GOODWILL GATE2IIT

DYNAMIC STABILITY describing an exponential return to equilibrium

following any disturbance.
The concept of dynamic stability is concerned with what 4. If a real Eigen value is positive, the solution
actually happens to the mechanical system as a result of its corresponds to a DIVERGENT MODE, describing an
displacement from the equilibrium condition. exponential deviation from equilibrium following
any disturbance.
1. Dynamic stability is related to the moving bodies, if
any oscillations are generated by the system due If Eigen value is Complex
to a disturbance and the amplitude of oscillations
decreases continuously then the body is called as 1. A complex pair of Eigen value is associated with a
dynamically stable and the motion is called as OSCILLATORY MODE, having a damping rate equal
damped oscillation (Graph-1). to the negative of the real part of the Eigen value
and a damped natural frequency equal to the
imaginary part of the Eigen value.
2. If a real part of the Eigen value is zero, the solution
corresponds to an UNDAMPED MODE, describing
sinusoidal motion having constant amplitude.

LONGITUDINAL DYNAMIC STABILITY

2. If this system is statically unstable then the effect
of small disturbance is to create a divergence from Types of modes in longitudinal motion
the equilibrium condition and these types of
THE SHORT PERIOD MODE
system are called as dynamically unstable (Graph-
2). The Eigen value having the magnitude or largest imaginary
3. If the system is statically neutral no oscillation are part magnitude will always correspond to the short-period
created neither the divergence, this system are mode.
called as dynamically neutral (Graph-3).
4. If the system is statically stable, dynamically it may THE LONG PERIOD MODE (PHUGOID MODE)
be stable or may not be stable.
5. Dynamically stable ensures that the system is The second largest Eigen value pair or smallest imaginary
statically also stable. part magnitude will always correspond to the long period
mode (Phugoid mode).
NOTE: Static stability is pre-requisite for dynamic
THE RIGID BODY MODE
stability.
These trivial rigid body modes simply states that the steady
The equation for dynamic stability for a given airplane is
level flight can be maintained at altitudes.
known as characteristic equation or stability equation. The
solution of the characteristic equation yields the Eigen
A. DISTURBANCE IN INCIDENCE WITH NO
values,
CHANGE IN FORWARD SPEED – (SHORT
If Eigen value is purely real PERIOD OSCILLATIONS)

1. A purely real Eigen value is associated with a NON-

OSCILLATORY MODE, having a damping rate equal
to the negative of the Eigen value.
2. If a real Eigen value is zero, the solution
corresponds to a RIGID BODY MODE, describing a
simple rigid body displacement.
3. If a real Eigen value is negative, the solution
corresponds to a CONNVERGENT MODE,
Case – I: If the airplane is statically unstable:

Contact us: +91 -9933949303 / 7338451418

Write: [email protected]
Web: www.goodwillgate2iit.com Page 1
 GOODWILL GATE2IIT

If the airplane is statically unstable, i.e. , then 1. If the airplane flying in steady state and level flight
is subjected to a horizontal gust, then there will be
the effect of a vertical gust is to create a positive pitching
a change in forward speed without change in
moment resulting in overturning of an airplane and thereby
incidence.
increasing the angle of attack further, which will further
2. This change in forward speed will result change in
increase the moment and the airplane may go out of
aerodynamic forces such as lift and drag.
control.
3. Consider a wind from tail side (disturbance) due to
Case – II: If the airplane is statically neutral: which the velocity of an airplane increases,
therefore there is an increase in lift and drag and
If the airplane is statically neutral, i.e. , then the airplane starts gaining height due to increment
in lift.
neither restoring nor overturning moment is created and 4. During this, the kinetic energy is converted into
thus the airplane doesn’t have any tendency to go back to potential energy and when it reaches the
the equilibrium position or to deviate further away from maximum altitude, it starts losing the height by
the equilibrium position but remains in the new displaced exchanging its potential energy for kinetic energy.
position, which represents dynamically neutral case. 5. This cycle may be repeated for number of times
and this type of oscillations about the equilibrium
Case – III: If the airplane is statically stable:
condition, where, the airplane gains and loses the
altitude with the loss and gain of velocity
If the airplane is statically stable, i.e. , then it
respectively is called as Phugoid motion.
will try to regain its original equilibrium condition but in 6. This type of oscillations will be damped out after a
doing so, it may lead to the pitching oscillations about the long time.
equilibrium condition, these oscillations are called as short
period oscillations. DERIVATION FOR PHUGOID:
NOTE:

1. Generally in this mode, the oscillations will be

damped within short period and therefore it has
very high frequency.
2. Due to shortage of time, the pilot may not get
sufficient time for correction and thud strong
stabilizers should be used on the airplane. Let the mean velocity of an airplane be ‘V’ and the change
in velocity due to horizontal gust be ‘v’, let ‘h’ be the
B. DISTURBANCE IN FORWARD SPEED WITH change in height, therefore,

