Standard methods for checking shafts,

Ovality ;
This usually occurs as a result of the surface wearing, through friction or linear movement.
Ovality and can apply equally to holes and shafts .Holes may be tested for ovality, using
such instruments as Go/No-Go gauges,internal micrometers, or callipers, as were
previously discussed in the Tools topic
of this course.
A shaft may be tested for ovality, by the use of snap gauges, external calipers
and micrometers.
It is important to test for ovality of a shaft, before testing it for bow, as the
results may be suspect if bow is done first.
Bow in a shaft can be determined, in a workshop, by utilising V blocks, a surface
gauge and a DTI (in conjunction with a surface table).

When dealing with shafts and tubes, it is vital that not only are the ends
square with each other, but that the centreline of the complete shaft or tube is straight.If
the centre line of the shaft is not straight, then the item is bowed.
When the shaft or tube is rotating, especially at a high speed in a bowed
state, there is the risk of vibration, which can lead to mechanical failures, loosening of
fasteners and (most critical of all) fatigue.
Bores/ holes.::
1. Where holes found to be elongated by stress the part must be renewed.

2. The corresponding pin or bolt assemblies should be inspected for wear, distortion,
Picking up & shear, and where necessary renewed.

3. Lubricating ducts should be inspected for obstruction.

4. When excessive wear has taken place in unbushed holes , the fitting should be
renewed .

5. Wear in ball and roller bearing should be checked.

Twist/Bow

1. Measurement of bow in a structural member using a straight edge and a set of feeler
gage, providing the part to be measured is free from protruding fittings and straight
edge can be applied directly along the surface of the member.

2. The straight edge placed along the entire length of the member and parallel to it’s
axis , then inserting the filler gage at the point of maximum clearance .

3. The amount of bow can be calculated by the formula

Bow = clearance measured by Feeler gage

Length of member

Sheet metal work “:

Notes on module 7 Page 1

1)The squaring shears has already been used to produce a convenient size upon
which to work and, of course, to provide an accurate straight edge from which to
make measurements.
2)When using shears (whether squaring or the hand type), then the cut must be
made slightly above the line. This allows for filing down to the line, which will eliminate the
possibility of stress raisers being formed at the edges of the metal,due to the shearing
action of the various types of shears.
3) scrap wood should be used, as backing, when hack-sawing or filing sheet metal and
protection must be given, against possible damage, when such components are held in the
jaws of vices, by the use of ‘soft’ vice clamps.
4) fine-toothed hacksaws (32 tpi) and second cut and/or smooth files (used with long,
smooth strokes), are the cutting tools, used in the shaping of sheet metal parts.=========

A bench shear, also known as a lever shear,

The cutting blades fitted are carefully and accurately ground to give easy, clean quick cuts,
and free of burrs
a. bench shear must only be used for cutting silver, nickel silver, brass, copper, guilding
metal and aluminium. •
b) Always mark accurately where cut is to be made.
c) Use this mark to line up metal accurately to the blade. •
d) Always keep fingers clear of blade at all times
e) Ensure metal to be cut is appropriate size – small pieces are not to be cut on this
machine!
a. If metal is thick ask for assistance to apply pressure to foot operated lever.
b. Maximum cut thickness of 2mm only. Not to be used for cutting steel.– if you have
assistance ensure their fingers are also clear!
f) WHEN YOU FINISH Clean area thoroughly and dispose of all debris/scrap
appropriately.

Snips:

Notes on module 7 Page 2

For cutting along straight line, straight snip is used whose blades are straight.

It is used to cut 22 S.W.G or lighter.

To cut sheets of greater thickness lever shearing m/c is used.

Care and use of snips: 1.Keep the small piece of metal over the bottom blade of the snips.

2.Trim off excess metal before making the cut on the line.

3.Whenever possible, rest the blade and handle of the snips on the workbench

. 4.When notching keep the end of the snips blade at the point where the notch will end.

5.Keep oil from the blades snips

. 6.Cut only sheet metal with snips.

This is a heavy duty shears able to cut to 10 mm thick metal with ease.

They have a compound leverage system for greater power.

When using this type of sheets, keep the good piece of metal over the lower blade and run
the scrap piece under blade since the piece that goes under the upper blade will be curled
and disturbed by the cutting action.

Aviation snips and tin snips are a common method of cutting thin sheet metal for
hobbyists. These tools are good for cutting soft sheet metals such as tin, aluminum and
brass. You probably wont find snips which are capable of cutting above 18 gauge mild
steel. For a reference on gauge thickness see our gauge chart. When working with curved
pieces on a small project these snips can definitely come in handy.

