4th Quarter Grade 9 TLE

CSS (Computer System Servicing)

Internet Protocols
A protocol is a set of rules. A letter sent through the postal system also
uses protocols. Part of the protocol specifies where on the envelope the
delivery address needs to be written. If the delivery address is written in the
wrong place, the letter cannot be delivered. Internet protocol works in a
similar way. Internet protocols are sets of rules governing communication
within and between computers on a network. Protocol specifications define
the format of the messages to be exchanged.
Timing is crucial to network operation. Protocols require messages to
arrive within a certain amount of time so that computers do not wait
indefinitely for messages that may have been lost. Therefore, systems
maintain one or more times during transmission of data. Protocols also initiate
alternative actions if the network does not meet the timing rules. Many
protocols consist of a suite of other protocols that are stacked in layers.
These layers depend on the operation of the other layers in the suite to
function properly.
The main functions of protocols are:
 Identifying errors
 Compressing the data
 Deciding how the data should be sent
 Addressing the data
 Deciding how to announce sent and received data

To understand how networks and the Internet work, you must be

familiar with the commonly used protocols. These protocols are used to
browse the web, send and receive e-mail, and transfer data files. You will
encounter other protocols as your experience in IT grows, but they are not
used as often as the common protocols described here:

 TCP/IP: The Transmission Control Protocol /Internet Protocol (TCP/IP)

suite of protocols has become the dominant standard for
internetworking. TCP/IP represents a set of public standards that
specify how packets of information are exchanged between computers
over one or more networks
 IPX/SPX: Internetwork Packet Exchange/Sequenced Packet Exchange
is the protocol suite originally employed by Novell Corporation’s
network operating system, NetWare. It delivers functions similar to
those included in TCP/IP. Novell in its current releases supports the
TCP/IP suite. A large installed base of NetWare networks continues to
use IPX/SPX.
 NetBEUI: NetBIOS Extended User Interface is a protocol used
primarily on small Windows NT networks. NetBEUI cannot be routed or
used by routers to talk to each other on a large network. NetBEUI is
 suitable for small peer-to-peer networks, involving a few computers
directly connected to each other. It can be used in conjunction with
another routable protocol such as TCP/IP. This gives the network
administrator the advantages of the high performance of NetBEUI
within the local network and the ability to communicate beyond the
LAN over TCP/IP
 AppleTalk: AppleTalk is a protocol suite used to network Macintosh
computers. It is composed of a comprehensive set of protocols that
span the seven layers of the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI)
reference model. The AppleTalk protocol was designed to run over
LocalTalk, which is the Apple LAN physical topology. This protocol is
also designed to run over major LAN types, notably Ethernet and
Token Ring
 HTTP: Hypertext Transfer Protocol governs how files such as text,
graphics, sound, and video are exchanged on the World Wide Web
(WWW). The Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) developed the
standards for HTTP.
 FTP: File Transfer Protocol provides services for file transfer and
manipulation. FTP allows multiple simultaneous connections to remote
file systems.
 SSH: Secure Shell is used to securely connect to a remote computer.
 Telnet: It is an application used to connect to a remote computer that
lacks security features.
 POP3: Post Office Protocol is used to download e-mail from a remote
mail server.
 IMAP: Internet Message Access Protocol is also used to download
e-mail from a remote mail server.
 SMTP: Simple Mail Transfer Protocol is used to send e-mail to a
remote e-mail server.

The more you understand about each of these protocols, the more you
will understand how networks and the Internet work.

IP Addressing

An IP address is a number that is used to identify a device on the

network. Each device on a network must have a unique IP address to
communicate with other network devices. Network devices are those that
move data across the network, including hubs, switches, and routers. On a
LAN, each host (device that sends or receives information on the network)
and network device must have an IP address within the same network to be
able to communicate with each other.
A person’s name and fingerprints usually do not change. They provide
a label or address for the person’s physical aspect—the body. A person’s
mailing address, on the other hand, relates to where the person lives or picks
up mail. This address can change. On a host, the Media Access Control (MAC)
address is assigned to the host Network Interface Card (NIC) and is
known as the physical address. The physical address remains the same
regardless of where the host is placed on the network in the same way that
fingerprints remain with someone regardless of where he or she goes.
An IP address consists of a series of 32 binary bits (1s and 0s). It is
very difficult for humans to read a binary IP address. For this reason, the 32
bits are grouped into four 8-bit bytes called octets. An IP address, even in this
grouped format, is hard for humans to read, write, and remember. Therefore,
each octet is presented as its decimal value, separated by a decimal point or
period. This format is called dotted-decimal notation. When a host is
configured with an IP address, it is entered as a dotted-decimal number, such
as 192.168.1.5

Imagine if you had to enter the 32-bit binary equivalent of this:

11000000101010000000000100000101. If you mistyped just 1 bit, the
address would be different, and the host may not be able to communicate
on the network. The logical 32-bit IP address is hierarchical and is
composed of two parts. The first part identifies the network, and the
second part identifies a host on that network. Both parts are required in an
IP address. For example, if a host has an IP address of 192.168.18.57,
the first three octets, 192.168.18, identify the network portion of the
address, and the last octet, 57, identifies the host. This is called
hierarchical addressing, because the network portion indicates the
network on which each unique host address is located. Routers only need
to know how to reach each network, not the location of each individual
host.