NO CHANGE IN INCIDENCE- (LONG Change in potential energy,

PERIOD OSCILLATIONS/PHUGOID)
Change in kinetic energy,

2
(Neglecting v being small compared to
other terms)

Contact us: +91 -9933949303 / 7338451418

Write: [email protected]
Web: www.goodwillgate2iit.com Page 2
 GOODWILL GATE2IIT

But the total energy should be constant, iv. It generally has two modes, i.e. Phugoid and
Short period oscillations.
∴
CASE- II: R = 0
mvV = mgh
It represents dynamically neutral condition
vV = gh
CASE- III: R 0
The second order differential equation for PHUGOID
motion is i. It shows dynamically unstable condition; in
this case one of the roots having complex pair
with positive real part represents un-damped
oscillations.
e.g. (+P1 iQ1)
ωn = ii. The other pair represents a Phugoid or short
period oscillations.
fn =
CASE- IV: E = 0

T= i. One of the values of λ is zero, which shows

one mode is dynamically unstable.
ROUTH’S DISCRIMINANT ii. If other roots are negative, then it shows pure
convergence.
The equation for longitudinal dynamic stability for a iii. If other roots are positive, then it shows pure
given airplane is known as characteristic equation or divergence.
stability equation, given as,
CASE-V: If any coefficient in the characteristic equation has
Aλ4 Bλ3 Cλ2 + Dλ + E = 0 a negative sign, one of the modes will give pure
convergence or dynamically unstable condition.
Where, A, B, C, D, E are constants
TIME PERIOD (T)
To check if it is a longitudinal dynamic stability equation,
following points should be noted-
T
1. All the coefficients should be positive
2. B and C should be greater than D and E. Where, = , i .e. airplane density factor
3. A should be almost or exactly equal to one.
M= mass of airplane
e.g. λ4 5. 5λ3 3. λ2 + .67λ + 0.59 = 0
ρ = free sream density
Routh’s Criteria:
V = free stream velocity
The Routh’s constant ‘R’ is given as,
2 2 S = wing area
R = BCD – D A – B E
q = imaginary part of root
CASE- I: R 0
p = real part of root
i. It shows dynamically stable condition.
ii. Roots of the characteristic equations will be TIME TO HALF (T1/2):
complex pairs with negative real parts.
e.g. (-P1 iQ1) and (-P2 iQ2) .
iii. All the modes are periodic and damped.

Contact us: +91 -9933949303 / 7338451418

Write: [email protected]
Web: www.goodwillgate2iit.com Page 3
 GOODWILL GATE2IIT

NUMBER OF CYCLES TO HALF (N1/2): Time to Half (T1/2):

.
T1/2(short period) = . 763
.

Where, .
T1/2(Phugoid) = .76
.

PROBLEM: The quartic of longitudinal dynamic of an

Number of cycles to half (N1/2):
airplane is given as
2 2+ N1/2(short period) = 0.1584
(λ + 5.0159 λ+12.984) (λ 0.03406λ + 0.0454)= 0
N1/2(Phugoid) = 1.3817
Calculate the time period, time to half, number of cycles to
half, identify the modes and compute the damping factor TYPES OF MODES IN LATERAL MOTION
and natural frequency of the modes.
The Eigen values corresponding to the lateral motion of a
SOLUTION: typical airplane contains two distinct real roots, one
complex pair and two identical zero roots.
Considering,
2 ROLL MODE AND SPIRAL MODE
(λ + 5.0159 λ+12.984) = 0
The purely real and distinct roots corresponds to two non
.5 .5 7
oscillatory odes i.e. Roll mode and spiral mode. The larger
2+
And (λ 0.03406λ + 0.0454)=0 Eigen value correspond to highly damped motion known as
ROLL MODE while the smaller one corresponds to the
. 7 . 5 lightly damped or divergent motion called the spiral mode.

Both the roots are complex with negative real part DUTCH ROLL MODE
(representing damped oscillatory motion)
The complex pair describes the oscillatory motion called
.5 .5 7 With higher magnitude represents DUTCH ROLL (
short period oscillations (Higher value of damping).
RIGID BODY MODE
Comparing with
The remaining two zero Eigen values corresponds to rigid
We get, .6 6 3.6 body displacements.

. 7 . 5 With lower magnitude represents DYNAMIC EFFECTS

Phugoid (Lower value of damping).
A. DIRECTIONAL DIVERGENCE:
Comparing with

We get, . 7 . 3

TIME PERIOD (T):

T(short period) = T . 7
.

T(Phugoid) = T .56
.

Hence, Phugoid motion will take more time then Short

period oscillations to return to the equilibrium position.

