Jeremy Comfort. Prentice Hall BME. 1992, Secretarial Contacts. Nick Brieget and Tony Cornish. Prentice Hall 1989, Activities / case study / role play Business Builder. P. Emmerson. Heinemann 1997. Business Case Stidies. R. Huggett. CUP 1994, Business Communication Games. A. Lloyd and A, Preier. OUP 1996. Business English Pair Work. Steve Flinders and Simon Sweeney. Penguin English 1996 Business English Recipes, Judy Irigoin and Bonny Tsai, Longman 1995. Business English Teacher's Resource Book. Sharon Nolan and Bill Reed, Longman 1992, Business Games. Jenny Mawer. LTP 1992. Decisionmaker. David Evans, CUP 1996, International Business Role Plays. David Kertidge. Delta 1996, More Business English Pair Work. Steve Flinders and Simon Sweeney. Penguin English 1998, Hotel and Catering. Alison Pohl. Penguin English 1996, ard Intermediate Business Resource Pack, David Riley, Heinemann 1996. sward Lower Intermediate Business Resource Pack. C.Benn and P.Dunnett, Heinemann Readin . in Pro Hed Revell and Simon Sweeney, CU 1992 Dictionaries _ Longman Concise Dictionary of Business Fnglish. J. H. Adam. Longman Le = Oxford Dictionary of Business English far Learners of English. Ed. 8. Tuck, OUP 1993. Plus any dictionary from the Peter Collins list (sev Publishers.) VIDEO Business Assignments. Ken Casler and Davie Palmer. OUP 1989. Communicating Styles. Derek Utley. York Associates 1995. Effective Presentations. Jeremy Comfort and Derek Utley. OUP 1994. Effective Meetings. Jeremy Comfort and Derek Utley. OUP 1995 Effective Negotiating. Jeremy Comfort and Derek Usley. OUP 1998. Effective Soctalising, Jeremy Comfort and Derck Utley. OUP 1997. Effective Telophoning, Jeremy Comfort and Derek Urley. OUP 1996. Further Ahead. Andeew Bampfield. CUP. i Meeting Objectives. Vicki Hollett and Barnaby Newbolt. OU! Staying Ahead. Andrew Bampfield, CUP. MULTIMEDIA AND PC 7 Business Challenges iteractive. Nina O'Driscoll and §. MacBurnie. Longman 1997. Electronic Business Letter Writer. OUP 1997. , ol English for Business. University of Wolverhampton Philips 1996097. M-Power Your Business English. Susan Norman and Hugh L’Estrange. i GANISERS : : i cieeaermatetanice wld eerrepamnlllle DMRRgaragrEr fhe market are: a The Sac peices English Course Generator (Mike Nelson. Media-Time) is a PC i based system for the design and implementation of BE courses which stores and provides cross-referenced infomation bent manylae the abished materials on vie marke i om the English Book Centre, Oxford (details below). Fe Re Ce i Dicctoe, oF ELE Materal ciara protice wall thewoic popular ELT publications and has sections on Business English, video and computer materials: available from the Bournemouth English Book Centre (details below} TORS Morus to Louis Garnade of the English Book Centre, Oxford for his help in the compilation of this list. All of the above tiles are available from the EBC, 26 Grove Street, Oxford OX2 7JT, tel. 01865 514770, fax: 01865 513924, e-mail: [email protected] UK distributors are ; Dene ey English Book Centre, 125 Charminster Road, Bournemouth, Dorset BH8 c.co.uk SUH, tel / fax: (1202 523103, e-mail: [email protected] ~ ey ‘Cambridge International Book Centre, 42 Hills Koad, Cambridge CB2 1LA, "Tek: 01223 365400 Fax: 01223 312607 PART 3Keltic International, 39 Alexandra Road, Addl |, 39 Alexandra Road, Addlestone, Surrey KTIS 2PQ, tel: 01932 }20485, fax: 01932 $49528, e-mail: [email protected] ee nglish Language Bookshop, 31 Geos s English Lang shop, 31 George Street, Brighton; Sussex BN2 el: 01273 GO4R64, fax: 01273 687280, e-mail: [email protected] © eS Most of these also have theit own very derailed catalogues. For computer-based materials, the most con in 8 ials, comprehensive source is: Wida Software, 2 Nicholas G: V5 SHY iin icholas Gardens, London WS SHY Tek 0181 567 6941 Fax: 0181 e-mail: widasoft@lang wida.co.uk compuServe 100914,2317 CHECKLIST 4 OTHER SOURCES OF MATERIAL FOR TEACHING BUSINESS ENGLISH TEXT A short list of ideas about how to build up banks of material faicly quick At York Associates, the resources centre contains hooks, magazines, teafia.” audio and vieleo cassettes, computer software and material on CD ROM. The main categories for filing text-based materials 4 : language communication skills companies business area countries The best regular sources of material are The Financial Times, The Well S Journal and the Business section of The Economist (weekly). The Financial Times operates a free company annual report service and Harclays Bank publishes a free series of economic reports ona wide range of countries. Further information on all this is available i i Be Pees ee. is is available in the (IATEFL) BESIG VIDEO Management teaining videos are usually expensive since the companies which make them sell them to companies ar corporate rates. In any case, pet the catalogues of the big three producers: , oe Film eee Ltd., 16 Bromeis Road, London $W4 OB4. ideo Arts Led., Dumbarton House, 68 Oxford 5 ‘ » St I tel: 0171 637 7288, fax: 171 S80 8103. ee Coseearee “ BBC for Business, 80 Wood 12 wae ood Lane, London Wi12 OTT, tel: 0181 $76 2361, fax: THE INTERNET The worlds of teaching, training and learning are being transformed by the Internet and change is so rapid that we shall not even attempt here to offer any but the most rudimentary guidance. Once again, membership of [ATEFL and pertinent SIGs will help you to keep in touch with the explosion in relevant website addresses. The opportunity co download pages direct from the website of your students’ company opens up all kinds of exciting possibilities. Here are some other Internet snippets: A good introduction to EFL and the Internet at time of writing is “ELT Online: the rise of the Internet” in the July 1997 issue of the ELT Journal David Eastment’s definitive report on “The Internet and ELT” is available in web format at the British Council’s website: www.britcoun.org/c A list of Business English resources is available at www.infohaus./access/by- seller/Elite IATEEL’s own home page is at http://wwwsman.ae,uk/IATEBL/ CHECKLIST 5S BUSINESS ENGLISH EXAMINATIONS Examination Certificate in English for International Business and Trade Business English Certificates 1,2 & 3. | Oxford International Business English Certificate (OIBEC) English for Commerce English for Business (EFB) Spoken English for Industry and Tourism (SEFIC) ICM Certificate in Business English y of Cambridge Local Examinations Syndicate University of Oxford Delegacy of Oxford Exams London Chamber of Commerce and Industry (LCCI) The Institute of Commercial Management (ICM) ICM Diploma in Business English CEIBT Candidates From personal assistant up to middle management Language Level Around Cambridge Advanced (CAE) Examination format and content ® Task-based to test communica ® Set in a multinational company ® Uses authentic material ive skills in English PART 3 PART 3= Role-playing to complete realistic tasks Skills tested ™® Reading and writing (2 hours). Tasks include writing a lettcr/fax/memo/report; checking a written text for miscakess understanding the main points of authentic documents Listening (1 hour). Tasks include listening to a cassette containing authentic material (answerphone messages, office discussion) in order to take notes or compose a written text in reply. © Oral transaction (15 minutes). A client of the company comes to meet you. In the interview you respond to his/her requests, Time and place May/June ancl November/December at approved centres in the UK and overseas (list ayailable from UCLES) Results Grades are: Pass with distinction / Pass / Fail. Successful candidates receive a certificate, UCLES has also developed a new suite of certified exams called Business English Certificates, available twice a year, at three levels (BECI - elementary / low intermediate, BEC2 - intermediate, BEC3 - advanced) BECI is intended for those in lower to middle management, general office staff, staff in the tourist industry and students following business courses. BECL tests the use of English for cartying out