Aviation snip is a term applied to the higher end form of this sheet metal cutting tool which
comes in 3 basic varieties allowing for straight, left hand curved and right hand curved
cuts.
For most applications it is necessary to file and clean up the edges left by a snip.
When you’re using these tools it’s good practice to keep the top blade seated on the metal
while you ‘pull’ the bottom blade towards you.
1)Open the snips all the way at the beginning of a cut and seat the sheet metal as deep as
possible into the opening, this provides you with maximum leverage.
2) For cutting out holes in sheet metal it’s going to be necessary that you begin with a
starter hole, this can be formed by using the hammer and chisel method to punch through
the metal.
Once you have the starter hole work your way out to the desired radius using the correct
red or green colored snip.

Thickness

One of the most important decisions when working with sheet metal is deciding what
thickness you’ll need. Similar to wire, sheet metal thickness is measured in gauges, with a

Notes on module 7 Page 3

higher number indicating a thinner sheet. To measure the thickness, you can use a sheet
metal gauge, which will show you thickness in both gauge number and thousandths of an
inch. One important note, however, is that ferrous and non-ferrous sheet metals of the
same gauge have different thicknesses, so you’ll need one gauge for ferrous metals, and one
for non-ferrous.

TIP: For small pieces of metal, you can mimic the pending process by clamping the metal
between wooden blocks in a vise, then hammering them over.

Bending:Bending sheet metal can be tricky, but with the right tool it’s easy. Those who
work with it regularly are likely to have a sheet metal bending brake in their workshop, but
this tool can be a bit expensive for the hobbyist. Thankfully, there are a couple of wallet-
friendly options that can help you get the job done.

Using the edge of your workbench, a length of wood, two clamps, and a mallet, you can
fashion a rudimentary bending brake. Mark a bend line and place the sheet metal on the
edge of your bench. Next place the wood parallel and slightly behind the bending line.
Clamp the wood on top of the metal to the workbench. Finally, bend the sheet up by hand
to the angle desired. If you want a sharp 90° bend, tap along the crease with a mallet.

Cutting:Many different tools cut sheet metal, and each has its own strengths and
weaknesses. Here are some of the more common tools, but they represent only a small
number of options.

Snips:

Notes on module 7 Page 4

Commonly known as “aviation snips” or “tinsnips,” these scissor-like tools are great for
cutting soft sheet metals such as tin, aluminum, brass, and thin-gauge (24 gauge or
thinner) steel. Depending on the cut shape, you’ll use left-cut, right-cut, or straight snips,
typically indicated by the handle color: red for left, green for right, and yellow for straight.
Be sure to insert the metal fully into the throat of the snips for optimal cutting.

Hacksaw;

A hacksaw can cut sheet metal, but its shape limits its turning radius and depth of cut. To
prolong blade life, rub wax along the length of the blade. For a cleaner cut, put a strip of
masking tape on the top and bottom of the sheet to keep chips from scratching the
material.

Nibbler:
The nibbler is a tool that offers a lot of control over the cut, but at the expense of cut width.
Each cut punches out a tiny piece of the sheet metal, and the process is repeated. The
nibbler shown here is hand-operated, though drill-powered, electric, and pneumatic
versions are also common.

Jigsaw

A quality jigsaw and the correct metal-cutting blade will make short work of sheet metal
cuts. If you need a straight cut, clamp a straight-edge to the sheet to act as a guide for the
jigsaw footplate.

Band Saw:

With the appropriate blade, cutting sheet metal on a band saw is fairly straightforward.
Cutting metal requires slower blade speeds than cutting wood, but many band saws have
multistep pulleys for changing the blade speed.

Notes on module 7 Page 5

Cutting Aluminum with a Table Saw
It might sound crazy, but you can cut sheets of aluminum on a table saw. Make sure to
use a 60-tooth (or more) carbide-tipped blade, and wax the blade to ensure the cut is well
lubricated. Go slowly, proceed with the utmost caution, and wear hearing protection!

Deburring:After cutting metal, there’s often a sharp edge left. Be sure to remove it! You can
buy a fancy deburring tool if you work with sheet metal frequently, but a quick once-over
with a file is just as effective. Your fingers will thank you!

Working with Sheet Metal: Safety, Tools, and Sheetmetal Projects

Sheetmetal is one of the most versatile types of metal a do-it-yourselfer (DIY) can use to
complete projects that call for bending sheet metal, cutting, or other methods of metal
fabrication. This guide will help you understand types of sheet metal, how to safely punch
out and cut sheet metal, how to bend sheet metal, and more.

Sheet Metal Safety Precautions:

Working with sheet metal, especially after it's been cut, can be dangerous. Each cut you
make exposes sharp edges and creates burrs that can slice a finger. That's why it's vital
that you take safety precautions. Wear safety gloves whenever possible, and always wear
safety goggles and work boots. Never run your hands, even when gloved, over a cut edge.
Always file down burrs promptly. Keep your work surface free of scrap. Metal waste also
has hazardous edges. Handle metal sheets with care, especially if they are wet, because
moisture mixed with oil and dirt can slick the surface and make it hard to grasp. Finally,
make sure your hammers are solid and your shears are sharp.