Contact us: +91 -9933949303 / 7338451418

Write: [email protected]
Web: www.goodwillgate2iit.com Page 4
 GOODWILL GATE2IIT

1. If an airplane is directionally unstable, i.e. ),

a positive change in angle of yaw creates a positive
yawing moment.
2. If an airplane is flying in a steady state and level
flight and experiences a small disturbance in yaw
to the starboard side, the result will be a yawing
moment to the starboard side as an airplane is
directionally statically unstable.
3. This will cause the deviation to increase and in the 1. If an airplane is directionally statically stable as
resultant yawed attitude, an airplane will keep well as laterally statically stable, i.e. ( ) as
moving more and more away from the equilibrium
condition (original flight path), and this type of well as ( ).
motion is called as directional divergence. 2. A disturbance in yaw will result in oscillations in
yaw, but we know, yawing doesn’t occur alone and
B. SPIRAL DIVERGENCE: rolling is also initiated due to cross coupling effect.
3. As an airplane is laterally also stable, it will result
in combinations in roll.
4. Therefore, the resultant motion will be a
combination of oscillations in yaw and oscillations
in roll with gradual reduction in altitude and this
type of motion is called as Dutch roll.

D. AUTOROTATION:
1. If an airplane is directionally as well as laterally
statically unstable, i.e. ( ) as well as

( ).
2. If an airplane yawed to the starboard side, a
positive yaw creates positive yawing moment and
the airplane starts deviating more and more away
from an equilibrium path.
3. But the yawing doesn’t start alone; yawing to the
starboard also initiates rolling to the starboard due
to cross coupling effect.
4. AS an airplane is laterally also unstable, positive
roll creates positive rolling moment and therefore 1. Consider an airplane flying very close to the
airplane keeps rolling to the starboard side. stalling angle (αstall), in this condition if an airplane
5. As an airplane rolls, the lift vector is titled and
is subjected to a roll to the starboard side, i.e. a
LcosΦ is less than the weight of an airplane, due to
initial roll.
which it starts losing an altitude.
2. The effective incidence of starboard wing
6. In the resultant motion, an airplane will therefore
increases due to up-wash and that of the port wing
enter a spiral dive which may get tighter and
decreases due to down-wash.
tighter in accordance with insufficient stability; this
3. This causes stalling of the star board wing resulting
kind of motion is called as spiral divergence.
in loss of lift, on the other hand, lift of port wing is
still high.
C. DUTCH ROLL: 4. Due to this difference in lift of both the wings, an
additional rolling moment will be created, which is
in the same sense as an initial roll.

Contact us: +91 -9933949303 / 7338451418

Write: [email protected]
Web: www.goodwillgate2iit.com Page 5
 GOODWILL GATE2IIT

5. Thus an airplane will accelerate in roll and this 2. The change in shape itself causes modification in
phenomenon is known as AUTOROTATION. aerodynamic loads, this interaction between the
aerodynamic loads and elastic strength is called as
E. SPIN: aero-elastic effect.

A. WING TORSIONAL DIVERGENCE

1. Consider the wing at an incidence; the
pressure distribution is such that the main
load is located near the nose head of the
Torsional axis which causes the wing to twist
in nose-up sense.
2. Twist gives increment in incidence, which
gives increment in lift force, which causes the
wing to twist more and more about wing
Torsional axis.
3. The tendency to twist is resisted by elastic
force due to stiffness or strength of the wing.
1. In practical flight, an autorotation doesn’t occur 4. As the speed increases an aerodynamic force
alone, it also initiates directional disturbance, and increases rapidly, whereas the elastic stiffness
i.e. yaw due to cross coupling effect and the is not affected by the lift and therefore an
resultant motion is known as SPIN. amount of twist increases with increase in
2. Let at high angle of attack, very close to the speed.
stalling angle, an airplane is rolled to the starboard 5. A speed is reached at which an elastic
side so that the starboard wing will stall. resistance to the twist is only sufficient to
3. The rolling moment also initiates yawing moment counter balance the twisting moment due to
to the port side and thus there is an interaction lift.
between yawing due to roll and rolling due to yaw 6. This equilibrium is reached at the breaking
and a steady state condition is reached called as point and the speed at which this equilibrium
spin. is reached is called as “WING TORSIONAL
4. High incidence well beyond the stall results in flat DIVERGENCE SPEED”.
spin in which rate of rotation is very high but 7. Any increase in the speed above this value will
descend is not very steep. result in structural failure; this phenomenon is
5. If spin occurs at relatively lower incidence, though called as “WING TORSIONAL DIVERGENCE”.
an incidence must be high enough to cause one
wing to stall, then the resultant spin is called as B. CONTROL SUURFACE REVERSAL/ AILERON
steep spin in which rate of rotation is not very high REVERSAL
but the descend is very steep. 1. Consider a wing with aileron; an aileron is
deflected downwards to give increment in the
NOTE: Phugoid and short period oscillations are also two lift.
modes of Dynamic effects. 2. Downward deflection of aileron modifies the
pressure distribution over the wing in such a
AERO-ELASTIC EFFFECTS way that the line of action of an aerodynamic
force lies behind the wing Torsional axis and
Introduction
therefore wing is twisted in nose down sense.
1. An airplane structure is not perfectly rigid; an 3. As the wing is twisted in nose down dense, it
airframe is always subjected to the aerodynamic causes reduction in the effective incidence
loads which tend to modify the shape of the and hence lift is reduced.
structure.