Five Classes of IP Address

IP Classes Purpose
Class A Used for large networks, implemented by large companies and
some countries
Class B Used for medium-sized networks, implemented by universities
Class C Used for small networks, implemented by ISPs for customer
subscriptions
Class D Used for special use for multicasting
Class E Used for experimental testing

Subnet Mask

The subnet mask indicates the network portion of an IP address. Like

the IP address, the subnet mask is a dotted-decimal number. Usually all hosts
within a LAN use the same subnet mask. Table 3 shows default subnet
masks for usable IP addresses that are mapped to the first three classes of IP
addresses:

 255.0.0.0: Class A, which indicates that the first octet of the IP address
is the network portion
  255.255.0.0: Class B, which indicates that the first two octets of the IP
address are the network portion
 255.255.255.0: Class C, which indicates that the first three octets of
the IP address are the network portion
Default Subnet Masks for Usable IP Addresses

Class A Network Host

Octet 1 2 3 4

Class B Network Host

Octet 1 2 3 4

Class C Network Host

Octet 1 2 3 4

Class D addresses are used for multicast groups. There is no need to

allocate octet or bits to separate network and host addresses. Class E
addresses are reserved for research use only.

IpConfig

Ipconfig is a command used to find out the IP address of a certain

network you are connected to.

How to use the ipconfig command?

1) Click on Start Button, then type cmd (command prompt) on the

search box.
2) A black screen will appear.
3) Type ipconfig and press enter. The information
from this window will be useful because it shows the IP address,
subnet mask and default gateway of a network you are connected
to.

Assigning a static IP Address

In a home network with several computers and devices, it is ideal to

assign each of them a specific address. This is for the purpose of avoiding
problems when you do troubleshooting which requires figuring out the IP
address of each of them. It is also a means to prevent address conflicts
between the devices. You can also manage them with ease if you have
assigned their own addresses.

Here are the procedures in assigning an IP Address on a windows

base computer system:

1) Open the Control Panel’s Network Connections icon.

2) Open the icon representing your computer’s network connection.
 3) Click the Properties button in the Status dialog box.
4) From the list of items, choose Internet Protocol (TCP/IP).
5) Click the Properties button. The Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) Properties
dialog box appears.
6) Type the IP address for your computer. Enter the appropriate IP Address
in the IP address section.
7) Type a subnet mask. The value used on a local network is commonly
255.255.255.0, but it can be different, such as 255.255.255.127.
8) Type the default gateway address. The default gateway is the router,
so type the router’s address. Figure 54 shows an example of assigning an
IP Address, Subnet mask and default gateway
9) Type the address for the preferred DNS server. The address should be
obtained from your Internet Service Protocol. It is used to help your
computer find web pages and other addresses on the internet.
10) Type the address for the alternate DNS server.
The alternate Domain Name System (DNS) server’s IP address is
something that your ISP provides.
11) Click OK to confirm the settings.
12) Close all other open dialog boxes and windows.

Assigning a Dynamic IP Address

If more than a few computers comprise the LAN, manually configuring

IP addresses for every host on the network can be time-consuming and prone
to errors. In this case, using a Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP)
server would automatically assign IP addresses and greatly simplify the
addressing process.

Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) is a software utility used

to dynamically assign IP addresses to network devices. This dynamic process
eliminates the need to manually assign IP addresses. A DHCP server can be set
up and the hosts can be configured to automatically obtain an IP address.
When a computer is set to obtain an IP address automatically, the other entire
IP addressing configuration boxes are dimmed or disabled. The server
maintains a list of IP addresses to assign, and it manages the process so that
every device on the network receives a unique IP address. Each address is held
for a predetermined amount of time. When the time expires, the DHCP server
can use this address for any computer that joins the network.

These are the IP address information that a DHCP server can assign to hosts:

 IP address
 Subnet mask
 Default gateway
 Optional values, such as a Domain Name System (DNS) server address

The DHCP server receives a request from a host. The server then selects IP
address information from a set of predefined addresses that are stored in a
database. After the IP address information is selected, the DHCP server offers
these values to the requesting host on the network. If the host accepts the
offer, the DHCP server leases the IP address for a specific period of time.

