Engineering materials

ME 204

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 Broad spectrum classification of materials

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Ferrous Metals
1) Cast iron : contains Fe + C + Si, where C content is 1.7-3%.
• Types of cast iron
1. Grey cast iron: (most common cast iron and the most widely used
cast material )
2. Malleable cast iron: (used for small castings requiring good tensile
strength and ductility e.g. Vises)
3. Abrasion resistance cast iron
4. White cast iron
5. Nodular cast iron

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 Tee pipe fitting made of grey Bench vise made of malleable cast iron
cast iron.

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 2) Wrought Iron

• Pure iron having iron content of 99.5 % small amounts of Si, S

and P.
• Tough, malleable, ductile and can be easily forged or welded.

1600 years old Iron pillar

of Delhi, India,
containing 98% wrought Eiffel tower made of Wrought iron gate
iron wrought iron
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3) Steel

• Steel is an alloy of iron and carbon and other elements

• Most important engineering material
• Carbon content is < 1.7%

Types of steels: a) Plain carbon steels

b) Alloy steels

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a) Plain carbon steels

• Dead mild steel (<0.15% C) : Used in Car Bodies, Chains, Nails,

Thin Wire, etc.
• Low Carbon steels (0.15-0.46% C): girders, nuts and bolts etc.
(mild steel)
• Medium Carbon steels (0.45-0.8% C):  used for large parts,
forging and automotive component
• High Carbon steels (0.8-1.5% C): used for springs, edged tools,
and high-strength wires

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b) Alloy steels

• Special purpose steels

• Alloyed with variety of elements to improve mechanical
properties
Alloying
Ni Elements
Strength and toughness
Cr Hardness and corrosion resistance
W Hardness at elevated temperature
V  Increases the toughness at high temperatures
Si Increases elastic limit
Co Hardness
Pb Improved machinability
Mn Reduces brittleness
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Non-Ferrous metals
•

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b) Y – alloy :
• Developed during world war I
• Like duralumin, this was a 4% copper alloy, but with the addition
of 2% nickel and 1.5% magnesium.
• Uses: cylinder heads, pistons and components used at higher
temperature for longer periods.
c) Magnalium:
• Contains 2-10% Mg and 1.75% Cu
• Uses: Aircraft and automobile parts
Piston made of y
alloy

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2) Copper:
• Most widely used non-ferrous metal in industry.
• Malleable, ductile and good conductor of heat and electricity.
Alloys of copper:
a) Brass: Cu + Zn, upto 50% Zn.
• Contains small amount of Pb to improve machinability.
brass trumpet
• Uses: musical instruments, bearings, rivets etc.

b) Bronze: Cu+Sn where Sn is 5-25%

• Uses: musical instruments, sculptures, coin and medals

c) Gun metal: 88% cu+ 10% Sn + 2% Zn

Bronze
• Uses : for boiler fittings, valves etc.
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Propeller
11
Non-Metals
• Plastics
• Composites
• Ceramics
• Timber
• Leather
• Elastomers

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a) Plastics
Thermosetting plastics
• Becomes irreversible hardened upon curing.
• E.g. Bakelite, epoxy resins etc.

Thermoplastic plastics
• Can be remelted and remoulded.
• E.g. Polyvinyl chloride (PVC), Polythene

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b) Composites
• Is a material made from two or more constituent materials with
significantly different physical or chemical properties that, when
combined, produce a material with characteristics different
from the individual components.

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Typical engineered composite materials include:
• Reinforced concrete
• Composite wood
• Reinforced plastics or fibre reinforced plastics
• Ceramic matrix composites
• Metal matrix composites

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 Car body made of carbon fibre
Carbon fibre sheet

Layered composite material with

different orientation of fibres.

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c) Ceramics
• Non-metallic solid material comprising an inorganic compound
of metal.
Ceramics include:
• Oxides
• Nitrides
• Carbides
• Graphite
• Diamond

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 CBN (Cubic Boron Nitride) Wurtzite Boron Nitride.
inserts
Crabon- Ceramic disc
brakes in high
performance cars

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 Materials used in Boeing 787

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Process of iron making
• The three basic raw materials required for iron making are:
1) Iron ore
2) Limestone
3) Coke

Iron ore:
• Iron is the 4th most abundant material in earth’s crust but rarely
found in metallic state.
• Occurs in variety of of mineral compounds known as ores.
• Iron ore is extracted from ground and partially refined.
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• The ore is either hematite or magnetite and iron content ranges
from 50-70%.
• Iron ore containing lower iron content must be processed to
increase the iron content.

Coke:
• Produced from mixture of coals.
• The coal is ground and then charged into oven.
• The heat in the oven removes the volatile material.
• Coke contains 90-93% C, some ash and S.
• Coke generates high heat required for iron making.
• Coke produces CO which is used to reduce iron oxide to iron.