Sheet Metal Types and Sizes;: Light sheet metal — metal rolled thin enough to be
shaped with hand tools — is one of the most versatile materials for home-improvement
projects. It sheathes the roofs and sides of buildings, and it forms gutters and flashing,
ductwork, and exhaust hoods. It can be rolled into cylinders, folded into boxes and,
depending on the kind of metal, used for objects that are both decorative and practical.
Sheet metals of stainless steel and copper are prized for their luster, aluminum for its light
weight and resistance to rust, and galvanized steel — steel with a coating of zinc to forestall
rust — for its low cost and easy handling properties. Galvanized steel is the metal of choice
for most household projects.

All sheet metals come in a range of thicknesses up to ¼ inch — the point at which sheet
metal becomes known as plate. But the measuring systems for thicknesses vary. For
stainless and galvanized steel, manufacturers use measurements in decimal parts of an

Notes on module 7 Page 6

inch or gauge numbers. The gauge is based on the United States Standard system for iron
and steel sheet. The lower the gauge number, the greater the thickness.
For aluminum sheet, makers use measurements in decimal parts of an inch to indicate
thickness. They generally class copper by weight, in ounces per square foot. For example,
flashing on commercial roofing uses 16-ounce (.02 inch thick) copper; decorative items
such as exhaust hoods use 24-ounce (.032 inch) copper.

Manufacturers also size nonferrous metals (those with little or no iron content) by gauge
numbers. These gauges are based on a second system, known as Brown & Sharpe or
American Standard. In this system the precise thickness of each gauge is slightly different
from that of gauge numbers of the United States Standard system, a difference to keep in
mind when you are buying sheet metal.

For most household projects, like ductwork, containers, and plant boxes, you'll likely use
30 and 28 (.0125 and .0157 of an inch) gauges of galvanized-steel sheet. Metal in these
sizes, which you'll likely use most often, is flexible enough to handle easily but rigid enough
to ensure a sturdy product. Occasionally you may need a stiffer sheet, 26 gauge, for
projects such as a toolbox or an exhaust hood. And if you are replacing a section of duct,
you will need to match the gauge of the existing metal. A gauge guide simplifies this
measurement.

Whatever the gauge, most sheet metal comes 2 feet to 4 feet wide and 8 feet to 10 feet long.
Large sheets are difficult to handle, so your supplier should roll or cut the metal into
manageable sections for you to carry it home. To estimate the size of these sections, you
need to make a paper or cardboard pattern of the sheet-metal object, unfolded and
flattened out. Called a stretch-out, this pattern will also be your cutting guide. It should
contain precise measurements for all the critical dimensions of the finished object, plus
tabs of extra material for seams and for the rolled and folded hems that blunt the sharp
edges of the sheet metal and make them stronger.

When you complete the stretch-out, transfer the pattern to the metal by pricking and
scoring it. Then you can cut and bend the metal and fasten it, much as if you were working
with paper.

A Gallery of Sheet-Metal Stakes

Drafting a Pattern and Transferring to Sheet Metal
Pipes, ducts and containers made of sheet metal can be fully described by a paper pattern.
The pattern, often called a stretch-out, has to include all of the seams, folds, and hems
that you would need to fold it into the exact shape of the sheet-metal object you want to
make. The process of creating a precise and fully detailed pattern is called "drafting."

A Stretch-out for a Rectangular Duct

To draft the stretch-out for a simple rectangular duct of the type that moves air through a
heating and cooling system, rule off two parallel lines on a strip of cardboard or stiff paper.
Make the distance between the lines equal to the length you desire for the finished duct.
Mark off the lines into four panels, alternating in size, making the first and third panels the

Notes on module 7 Page 7

size of the duct sides, the second and fourth panels the size of the duct top and bottom.
Mark the fold lines between panels with Xs. Make a 60° notch about â…? inch deep at each
end of the fold lines, and angle the four corners of the stretch-out. For a simple lap seam,
add a tab of the desired width at one end of the stretch-out. Cut out the stretch-out and
fold it to make sure the duct will be the proper size (inset).
Fashioning a Cylinder
Using a ruler and a steel square, draw a stretch-out equal in length to the circumference of
the completed cylinder, allowing an extra ¼ inch for the overlap in a folded seam. To
calculate the circumference, multiply the desired diameter by 3.14. Make the width of the
stretch-out equal to the length of the completed cylinder. For the folded seam add two ¼-
inch tabs, one at each end. Mark the fold lines with Xs to distinguish them from the body
of the pattern. Cut out the stretch-out and roll it to check its dimensions.