business transactions, exchanging factual information, and establishing and maintaining business contacts. Successful candidates are expected to be able to understand or interpret the gist of a range of business texts including graphs, notices, correspondence and advertisements. Tasks include: form filling, and letter writing extracting information from documents producing short reports and memos understanding recordings of announcements instructions and conversations discussing work, study and general topics. BEC2 is aimed at candidates in management, staff in the tourist industry, senior clerical staff and students following business courses. BECL tests the uuse of English for negotiating business transactions, exchanging information, and establishing and maintaining business contacts. BEC2 contains a wider range of vocabulary and the tasks are more complex and demanding thanthose in BEC1. Successful candidates must show they understand the meaning of business texts, including advertisements, business correspondence, reports and articles. Tasks include: ® form filling and letter writing ® extracting information from documents ® producing reports and memos a a = understanding meaning and tone of recordings of speeches, instructions and conversations = discussing work, study and general topics. _ BEC3 js intended for managers, particularly those dealing with English speakers, staff in the tourist industry, senior clerical staff, and sles, following business courses. BEC3 folloy the same format as ar st BEC2, testing the skills of reading and writing, listening and speaking xt i more challenging in both content and structure. Candidates should be able to understand a variety of authentic business texts. Tasks include: ® form filling and letter writing understanding business documenets producing reports and memos : understanding recordings of messages, instructions and conversations discussing work and study. OIBEC idates = oe with a practical knowledge of English. It is offered at two levels (First Level and Executive Level). In general ic is appropriate for students: & studying Business and Commerce = aspiring to a career in international business @ who are already in business or managers who need to transfer their business/management skills into English age Level farts ESU Framework Chart Levels 3— 5. FCE_ Executive Levels ESU Framework Chart Levels 6. CPE Examination format and content ® Task-based to test communicative skills in English = Authentic texts with simplified or staged tasks & Two exam parts to each level = First Level: 1 hour 53 minutes ecutive Level: 2 hours 30 minutes Skills tested aus B Reading and writing (First Level | hour 15 minutes; Executive Levels hour 35 minutes} / = Listening (First Level 20 minutes; Executive Level: 35 minutes) 7 ® Speaking (Both Levels: 20 minutes) : = Treeeitys before the exam, candidates are sent a case-study booklet. This material forms the basis of the exam. Candidates are expected to apply the background knowledge they have gathered to perform practical tasks, including: & writing a business letter a making or assessing a job application© correcting a memo § listening to detailed information and responding ® making a flight reservation & presenting an oral report _* discussing business objectives Tiine-anel place March, June and Noveriber at approved centres, Results - Grades are: eaten Pass with score for communicative skills Fail with profile of current performance Successful candidates receive a certificate EFC Candidates For anyone in the field of busine on mart 1e58 oF commerce. EFC is available at three levels: First Level: ESU Framework Chart Levels 3; below FCE Second Level: ESU Framework Chart Levels 6; around PCE itd Level: ESU Framework Chart Levels 7; bet Fe Examination format and content a ® Written exam based on language and content & Tests basic knowledge of written language ™ Credit given for appropriate use of complex sentences, punctilation, vocabulary and grammatical accuracy ; Skills tested First Level (2 hours) ®@ Three sections: ~write 200 words on any one of 6 topics on genetal business matters ~ answer comprehension questions based on a text of 300 words - write a letter of about 100 words based on given dat Second Level (2- hours) eae ® Three sections: — write 300 words i ‘i ee on any one of 6 topics on general business matters or — summarise a passage of about 400 words ~ write a letter of 150 — 200 words b: i mane rds based on given data ™ Four sections: ~ write 400 ~ 500 words on any one of a number of topics requiring some knowledge of commercial practice and procedure = answer comprehension questions summarise a passage of about 500 words — write a letter from an organisation to an individual concerning a specific transaction. Time and place First and Second Levels; March, May, June/ July and November/December ‘Third Level: May, June/ July and November/December EFB Candidates Pot people working in offices in secretarial or personal assistant positions Language Level EFB is available at three levels: First Level: ESU Framework Chart Levels 3/4; below FCE Second Level: ESU Framework Chart Levels 5/6; around FCE Third Level: ESU Framework Chart Level 73 between FCE and CPE Examination format and content lm Writren exam testing communication in business ® Tests basic knowledge of writren language ® Credit given for appropriate use of complex sentences, punctuation, vocabulary, style, layout, maturity of expression and grammatical accuracy. Skills tested First Level (2 hours) ® Four tasks: — write a letter or memo within an organisation or between organisations — answer comprehension questions based on a text of 300 words — 4 look and think comprehension task based on graphic or numerical input — a look and write production task to label a diagram, flowchart or organisation chart, fill in a questionnaire, ete Second Level (2- hours) ® Three tasks: — write a report, article or mema on a topic drawn from business or economic life — write a letter in reply to an incoming letter — rewrite a passage Third Level (3 hours) @ Four tasks: — write a letter in reply to an incoming letter write an internal report, based on raw data in the form of graphs, PART 3 notes, charts, ete ~ comprehension of a passage to check understanding of factual content as well as argument, bias, evea conv Time and place First and Second Levels: March, May, June/ July and November/December Third Level: May, June/ July and November/December ation task involving the reformulation of a message SEFIC Candidates A range of exams in practical skills ar different levels. Language Level SEFIC is available at four level Preliminary: ESU Framework Chart Level 3 Threshold: ESU Framework Chart Levels 4/5 Intermediate: ESU Framework Chart Level 6 Advanced: ESU Framework Chart Levels 7/8 Examination format and content SEFIC is an oral exam Skills tested & Preliminary (20 minutes: § (per section) Four sections: ~ general conversation on candidate's personal history, work and interests — response to spoken instructions and relate to ev ~ description of photographs ~ role play of everyday situation, eg booking in at a hotel, ordering a meal, ete & Threshold (25 — 35 minutes) Five section: eryday objects ~ introductory conversation on candidate's personal history, work and interests ~ description of actions ina sequence of photographs ~ comprehension of taped announcement — comprehension of written text — headline, everyday article ~ drinks machine, phone, et of instructions ~ general conversation on candidate's interests ™ Interntediate (30 —35 minutes) Four/five sections: — general conversation on candidate’s interests ad, ete — or picture of i — to check understanding personal history, work and personal history, work and ~ tole play in official or information capacity ~ comprehension and summarisation of taped conversation ~ comprehension of business letter ~ special topic option to speak on a topic of candidate's own choice ® Advanced (4S ~ SS minutes) Four sections: a. : F — general conversation on candidate’s