Using a DHCP server simplifies the administration of a network because the

software keeps track of IP addresses. Automatically configuring TCP/IP also
reduces the possibility of assigning duplicate or invalid IP addresses. Before a
computer on the network can take advantage of the DHCP server services, the
computer must be able to identify the server on the local network. You can
configure a computer to accept an IP address from a DHCP server by clicking
the Obtain an IP address automatically option in the NIC configuration window

If your computer cannot communicate with the DHCP server to obtain an IP

address, the Windows operating system automatically assigns a private IP
address. If your computer is assigned an IP address in the range of 169.254.0.0
to 169.254.255.255, it can communicate with only other computers in the
same range. An example of when these private addresses would be useful is in
a classroom lab where you want to prevent access outside to your network.
This operating system feature is called Automatic Private IP Addressing
(APIPA). APIPA continually requests an IP address from a DHCP server for your
computer

Ping

The ping is a Command Prompt command used to test the ability of the
source computer to reach a specified destination computer. The ping command
is usually used as a simple way to verify that a computer can communicate
over the network with another computer or network device

The ping command operates by sending Internet Control Message

Protocol (ICMP) Echo Request messages to the destination computer and
waiting for a response. How many of those responses are returned, and how
long it takes for them to return, are the two major pieces of information that
the ping command provides.

Ping Command Syntax

Syntax Description
-t Using this option will ping the target until you force it to stop
using Ctrl-C
-a This ping command option will resolve, if possible, the
hostname of an IP address target.
-n count This option sets the number of ICMP Echo Request messages to
send. If you execute the ping command without this option,
four requests will be sent.
-l size Use this option to set the size, in bytes, of the echo request
packet from 32 to 65,527. The ping command will send a 32
byte echo request if you do not use the -l option.
 -f Use this ping command option to prevent ICMP Echo Requests
from being fragmented by routers between you and the target.
The -f option is most often used to troubleshoot Path Maximum
Transmission Unit (PMTU) issues.
-i TTL This option sets the Time to Live (TTL) value, the maximum of
which is 255.
-v TOS This option allows you to set a Type of Service (TOS) value.
Beginning in Windows 7, this option no longer functions but
still exists for compatibility reasons.
-r count Use this ping command option to specify the number of hops
between the computer and the target computer or device that
you would like to be recorded and displayed. The maximum
value for count is 9 so use the tracert command instead. If you
are interested in viewing all hops between two devices.
-s count Use this option to report the time, in Internet Timestamp
format, that each echo request is received and echo reply is
sent. The maximum value for count is 4 which means that only
the first four hops can be time stamped.
-w timeout Specifying a timeout value when executing the ping command
adjusts the amount of time, in milliseconds, that ping waits for
each reply. If you do not use the -w option, the default timeout
value is used which is 4000, or 4 seconds.
-R This option tells the ping command to trace the round trip
path.
-S srcaddr Use this option to specify the source address.
-4 This forces the ping command to use IPv4 only but is only
necessary if target is a hostname and not an IP address.
-6 This forces the ping command to use IPv6 only but as with the -
4 option, is only necessary when pinging a hostname.
target This is the destination you wish to ping, which is either an IP
address or a hostname.
/? Use the help switch with the ping command to show detailed
help about the command's several options.

Using the ping Command

Ping is one of your most important tools in troubleshooting Internet

problems. It shows you whether the Domain Name Server is working, whether
the computer you are trying to talk to is reachable, and how long it takes to get
there. It does this at a very low level — only the most basic Internet functions
have to be up and running.

1) Click on Start Button, then type cmd (command prompt) on the

search box.
2) A black screen will appear.
3) Type ping followed by the IP address you desire to verify.

The output shows several things:

Decoding names to network addresses — A domain name server (DNS)
resolves machine names to numeric addresses. A single machine can have
many names, all of which resolve to the same Internet address. In the example
just given, the name www.google.com resolves to the Internet address
122.2.152.23.

Round-trip response time — The parts of the replies that say things like
time=105ms show you how long it took from the time the client machine sent
out the ping message until a reply came back (1 ms is 1 millisecond, or one
thousandth of a second). The variability in the times you see reflects that
networks do not always respond identically. Differing amounts of traffic on the
communication lines or differing loads on the server are common causes. You
will see very different response times depending on the access equipment you
use.

Routing hop count — The part of the replies that says TTL=50 tells you about
the route the message took from one point to another. The acronym TTL stands
for Time to Live, which is a measure of how many rerouting from one point to
another the packet has to go through before IP declares it undeliverable. The
number following TTL (called the hop
count) is a number that usually starts at 255 and counts down by one every
time the message gets rerouted through an intermediary computer