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Limestone:
• Function is to remove the impurities like sulphur, silica, alumina
present in the molten metal.
• The limestone reacts chemically with impurities and forms slag
which trickle down to the bottom where it floats on molten
metal since it is less dense.
• Dolomite (ore of calcium magnesium carbonate) is used as flux.

coke

Dolomite
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Cupola
• Most widely used furnace in the foundry for melting of ferrous
and non-ferrous metals and alloys.
• Modern cupola furnace was developed in France around 1720.

The main parts of cupola furnace are as follows:

1) Shell:
Made of steel plate 10mm thick and riveted or welded together.
Lined with refractory material

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2) Foundation:
Whole structure sits on steel columns.
Drop door is hinged to supporting leg.
When fully charged a vertical prop is provided under the drop
door to support the heavy weight of the charge.
Drop door is also used for maintenance and repairs.

3) Charging door:
 used for feeding the charge containing the metal, coke and flux.

4) Air blower:
Hot air is blasted into this furnace from blower connected to wind
box.
Hot flue gases coming out of the blower are used to preheat the
air.
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5) Tuyeres (French name for nozzles):
Air is blasted into the furnace through tuyeres located 1m from
the bottom of furnace.
c/s of tuyeres should be 1/5th to 1/6th the c/s of cupola.
Made of copper and water cooled to survive high temperature.

6) Tap hole:
Located at the lower part of sand bottom to let the molten
metal into ladle.

7) Slag hole:
Located above the level of tap hole to let the molten slag out..

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 Tuyers (French name for nozzles)

Cupola used for research

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8) Spark arrester:
Products of combustion pass out through the stack and spark
arrester.
Function is to catch the incandescent dust carried out by the flue
gases and thereby prevent fires.

Operation of cupola:
Newly built cupola should be thoroughly dry.
Bed of sand is rammed on to the bottom (15 cm) thick sloping
towards tap hole.
Fire is started on sand bottom and coke is added to level slightly
above the tuyers.
Air ballast is kept lower than normal.
As the combustion intensifies more coke is added till the coke level
is 700-800 mm above tuyers.
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•

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•

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Plastics
• Thermosetting plastics
Undergo number of chemical changes on heating and cured to
infusible and practically insoluble products.
Chemical change is not reversible.
This process is called heat hardening.
They do not soften on heating and cannot be reworked.
Thermosetting plastics are cross linked polymers
E.g. epoxies, Bakelite, polyesters

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 Cross linked polymer
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• Thermoplastic plastics
Soften under heat and harden on cooling and can be reworked.
They retain their fusibility, solubility and capability of being
repeatedly shaped.
This process is known as heat softening.
The mechanical properties are sensitive to temperature and
sunlight and exposure to temperature may cause thermal
degradation.
E.g acrylics, pvc, nylons, polyethylene etc.
Thermoplastic plastics are linear and branched linear polymers

Polyethylene linear polymer

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Advantages of plastics
• Low density
• Good mechanical strength
• High strength to weight ratio
• High anti friction properties
• Corrosion resistance
• Low melting points and ability to flow into moulds
• Good surface finish
• Good damping properties

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Disadvantages of plastics
• Inability to withstand high temperatures.
• Low strength.
• Majority of the plastics are non-biodegradable.

Processing of thermoplastic plastics

• Raw material is in forms of pellets, powders, rod.
• Thermoplastic can be processed to their final shape by moulding and
extrusion process.

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Injection moulding
• Parts are produced by injecting molten material into moulds.
• Important industrial method of producing plastic articles.

Plastic granules as raw

Injection moulding
material
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 Injection moulding using ram

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•

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• The improvement over the ram type injection moulding is the screw
type injection moulding.
• The most significant advantage of the reciprocating screw over the
plunger was the screw’s improved ability to heat and mix the resin.
• In plunger there is no effective means of mixing and homogenization
of material.
• Plasticating refers to conversion of plastic granuals to flow-able melt.
• The screw has three sections. FEED ZONE, COMPRESSION ZONE
and METERING ZONE.
• In the compression zone the material is gradually compressed. It
therefore rubs against the barrel wall. This sets up shearing forces on
the material.
• Plastic material under shear changes its viscosity.
• Melt is then homogenised in metering zone.

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• The injection pressure ranges from 100MPa to 150MPa.
• The process has high production rates.
• Used in making of cups, containers etc

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 Injection Moulding

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 Screw injection moulding

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Processing of thermosetting plastics
1) Compression moulding:
• Equivalent to closed die forging.
• Premeasures quantity of plastic is placed in the form of
particles in a heated mould.
• This material is then compresses by applying pressure using
hydrauilic presses.
• The liquid metal is held in the mould until the curing stage is
over when polymerization is complete.
• E.g producing dishes, handles, container caps etc.

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 Compression moulding

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2) Transfer moulding:
• Modification of compression moulding.
• Material is first placed in separate chamber from where it is
pushed through an orifice into the mould cavity.
• Material is heated by radio frequency method.

• Advantages :
Little pressure inside the mould cavity until it is completely
filled.
Plastic acquires uniform temperature in the transfer pot prior to
transfer.
Cold presses can be used.

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 Transfer moulding

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 THANK YOU

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