personal history, work an interests . — presentation of candidate's work or special subject — comprehension and summarisation of taped conversation _ ~ comprehension and summarisation of English text — newspape' magazine Time and place | . ‘wie Available at any time of the ycar on any suitable premises world Results, | Distinction, Credit, Pass or Fail grades are awarded at each level. ICM CERTIFICATE Candidates | . fe eons Tile managers and executives + those who have completed higher level Business and Management Studies, Language Level ESU Framework Chart Levels 5/6 Examination format and content ® Written exam + oral test Skills tested Written paper (S tasks: 3 hours) S Five tasks: ~ comprehension of factual business passage — write a letter in response to an incoming one ~ complete missing words from a passage — vocabulary test 50 words — summarise a passage of 150 words into 5 a a re (0 ene to read + 10 minutes to answer examiner's questions) ‘A short business case study on which questions are asked. Time and place 12 times a year at an approved centre Results i The following grades: ; ; Bone in Business English (Written) — if only written paper wake Certificate in Business English (Written and Oral) ~ if both pater me - Pass mark is 61%, Candidates scoring more than 85% are awarc Certificate in Business English with Distinction. ICM DIPLOMA idates ae students, managers and executives + those who have completed higher level Business and Management Studies ed PART 3Language Level ESU Framework Chart Levels 6/7 Examination format and content Written exam + oral test Skills tested Written paper (5 tasks: 3 hours) ® Five tasks: — comprehension of newspaper article or business document — write a letter or memo based on instructions = complete missing words from a passage — vocabulary rest — summarise a passage of 200 words into 100 words & Oral test (10 minutes to read + 10 minutes ty answer examiner's questions) A short business case study on which questions are asked, Time and place 12 times a year at an approved centre Results The following grades. Diploma in Business English (Written) — if only written paper taken Diploma in Business English (Written and Oral) — if both Papers taken Pass mark is 61%. Candidates scoring more than 85% are awarded the ICM Diploma in Business English with Distinction, ADDRESSES University of Cambridge Local Examinations Syndicate (UCLES). 1 Hills Road, Cambridge, CBI 2EU, UK Tel: 01223 553311 Fax: 01223 460278 University of Oxford Delegacy of Local Exams. Ewert House, Summertown, Oxford, UK Tel: 01865 54291 Fax: 01865 510085 London Chamber of Commerce and Industry (LCCI) Examinations Board Marlowe House, Station Road, Sidcup, Kent, DAIS 7B], UK Tel: 0181 302 0261 Fax: 0181 302 4169 The Institute of Commercial Management (ICM), PO Box 125, Bournemouth, Dorset, BHi UXF, UK Tel: 01202 290999 Fax: 01202 293497 CHECKLIST 6 LANGUAGE FOR EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION PRESENTATIONS i vital to signal to the audience . Willi grenentlliny TE S.A Hea , Ce ie Saas same on texauand ple pros. shay the listeners baton exacdly-where they are. The following Hat fk pases is intended to start trainees thinking ofthe Fs af Sigs Eas ST! and will not be suitable for che personal P n tall dines tage of arse avd nthe light of esilgectall itr lk She sk $I they prefer. Introducing yourself and your presentation: Good morning / afternoon, ... z.. ladies and gentlemen. My name is ... ; . se and Lam responsible for .... hore at .. Td like to... a. say afew words to you today about ... ‘talk to you roday about. : explain to you today the main features of ... » describe the operation of ... CE . ye divided my talk into five main parts. The yi ale naka ar pee Ge iain headings. During my calk Pl be looking at five main areas. _ Firsc(ly) ... second(ly) ... thirdly) ... fourth ... fifth ... finally Ground rules If you have any questions ... .. please feel free co interrupt : oT be glad way to ancweracia-etrendlo! my val Starting your first point To stare with ... First of all, then Firstly, ... Let me begin by saying ... Finishing a point Well, that’s all | have to say about ... So that, then, is .. That's all about ... Now we've dealt with ... PART 3Starting a new point Now let's turn to my next point, which is . Let’s move on now to .. The next point I'd like to make is ... Next we come to Turning now to Leaving the structure Incidentally By the way Returning to your structure Coming back co the subject of my talk To come back to ... Referring back As I was saying earlier ‘As I mentioned earlier ... If you remember, I said at the beginning ... Referring forward As we will see later, ... : Later, we'll be looking at .. Later, I'd like to look at ... Introducing your last point And finally, .. Lastly, ... That brings me to my last point, which is ... Summarising So now, I'd just like to summarise the main poi s ain é In brief, we have looked at... _ Let me sum up. Concluding In conclusion, ... Well, that brings me to the end of my talk. That’s all I have to say for now ... . Thank you for your attention. Thank you for listening. Inviting questions And now, if you have am ' ; any questions, T'll be glad co Does anyone have any questions? —————— Are there any questions? Any questions? Yes, your question, please. rei) Checking that the questioner is satisfied Does that answer your question? Thope that answers your question. Inviting further questions Are there any more questions? Any more questions? Ending If there are no more questions, I'd like to thank you for your attention, MEETINGS CONTROL PHRASES FOR THE CHAIRPERSON Opening the meeting Good morning / afternoon, everyone. If we ate all here, ler’s . get started “o. start the meeting cae start Welcoming and introducing participants We're pleased to welcome ... Irs a pleasure to welcome ... I'd like to introduce I don’t think you've met «+ Stating the purpose/objective/aim We're here today to. Our aim is t0 ... ve called this meeting in order to By the end of this mecting, we need a clear recommendation Giving apologies for absence I'm afraid ... can’t be with us today. She is in ... T have received apologies for absence from ...., who is in ,. Reading the secretary's report of last meeting Firse let’s go over the report from the last meeting, which was held on .. Here are the minutes from our last meeting, which was on ... Dealing with Matters Arising Peter, how is the IT project progressing? Sarah, have you completed the report on the ew accounting package? Has evervone received a copy of Jeremy’s report on his marketing visit? So; if there are no other matters arising, let's move on to today’s agenda. Introducing the agenda Have you all seen a copy of the agenda? a PART 3There are three items on the agenda — firstly, ... , secondly, ... and thirdly, ., Shall we take the points in this order? I suggest we take item 2 last. Is there any other business? Allocating roles (secretary, participants and chairperson) has agreed to take the minutes. would you mind taking the minutes? has kindly agreed to give us a report on this matter will lead point 1, ... point 2, and ... point 3. Agrecing the ground rules for che meeting (contributions, timing, decision-making, etc) We will hear a short report on each point first, followed by 2 discussion round the table. | suggest we go round the table first. The meeting is due to finish at ... We'll have to keep each item to ten minutes. Otherwise we'll never get through. ‘We may need to vote on item 5, if we can’t get a unanimous decision, Introducing the first item So, let’s start with ,.. Shall we start with e So, the first item on the agenda is ... Pete, would you like to kick off? ‘Martin, would you like to introduce this item? Closing an item I think that covers the first item. Shall we leave thar item? If nobody has anything else to add, Next item: ss let's move onto the next item The next item on the agenda is Now we come to the question of . Asking for contributions We haven't heard from you yet, George. What do