Contact us: +91 -9933949303 / 7338451418

Write: [email protected]
Web: www.goodwillgate2iit.com Page 6
 GOODWILL GATE2IIT

4. The tendency to the twist is resisted by elastic 3. Large transport aircrafts or military aircrafts
strength of the structure. now uses the power controls which are less
5. As the speed increases, for given aileron sensitive to the flutter due to high rigidity of
deflection, the wing gets twisted more and the actuating cylinders.
more in nose down sense, which decreases lift
further and aileron effectiveness decreases.
6. The critical speed at which the loss of lift due CROSS COUPLING EFFECTS
to nose down twist is exactly equal to
increment in lift due to aileron f=deflection is A. Yawing moment due to aileron deflection
called as “AILERON REVERSAL SPEED”. (Adverse aileron yaw)
7. Above this speed aileron is totally ineffective
and downward deflection of aileron will result
in rolling moment to the same wing OR it
produces reverse rolling moment, this
phenomenon is known as “CONTAOL SURFACE
REVERSAL OR AILERN REVERSAL”.

C. CONTROL SURFACE FLUTTER

1. It is due to the interaction between inertia
force of control surface and aerodynamic and
elastic and elastic effects of the structure.
2. Consider an elevator hinged along a line which
is ahead of the centre of gravity of an
elevator.
3. Now in steady state and level condition, if the
1. Ailerons are deflected differentially in order to
disturbance causes the tail to be displaced
create a rolling moment.
upwards, due to inertia force elevator is
2. E.g., to roll the aircraft to the starboard side
deflected downwards and gives increment in
the aileron of starboard wing is deflected
lift.
upwards and that of the port wing is deflected
4. Increment in lift tries to bend the structure of
downward.
fuselage, which causes the tail to be displaced
3. Due to this deflection it increases the life of
further upwards.
the port wing and decreases the lift of
5. However oscillations may be created
starboard wing thereby giving the expected
developed under certain circumstances which
rolling moment.
are known as “ELEVATOR FLUTTER OR
4. But the lift does not increase alone; the
CONTROL SURFCE FLUUTTER”.
increase in lift of port wing increases the drag
6. Control surface flutter can be avoided by-
also by a considerable amount due to
a. Increasing the rigidity of the structure
increment in induced drag.
b. Mass balancing.
5. The drag of starboard wing is comparatively
less than the drag of port wings, this
D. MASS BALANCING difference in drag causes the aircraft yaw
1. The careful arrangement of mass distribution towards the port wing.
of the elevator in order to eliminate the 6. Since the yawing moment is in the opposite
inertia aero-elastic coupling which produces sense to the expected rolling moment the
flutter is called as MASS BALANCING. phenomenon is called as adverse aileron yaw.
2. In case of mass balancing an auxiliary mass is
fitted to the control surface ahead of the
B. Yawing moment due to rolling velocity
hinge line.

Contact us: +91 -9933949303 / 7338451418

Write: [email protected]
Web: www.goodwillgate2iit.com Page 7
 GOODWILL GATE2IIT

3. Since the line of action of this force is above

the C.G. or longitudinal axis, it causes the
aircraft to roll towards the port side.

D. Rolling moment due to yawing velocity

1. When an airplane is yawing to the port side,

the starboard wing travels faster than port
1. Yawing moment due to rolling velocity arises
wing and therefore the lift of the starboard
from tilting of the lift vectors.
wing is greater than the lift of the port wing.
2. E.g. when an airplane is rolled to the
2. This difference in lift causes the aircraft to roll
starboard side, the starboard wing
to the port side, which is in the same sense as
experiences up-wash and lift vector is tilted
that of the original yaw.
forwards, thereby reducing the drag of the
starboard wing.
3. At the same time port wing experiences
down-wash due to which the lift vector is
tilted backwards, thereby increasing the drag
of the port wing.
4. This difference in drag causes unexpected
yawing moment which is again in the opposite
sense to the expected rolling moment.

C. Rolling moment due to rudder deflection

1. The rudder is deflected to the starboard in

order to initiate the expected yawing moment
towards the starboard.
2. But when the rudder is deflected to starboard,
it creates a side force towards the port wing.

Contact us: +91 -9933949303 / 7338451418

Write: [email protected]
Web: www.goodwillgate2iit.com Page 8