you thitik about chis proposal? Would you like to ad anything, Anne? Anything 10 add, Helen? Handing over to another person Pd like to hand over ro Mark, who is going to lead the next point. Right, Dorothy, over to you. Keeping the meeting on target (time, relevanée, decisions) We're running shore of time Please be brief. I'm afraid we've run out of time. ‘We'll have to Icave that to another time. T'm afeaid that's outside the scope of this mecting. We're beginning to lose sight of the main point. Keep to the point, please. I think we'd better leave that for aniother meeting, crs Are we ready 10 make @ decision? Shall we vote on Maty's proposal? Clarifying Let me spell out ... Is that clear? Do you all sce what I'm getting at? to clarify wo explain to interpret to put another way co put in other words to recap Summarising Before we close, ler me just summarise the main points. To sum up. In brief, . : - Shall 1 go over the main points? a summary a report a write-up nda completed Pins it looks as though we've covered the main items. Is there any other business? Agreeing time, date and place for next meeting “an we fix the next meeting, please? ROC ernest Bean oe Kayfvile us Hai. RGN. me fits meeting room. Is that okay for everyone? . What about the following Wednesday? How is thar? 0, seeyourall then Thanking participants for attending : Tid lke to thank Marianne and Jeremy for coming over from London. Thank you all for attending. ‘Thanks for your participation. Closing meeting The meeting is closed T declare the meeting closed. :pom bof | CONTROL PHRASES FOR THE PARTICIPANTS Getting the chairperson’s attention (Mister/madam) chairman Excuse me for interrupting. May | come in here? Giving and seeking opinions I'm sure/convinced/positive that ... 1 (ccally) feel that In my opinion Ttend to think that . Are you sure/convinced/positive that ... Do you (really) think that ... ? Am I right in thinking thar... Commenting ‘Thar’s interesting ... Good point! Tse what you mean. Agreeing and disagreeing J totally agree with you. Up to a point I agree with you, but ... (I'm afraid) I can’t agree Advising and suggesting Ler’s ... We should ... Why don’t you ... How about .. 1 suggest/rccommend that .. PHRASES FOR THE SECRETARY Listing the names of the participants Present: ... (names or initials) Apologies for absence received from: ... (names or initials) Describing the topics discussed .. (name) reported on/presented/considere diproposed . discussed /evaluate Giving details of arguments for and against = (name) pointed ouvohserved/stated that .. (namie) disagreed with/voiced Requesting information and action Please, could you Td like you to T wonder if you could ... Dealing with communication problems Asking for repetition I didn’t catch that. Could you repeac that, please? Sorty, | missed that. Could you say it again, please? Asking for clarification I don’ quite follow you, What exactly do you mean? I don't sce what you mean, Could we have some more details, please? Asking for verification You did say March, didn’t you? (‘did’ is stressed) Is i crue that we'll be moving in March? Asking for spelling Could you spell that, please? Correcting information Sorry, I think you misunderstood what I said, The move will be in March. Sorry, that’s not quite right. We'll be here until March. reservations abour/opposed/objected to ... Describing the decisions made The meeting agreed £0 ... It was (unanimously) agreed that we would «» (item) was postponed until the next meeting on ... Deseribing voting details Three voted for the motion; two vored again. The motion was carried by thrce vores to two. The proposal was defeated by three votes bees to (Wo, Describing follow-up actions to be carried out (who, what and when) .. (name) will prepare a report by ... date) vu» (name) agreed to evaluate the new software by ... (date} Ie was agrced that ... (name) would TELEPHONING “The following list of phrases trace a call through from beginning to end and correspond to the building blocks shown im chapter 4. They follow two patterns firstly when making a call and secondly when receiving a call. Making a Call Identifying yourself My name is ... (first introduction) This is ... here. speaking Asking to speak to someone Could | speak to ... please? Could you pur me through to ... please? Can I have extension 351 please? Could 1 speak to someone who deals with ? You might hear: (see Receiving « call) Who's calling? Could you tell me whar it’s about? Giving mote information Ir's in connection with .. Ie's about ... Giving the reason for the call Y'm calling about ... 1’m phoning to tell you ... ‘The reason I'm calling is Showing you understand Usce T understand Right / Fine / Okay Leaving a message Could you give him a message? Could you ask her ta eall me back? Could you tell her I'l call back later? present the findings to the next meeting on vv» (date) Showing the date, time and place of the next meeting The next meeting will be held on... (date) at .,, (time) in ... (place) ‘Next meeting ... (time) on (place) se (date) in Communication problems Could you repeat that? I'm sorry, | didn’t catch your name Could you speak a little slower? louder? It’s a yery bad line. I'll call you back. Getting the information right Could you spell that please? Could you go over that again please? Let me just repeat that ... Pre-closing Sumimarise main points So, let me just go over the main points. Let me just repeat what you said. So, if | understand you correctly, the situation is. Thanking Thanks very much for your help. I'm grateful for your assistance, Thanks @ lor Responding co thanks Not at all. You're welcome. Don't mention it. Confiming the arrangement I look forward to «. seeing you on... (date) at ... (time) hearing from you soon. 1. meeting you in ... (place) Polite fomulae Nice speaking to you. 175 PART 3You might heat: Nice speaking to you, too. Closing the call See you soon Speak to you soon Goodbye Bye Receiving a Call Identifying yourself Harry Jones Harry Jones speaking You right hear: (see Making a call) Could I'speak to Harry Jones? You can reply: Speaking Helping the caller Can [help you? Who would you like to speak to? Asking for identification Who's calling, please? And who's speaking, please? Asking for further information What's it in connection with? What's it about, please? Making excuses Tim afraid ... is nov available at the ‘moment NEGOTIATION The processes to negotiace to strike a bargain to bargain to reach agreement to discuss to draft a conteact to perstiade to sign the contract to compromise to implement the agreement to make a deal to break the contract I'm afraid , js out is in a meeting is with a customer at the moment Tim sorry but... is on holiday is noc in the office is on the other line at present. I'm afraid his line’s engaged. Do you want to hold? ‘Taking a message Would you like to leave a message? May I take a message? Can L take your name and number? Can I get him to call you back? Pre-closing See ‘Making a call’ Police formulae Thanks for calling. You might hear: Not ar all. I's been nice speaking to you. You're welcome Closing the call Goodbye Bye. ‘The subject of negotiation price warranties and guarantees delivery and terms insurance discount quality control payment and credit penalties exclusivity legal jurisdiction licences 176 Creating the right environment Language for: introducing yourseli © making small talk Defining the issues Stating the agenda OK, Shall we scart? Our position is as follows: ‘We would like to buy . We are interested in selling... We need to reach agreement about We are keen to make a decision about ‘The aimy/purpose/target/objective of this negotiation 1s to solve the problem over ... Clarifying the agenda So, if we understand you correctly, you want to sell ... So, are we right in thinking that you would like us to sell We fully understand your views/position «.. But what exactly do you want us to do? -. Bue whar would you actually like us to do? .. But what precisely are you offering? So, then; can you just confirm thar your position is... ? Establishing opening positions Price In your proposal your asking, price is ... you have set the price at .... you have fixed the cost at . price fee cost payment charge tax We are willing to pay ... Our initial offer is ... Delivery and terms In addition, we/you can deliver the goods on 25th July. we can supply the products by 25th July. you can arrange delivery t0 our warehouse from stock. you can organise shipment by truck ro our site. Our position is thac we need the goods by 20th July. the goods must be with us by 20th July. Can you arrange delivery co our site by cruck? site office plant premises warehouse shop store supermarket factory workshop by post by ferry by special postal delivery by train by truck by plane by van by airfreight by boat However, you expect us to provide transport and insurance. However, you are not prepared to cover transport. you do not agree to pay for ... on Monday (days of the week) on 25th July (dates) by 25th July (cleadlines) in July (months) next week/month in 2 months Payment and credit We expect payment by bank transfer within 90 days. 90 days after invoice. r 90 days after order. : ‘Our normal payment terms ate by letter uf a credit. Do you accept our payment terms? We do not accept the payment terms? We do not normally pay ... in cashby cheque by bank eransfer by letter of credit Discount However, we can offer an initial discount of 59 we can discount the initial order by 5% Bur we ire prepared to reduce the total price by 5%. What discount can you offer? Exclusivity Can you offer us exclusivi We are looking for an exclusive agent. We need an exchisive distriburor. We are not prepared to act as anv exclusive representative. offer exclusivity. agent discributor representative Licences What licence can you offer? We are prepared to offer a licence to sell the product, We cannot grant a licence to manufacture the product. The licence will initially be limited to 5 years. Warranties and guarantees What warranties and guarantees do you offer? 7 We warrant the goods for a period of § years We guarantee the products against normal defects for 3 years? We cover all parts and labour for 1 year, In that case, we will replace the goods. repair the equipment free of charge. We will cover all labour costs. We will fix the problem on site. You must return the goods to base. We cannot guarantee the goods against ... breakdown normal wear and tear Insurance Will you insure the goods during transit? We will insure the goods during transportation, We will cover the equipment CIF, CF cost, insurance and freight Fos free on board Quality control What quality control measures do you take? All goods are tested before they leave the factory The products are fully checked for defects. We follow a TQC programme. We have ISO 9000. Penalties What happens if anything gocs wrong? What compensation will you pay if... ? We will claim compensation if .. you don’t deliver on time. the goods are delayed «the equipment breaks down. Legal jurisdiction What happens if there is a dispute? Any disputes will be settled according to French law. We resolve any disagreements by arbitration. dispute breach of contract disagreement conflict law mediation court of law international court of justice arbitration HANDLING THE OFFER AND COUNTER-OFFER Positive That's grea (Thar’s a) good fexcellentigréat idea. We accept’agree, ‘We can accept your payment cerms/delivery terms/discount terms We agree to follow the quality control procedures We are in agreement over penalty clauses. Partial Yes, but .. We're on the right erack. We're getting there Negative Thar’s unacceptable, ‘That's out of the question. We can't accept thar. We don’t azree to that. We cannot accept yout warranty terms/insurance terms We don't agree to follow the legal procedures. We are not in agreement over ‘compensation clauses. Testing the other side’s case Have you given us all the relevant facts? On what are those figures based? We have heard that your normal prices are normal delivery terms are .. normal discount terms ate » normal warranty terms ate .-- Could you explain how you reach ... ‘We don't follow the logic of your argument If your normal prices are .. then we expect ... Could you explain how you got to those figures? Strengthening your case Tf we accept your prices, then we will have to: raise our prices. your delivery terms, then we will have to delay production. your payment rerms, that will inerease our costs. ‘That will not be good for our business If you can reduce your price by ...., then we will ... If you are prepared to speed up delivery by 2. «then we will .. If you are willing to reconsider your payment terms, then we will .. look at prices for our next contract, review delivery for the next consignment sev discuss payment with our bank for the next order. Hondling stalemate We are very far apart on this issue. Our positions are very different on the question of ... T don’t think we can resolve this matter now. Let's see where we agree ... Shall wwe stammarise the points of agreement... «and then take a short break. and then adjourn till this afternoon. So far, we've agreed on the following points: .. ‘We disagree on So we'll come back to those issues after the break. Clinching the deal We have covered a lot of ground in this meeting, We cannot change our offer. This is our final offer. We have reached agreement on .. You have accepted our terms on We have not reached agreement on You cannot accepe Gur terms on . Let me go over all che details again. Have L covered everything? Do you agree? Do you accept these terms? Getting it in writing {will draft an outline agreement. Can you prepare a draft comtract? J will send the agreement to you for your ‘comments. Please send the draft contract to me for our comments. After the contract/agreement has been signed, we ¢atl make the goods. deliver the equipment. The legal aspects contract birdsindemnity parties to the contract to sign a contract signatories to the contract scope of the contract terins of the contract clauses of the contract payment delivery insurance force majcure to break a contract breach of contract disputes. damages compensation arbitration annex appendix CHECKLIST 7 AREAS OF SPECIALIST VOCABULARY GENERAL MANAGEMENT achievement administration advertising analysis apprentice arbitration assers audit authority automation background bargaining behaviour board of directors break-even budget capacity capital career cash cashflow challenge channel of communication change chariey client coaching colleague commission commitment committee communication compensation competence competition computer conflict confrontation consensus consumer control co-operation co-ordination corporate cost culeure customer debe decentealisation decision delegation department dependence development discipline discrimination distribution diversification division downsizing information duty innovation economy input effectiveness institution efficiency integration employee international employer inventory employment job environment description equipment design ethics experience expectation rotation expenses satisfaction expert tide failure knowledge feedback labour finance leadership fixed assets liabilities fixed costs line manager Flexitime loyalty forecasting management franchising market goal media group middle manager growth motivation hierarchy multinational human resources needs incentive negotiation income network influence objectives off-the-job on-the-job operations management organisation chart organisational change culture structure output performance appraisal personality personnel planning plant policy power premises pricing priority problem solving process product production productivity profit project management team quality questionnaire: recruitment redundancy remuneration research and development ADMINISTRATION Administrative staff administrator clerk office manager assistant personal assistant secretary typist Information organisation archive(s) file (n) file (#) sort Equipment answerphone computer filing, cabiner fax machine hanging files CUSTOMER SERVICE General agent busy buy cater for custom customer, customize deal delay demand discontinue duty exchange exempt export fetch file customer file bandle import install item label olf-peak oll-season paperwork parc-exchange delivery qualicy resource responsibility reward risk role rule safety scheduling security selection service share sharcholder skill source sponsorship staff stakeholder standard hole punch keyboard paper clip PC printer photocopict stapler telephone typewriter run out of searce schedule (n) schedule (v) service after-sales service industty tariff trade trade in triplicate in triplicate Negotiating bargain {n) bargain (v) storage strategy stress subordinate supply supplier task team technology theory top manager training transportation unit value work design working conditions Communication compliments slip letterhead post/mail correspondence send a fax an e-mail a lenter barter conditions of sale hagale negotiate negotiable negotiation Complaints blame claim compensate damage damages faule guarantee hazardinsure insurance claim insurance cover insurance policy insurance premium overdue repair spoil Payment credit credit note hire purchase. Invoice (n) invoice (v) lease (n) DISTRIBUTION Transport cargo carriage cif crate deliver delivery delivery note delivery time depot dispatch distribute duty enclose FINANCE General, accounts accountancy accountant acquire acquisition allocate back backing backdare bankrupt bid to go bankrupe bankruptcy lease (v) outright purchase over-charped overpaid pay pay in advance pay by cheque pay in cash payable payment prepaid rebate settle statement Orders acknowledge envelope fob. forward freight haul in transit lading bill of lading load mail (n} mail (v) pack package paller black in the black books keep the books bookkeeper borrow break even budget capital cash cheque (US: check} bounce a cheque cost aicknowled: gement available availability bring forwaed bulk in bulk cancel ‘cancellation confirm notiey offer order fulfill an order on order back order ship shipment tanker unload Channels ranch howleneck cash and carey chain channel consignment dealer department store direct expore fixed costs running costs variable costs credit currency debt debtor deduct defer due carn carnings finance funds. quote quotation place an order postpone ready receive receipt reorder repeat order shortage stock im stock out of stock franchise middleman network guota retail retail outlet retailer scarce sourcing, storage tariff warehouse wholesale income sider dealing solvent interest interest rae lend lender liquid liquidity loan overdraw overdraft owe petty cash profit profitable profitability raise rate recover red in the red save savings subsidise subsidy treasurer treasury Investment base rate blue chips bond broker dealer debenture dividend earnings per share equity equities gross yield invest investment portfolio portfolio LEGAL, General abide by abolish abuse (1) abuse (v) accuse appeal arbitrate arbitration bail bequest bond case case law civil law claim (n) claim (v) claimant panagement preference shares premium securities share (US: stock) shareholder (US: stockholder) Financial statements asset current assers fixed assets intangible assets audit auditor balance sheet cash flow negative cash flow debit depreciate depreciation expenditure expenses gearing goodwill gross gross margin gross profit half-year half-yearly conflict conflict of| interest copyright court go to court Take someone fo court damages endow endowment fee illegal indemnify indemnity irrevocable irrevocable lewer of credit results inventory ledger sales/purchase ledger liabilities current liabilities margin overhead ‘overheads (a) profie and loss account (US: income statement) quarterly reserves results retained earnings return return on investment turnover working capital write off Payment bad debt bank charges bank draft bank statement judicial jurisdiction law within the law outside the hw against the law legal ability limited Kiability litigant loophole tax loophole wath offence offend ombudsman party third party Red blank cheque convert credit credit limit credit racing direct debit letter of credit demand discount factoring invoice outstanding Tax capital gains tax corporation tax declare tax declaration fiscal income tax tax allowance tax avoidance tax deductible tax evasion tax louphole tax relief tax threshold value added tax patent file a patent application penalty penalty clause plea plead pledge precedent quoram quorate sue suit trademark tribunal unjust unlawful waiveProperty access estate hereditary mortgage premises reaure vacant vacant possession People actuary advocare ‘ittorney bailiff barrister indge jury lawyer legal advisor notary paralegal MARKETING General capture cartel compere competition competitor competitive competitive pricing domestic market down-market exhibit exhibition flop forecast goodwill loge marker: down-market market leader market niche market penetration market segmentation market share: marker survey solicitor Contracts agreement clause settlement settle settle out of court Crimes blackmail break the law bribe bribery emberzle embezzlement extort extortion fraud fraudulene kickback misconduct professional up-market mass-market outler saturate sector segment target territory Customers end-user client Products brand brand leader brand loyaley cannibalism commodicy diversify featnre flagship generic giveaway goods industrial goods label launch misconduct swindle Types of company associate company consortium corporate corporation firm holding company limited company lisced company parent company private limited company (Ltd.) public limited company (PLC) subsidiary Financial problems bankrupe bankruptey debr foreclose life cycle portfolio positioning prototype range sell-by date shelf-life tailor-made je mark white goods Advertising account executive advertise advertisement att director artwork audience banner bricf broadsheet brochure canvass caption catalogue circ copy foreclosure insolvent insolvency liquidate liquidation liquidator receiver receivership Employee relations conciliation grievance industrial tribunal labour law strike Legal problems breach of contract infringe copyright infringement injunction endorse endorsement flicr jingle layout magazine media mass medi media coverage pamphlet periodical scientific periodi poster Prospectus publication ratings readership slogan spot tabloid testimonial viewer Pricing bargain ceiling price ceiling creaming cut-price discount elastic going rate gross margin index inelastic introductory offer knockdown naegin mark up MRP = (Manufacturer's Recommended Price} overheads: premium rate refund retail retailer HUMAN RESOURCES General absent absenteeism alcoholism ambition ambitious aptitude canteen career conditions working condisions conditions of employment core time employ employee employer employment equal opportunity flexitime head hire human resources job job centre job satisfaction labour labour relations lead leader leadership iaison loyal loyalty manpower plant position profession punctuality shift shift work shop shopfloor shop steward sick sick note trade union vacation working hours ‘Types of jobs blue-collar board of directors clerk management junior middle/ senior management manager line manager staff manager manual manual worker skilled. semi-skilled unskilled shift worker staff subordinate superior white-collar Disputes go-slow grievance ret I price skimming surcharge value wholesale wholesaler wholesale price Public Relations identity corporate identity industrial industrial action, industrial relations industrial unrest militant picket strike work to rule Recruitment applicanc application form (US: application blank) apply appoint ndidate ex. (curriculum vitae} experience fill (a position) induetio interview interviewee interviewer job description qualifications analified well-qualified unqualified recruit recruitment reference select selection board shortlist image corporate image lobby press press officer press relations press release sponsor sponsorship track record vacaney Leaving dismiss dismissal fire hand in one’s notice lay off notice redundant redundancy resign resignation retire retirement carly retirement sack turnover Assessment appraise appraisal competence grade perform performance appraisal probation talent vocation Training & Development apprentice apprenticeship coach course facilitate mentor PART 3promote progress proteé seminar train training ‘onthe-job training PRODUCTION AND OPERATIONS Production place factory plant site unit workshop Quality accurate accuracy assess defect evaluate inspect quality quality assurance qualicy circle quality control reject reject rate serap vero defect Process assemble assembly assembly automate automation component continuous process convert PURCHASING General auction buy supply supplies workshop Remuneration bargain collective bargaining benefit fringe benefit sickness benefit cfficieney efficient goods finished goods intermittent production line assembly line assembly line manager line worker man manning off-the-shelf produce production Planning backlog batch batch size capacity critical path analysis cyele time delivery cycle downtime flow flow rate idle job lot lead time make-to-order People buyer junior buyer senior buyer purchaser compensate deduction incentive income merit merit pay overtime pay make-to-stock ouput productive productivity prototype schedule set-up time slack throughput work-in progress Resources Dill of materials equip equipment, facility facilities fixtures inventory raw materials inventory work-ine progress inventory machine machinery MRP (Materials Requirements Planning) just-in-time materials supplier vendor Functions inventory inventory pay package payroll pension perk profit-sharing reward salary wage materials handling raw materialy Stock stock stock levels inv stick out of stock stock control stockpile store storage Maintenance break down failure fault faulty maintain maintenance repair reliable reliability shut down Work organisation job evaluation job rotation job sharing overtime shift night shift workload management inventory control logistics materials management vendor appraisal Finance bill billing currency weak currency strong currency Supply & Demand buyer buyers! marker sellers! market demand under-demand over -demand supply under-supply over-supply ‘Tendering process accept reject tender call for tenders closed tender open tender submit a tender/an offer tender evaluation tender RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT (R&D) General analyze analysis analytical breakthrough cacry out develop commercial development feasible feasibility SALES General sift give-away sales call conference message target sample Selling People innovate innovation laboratory (lab) me-too product patent file/register a patent pipeline in the pipeline search srudy(n} field sales inside salesperson sales assistant manager salesfarce salesman saleswoman salesperson Buying people study (v) survey (n) survey (¥) tailor tailor-made test (n) test (¥) trial (n) uial (¥) Research academic research chent customer opinion leader prospect Types of selling door-to-door sales direct sales hard selling personal selling specifieations Documents lecter of intent purchase order Price negotiati borrom-line cut margin target pri applied research pate research Research people analyst research assistant scientist technician lab technician soft selling telephone sales Sales organisation sales area region territory territory management PART 3ABBREVIATIONS TEACHING AmE American English aE Business English . é ——— Special Incerest Group (of [ATEFL) a Computer-Based Training i Certificate in English for 5 a Business and ‘Trade CereTEB Cettificate in Teaching English for Business OE Certificate of Proficiency in English cup Cambridge University Press EFB, English for Business (LOCI exam) EFC English for Commerce (LCCT exam) FLT English Language Teaching : ESP English for Specific Purposes EsU English Speaking Union FCE First Certificate in English JATEFL International Association of Teachers of English as a / Foreign Language IcM Institute of Commercial Management - eo London Chamber of Commerce and Industry oR Oxford International Business English Certificate u Oxford University Press PC Personal Computer SEFIC Spoken English for Industry and Tourism TFL . Teaching English as a Foreign Language Teor Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages ‘ University of Cambridge Local Examinations Syndicate BUSINESS CEO Chief Executive Officer MD Managing Director REFERENCES REFERENCES IN THE TEXT Drucker P. (1967). The Effective Executive, Heinemann, Follett M. P. (1918) The New State. Gloucester, Mass.: Perer Smith. Honey P. and H. Mumford (1992 new edition). A Manual of Learning Styles ee Cee Marketing Management. Maidenhead: P- Honey, Mole J. (1995), Mind Your Manners: Managing Busine | London: Nicholas Brealey Publishing, Ss Suleures in Europe, Meeson M. H., M. Albert and f, Khedouri (1985). Management: Individual and Organisational Effectiveness. 2nd Ed. New York: Harper and Row. Stoner, Freedman and Gilbert (1991). Management 6th Ed. New Jersey: Prentice Hall Inc Information about the leadership study carried our by Unabridged Communications (Chapter 5) is available from Unabridged Communications, 2728 North Washington Boulevard, Alexandria, Virginia, 22302 USA. OTHER USEFUL REFERENCES Business Management Hunningher E. (ed.) (1986). The Manager’s Handbook London: Sphere. Kempner T. (ed.) (1987). The Penguin Management Handbook, London: Penguin. Lawrence P. and Elliott K. (1985). Introducing Management. London: Penguin. Picfield R. (1980). Administration in Business. W.H.Allen & Co. Walsh J. (1986). The Manager’s Problem Solver. London: Sphere. Training Brendan and Wheelan (ed.) (1987). Training Theory and Practice. NTL Institute for Applied Behavioural Science. Goad T. (1982). Delivering Effective Training, University Associates Inc. INDEX Academie institutions, 11 ‘Accuracy, 4, 39-42, 63, 110- 1114-115 Activist learning style, 108 Activity, case study and role play books, 158 Administration, 29 Administration Department, w Administration vocabulary, 181 Agenda for a simulated meeting, 53 Assessing entry levels, 99 Associated company, 19 Audio materials, 130 Behavioural approaches to leadership, 69 Behavioural movements in management theory, 22 Behavioural Scientists, 23 Book and software distributors, 159-160 Brainstorming meetings, 48 Bricfing meetings, 48 Budget allocation negotiations, 62 Building high performance teams, 74-75 Business English Certificates, 162 Business English learners, 15 Business English methodology, 15 Business Fnglish programmes, 15 Business English trainers, 15 Business English versus General English, 15 Business sectors, 33 Buyer-seller negotiations, 62 Case studies as evaluation tools, 95 Certificate in English for International Business “ and Trade, 161-162 i" Chief Executive Officer, 26, a Classical organisation theory, 21 Classroom as bridge, 122-Closed group courses, 89 Closed-scale evaluation, led by reviewer, 140 Closed-seale evaluation, written feedback, 140 ach training style, 126 Coherence and cohesion in writing, 66 Committee meetings, 48 Communication networks, 4 Commanicarion skills books, 187 Communication skills, 5, 6, 8, 12, 35, 88 Communicative competence scale, 100 Company culture, $2-83 Company hierarchy, 24-25 Company meetings, 48 Company organigram, 26 Competence, 104-10 Computer systems, 30 Conciseness in writing, 65-66 Content in writing, 65 Content of a presentation, 44 Context-based models of leadership, 69 Control phrases for chairpersons, 171-173 Control phrases for participants in meetings, 174 Controlling, 28 Course evaluation forms, Hl, 143 Course evaluation, 139 Course inputs and outputs, 102 Course objectives, 5, 87-99 Course registration, 89 Coursebooks, 156 Cultural awareness, 7 Culture onion, 81 Current developments in leadership, 70 Customer service, 28 Customer Service Department, 27 Customer serviee vocabulary, 181 Decision-making meetings, 48 Delegation, 75-79 Delegation and communication, 78-79 Delegation in practice, 77 Delegation to non-humans, Delivery of & presentation, 44 Developing effectiveness, 137 Developing fluency, 137 Dictionaries, 159 Director training style, 126 Discourse patterns, 36 Distribution, 29 Distribution Department, 27 Distribution vocabulary, 181 Division of labour, 24 Drafting the course report, 144 Early models of leadership, 69 Effectiveness, 4, 39, 41-43, 63-64, 110-111, 114-115, 138 Employer-employee negotiations, 62 Ending the course, 132-138 English for Business examinations, 165-166 English for Commerce examinations, 164-165 Equipment, 130-131 ESP family, 8 Evaluation, 110-111 Evolution of management, 19-20 Factors in delegation, 76 Fayol, Henri, 21-22 Features of materials, 128- 129 Feedback loop, 104-105 Feedback questions, 140 Finance, 29 Finance Department, 27 Finance vocabulary, 182 Financial accounting, Flueney, 4, 39-42, 63-64, HIO-THE 114-115, 138 Follett, Mary Parker, 20 Freelance teachers, 10 General communication skills, 6, 88-39 General English learners, 15 General English methodology, 15 General English programmes, 15 General English trainers, 15 General language knowledge, 6, 88 General management, 28 General management vocabulary, 180-181 Genre analysis, 37 Giving feedback, 110 Grammar, 35-36 Group teaching, 117-120 Guidelines on giving feedback, 116 Hard ESP, 8 Holding company, 19 Honey and Mumford, 108- 109 How to delegate, 78 Human relations movement, 22-23 Human resources vocabulary, 185. In-company teachers, 10 In-service learners, 12 Institute of Commercial Management Certificate, 167 Institute of Commercial Management Diploma, 167 Inter-departmental liaison committee mecting, 53 Internal audit, 30 Internationalisation of business, 80 Interpreter training, style, 126 Inverview assessment, 95 Interviews with trainees, 94 Job and career information, 14 Key issues in management, 28 Language books, 157 Language competence, 13 Language in writing, 66 Language knowledge, 5, 6, 12, 35, 88 Language of meetings, 50 Language of negotiations, 60 Langnage of presentations, 44 Language of telephone calls, 56 Language schools, 11 Layout in writing, 65 Leadership, 69-71 Leadership and communication, 71 Leading, 28 Learners of Business English, 12 Learning styles, 108-109 Legal, 30 Legal Department, 27 Legal vocabulary, 181 Length of time per objective, 102 Licensor-licensee negotiations, 62 Listener training style, 125- 126 Listening, 89, 93 Listening books, 157 Looking at the past, 133 Looking to the future, 133- 134 Management accounting, 30 Management knowledge, 13 Management needs, 13-14 Management Science, 24 Management skills, 7, 13 Managing Director, 26, 27 Manner in telephoning, 56 Manual of Learning Styles, 108-109 Manufacturing sectors, 34 Marketing Department, 27 Marketing vocabulary, 181 Marketing, 9, 30 Maslowis hierarchy of needs, 23 Materials organisers, 159 Meeson, Albert and Khedouri, 20 Medium of materials, 129- 130 Meetings, 43-54, 107 Meetings course programme, 51-52 Meetings evaluation, 113 Meetings language, 171-175 Meetings skills, 49 Mind Your Manners, 81 Model group course report, 148-150 Model individual course report, 146-147 Model lesson plan, 105 Model plan for communication practice, 137 Model plan for language study, 135-136 Mole, John, 81-82 Multimedia and PC, 159 Multimedia materials, 130 National culture, 82 Needs analysis, 87-97 Negotiating skills, 59 Negotiations, 57-63 Negotiations language, 176- 180 Negotiations models, 58 Objectives of a meetings course, 50 Objectives of a negotiations course, 5 Objectives of a presentations course, 45 Objectives of a telephone skills course, $7 Objectives of Business English, 4 Objectives of writing courses, 64-65 Observation of trainees, 95 One-to-one teaching, 117- 120 Open evaluation led by trainer, 140 Open group courses, 89 Organisations in business, 18 Organising, 28 Oxford International Business English Certificate, 163-164 Pacing, 124 Partnership, 19 People in meetings, 49 People in negotiations, 59- 60 Personnel, 9, 30 Personnel Department, 2 Phrases for secretaries minuting meetings, 17+ Planning a lesson, 104-108 Planning and procedures in negotiations, 60 Planning, 28 Pragmatist learning style, 108 Preparation of telephone calls, 56 Presentations, 43-47, 106 Presentation evaluation, 112 Presentations course programme, 45-46 Presentations language, 169- 171 Pre-service learners, 12 Principles of effective presentation, 47 Print materials, 130 Private limited company, 19 Problem-solving meetings, 48 Procedures at meetings, 49 Procedures for chaizpersons, St PART 3Procedures for participants in meetings, $1 Procedures for secrecaries at meetings, 51 Production, 30 Production and operations vocabulary, 181 Production Deparement, 27 Professional associations, 154 Professional communication skills, 6, 89 Professional content, 17 Professional context books, 158 Professional development, 155 Professional press, 154 Programme outline, 102-103 Public limited company, 18 Publishers, 155-156 Purchasing Department, 27 Purchasing, 30 Purchasing vocabulary, 186-187 Qualifications, 154-155 Raw versus published materials, 127-128 Reading, 89, 93 Reading books, 159 Reflector learning style, 108 Research and development, 32, 33 Research and Development Department, 27 Research and development vocabulary, 181 Results in negotiations, 60 Results of meetings, 49-50 Reviewing the course, 139 Sales, 32 Sales Department, 27 Sales vocabulary, 181 Sample self-study programmes, 134-137 Scientific management, 20 Scope of Business English, As Scope of materials and equipment, 127-131 Self assessment, 92 Service sectors, 34 Sharing control, 124-125 Soft ESP, & Sole trader, 19 Speaking, 89, 93 Specialist language knowledge, 6, 88 Spoken English for Industry and Tourism, 166-167 Staffing, 28 Stages in a lesson, 106-108 Standards in writing, 63 Steps in delegation, 78 Structure of a presentation, 44 Scructure of telephone calls, 56 Style in weiting, 66 Subsidiary company, 19 ‘Taylor, Frederick W., 20 Teachers of Busitiess English, 10 Teaching / training cline, 17 Teaching or training, 121- 126 Team building and communication, 75 Team building, 71-75 Team development, 73-74 ‘Telephone building blocks (called), Telephone building blocks (caller), 55 Telephoning language, 175- 176 Telephoning, 54-57 Text-based sources for materials, 160 The New State, 20 Theorist learning style, 108 Timing of feedback, 114-115 Trainee behaviour, 118 Trainee briefing, 102-103 ‘Trainee contributions, 118- 119 Trainee expectations, 118 Trainee involvement, 118 Trainee level, 119 Trainee objectives, 119 Trainee-controlled activities, 124-125 ‘Trainer approaches, 119-120 Trainier characteristies, 120 Trainer-controlled activities, 124-125 Training approaches, 120 ‘Training organisations, 11 Training styles, 12127 Treasury, 30 Trust and delegation, 76-77 Varieties of English, 36 Variety of features in writing, 66 Video, 130, 159 Video sources for materials, 161 Vocabulary, 37-38 Vocabulary books, 157-158 Ways of working of trainer and trainee, 102 Writing, 89, 93 Written documentation, 63-67on ee ccc eee ee atin) Handbook is a reference work crammed full of eects ye eve eration Rie ere erent nr atc erro ote tinsre ort ceerercc cee ea Part 1 (Background Issucs in Business and Business PO rete ae teu encod a coat nt rt rece tt Pree eta tose ate cre eet ar cce: Perera eae ae ca rearant ete teria ec ti ict vated tn oat the Business English classroom. Part 2 (Pedagogie Issues Freer Tene ree cnr e re cenit ee arrercerte Sr esse TT Mn om een sireutt om alae) Re including business vocabulary, communication gambits, Pore temnrcer etre ge Dect eer tart Cree oe a Nie gears eure yen tere en: more than twenty years’ experience of teaching Business Porat sree Veo tee teer enema fee rears Te eeu Ten Le co Malaco er encarta for learners of Business and professional English. Haida ee ee beh erie | B “Cen pee ae Il 100"991 0