Pricking the Reference Points

To transfer the paper pattern to the workpiece,. position the pattern on the metal sheet to
produce as little waste as possible. Secure the pattern with masking tape. Using a ball-
peen hammer and a prick punch, mark the metal at each corner of the bottom and sides
and at the corners of the hem and seam tabs. At each X that marks a fold line, tap lightly
through the pattern to the metal, just barely marking the metal.

Scribing the Outline

Line up the edge of a steel ruler flush with the edge of the pattern and, using a scriber,
lightly scratch the outline of the pattern onto the metal. Keep the point of the scriber
pressed firmly against the ruler edge so that the outline is true. Then lift the pattern off the
metal and set it aside.

Marking the Fold Lines;

With the scriber and the steel ruler, retrace the faint outline you have just scratched
around the outside of the pattern. Then line up the ruler with the prick marks indicating
corners and fold lines. Lightly scribe the fold lines. Be careful not to scribe these lines too
deeply, or you may weaken the seams, hems, and corner folds. When all of the lines on the
paper pattern are visible on the metal, you are ready to begin cutting.

Cutting Sheet Metal:

Cutting sheet metal to the shape and size you need is the intermediate step in fashioning
any sheet-metal object — the step between laying out the pattern and bending and
fastening the metal into its final form. Because of its relative thinness and flexibility, you
can cut sheet metal up to 22-gauge with hand tools almost as effortlessly as you would cut
paper with scissors. Use a hacksaw to cut thicker sheet metal, like metal plate.

Aviation snips are the most common tools for cutting both straight and curved lines. A
metal punch is another way to cut sheet metal. Both snips and punches require
maintenance. You should sharpen them periodically. Keep the joints of your snips well
adjusted by tightening the pivot bolt that holds the sides of the tool together. To keep the
snips working smoothly, occasionally oil this joint with household oil or a silicone
Notes on module 7 Page 8
lubricant.

A few power tools work well as sheet-metal cutters. For cutting holes of various sizes, you
can use a hand-held electric drill or a drill press fitted with special bits for sheet metal. For
cutting large patterns that have either straight or curved lines, you can use a hand-held
power shear or a band saw.

Before using a band saw to cut metal, be sure its parts are adjusted correctly. First adjust
the blade tension according to the saw manufacturer's instructions. The blade guides,
which flank the blade on either side, should be tightened directly against the blade, then
loosened until you can slip a piece of paper between each guide and the blade.

Safety Precautions in Working with Sheet Metal

Working with sheet metal, especially after it's been cut, can be dangerous. Each cut you
make exposes sharp edges and creates burrs that can slice a finger. That's why it's vital
that you take safety precautions. Wear gloves whenever possible, and always wear goggles.
Never run your hands, even when gloved, over a cut edge. Always file down burrs promptly.
Keep your work surface free of scrap, since metal waste also has hazardous edges. Handle
metal sheets with care, especially if they are wet. Moisture mixed with oil and dirt can slick
the metal surface and make it hard to grasp. Finally, make sure your hammers are solid
and your shears are sharp.

Aviation Shears for Straight Lines and Curves

Cutting a straight line on metal
Select snip grips designed for straight cutting. Set the work on a flat surface, grasp the
metal with one hand and insert the metal between the blades at the guideline, pushing the
snips forward as far as they will go. Keeping the snip grips perpendicular to the metal
surface, squeeze firmly until the blades close to within ¼ inch of their tips. Do not close the
blades completely — this would cause burrs and irregularities along the cut edge. Open the
blades slowly while applying gentle forward pressure in the direction of the cut, then close
them again in the same manner. Repeat this action until you have completed the cut. Push
the waste metal away from you in an upward or downward curve to avoid cutting your
welding gloves. When the cut is done, file the edge to remove any burrs.
Cutting Along a Broad Curve on Metal
Using snips designed for curve cutting, begin as you do for a straight cut, with the metal
held flat and the guideline pushed as far between the snip blades as it will go. Continue the
cut, keeping the grips perpendicular to the metal surface, but angle the tool slightly to the
right or left to follow the guideline. The blades, because of their shape, will automatically
cut along the curve, do not force them. Push waste metal away from you, and file the cut
edge to remove burrs.

Snipping a Notch in a Cutout on Metal

Use straight-cut aviation snips to make the notches in a sheet-metal cutout. Hold the
blades over the notch guideline, aligning the tips with the point of the notch. Cut, closing
the blade tips completely at the corner of the notch.

Notes on module 7 Page 9

How to Bend and Fold Sheet Metal using Metalworking Tools
Two basic operations — folding and bending — transform flat sheet-metal into a shaped
object. With sheet metal of 24-gauge or lighter, you can form the curves of metal cylinders
and the sharply-folded corners of boxes by hand.

Before you can form final shapes, you must fold the hems and seams indicated by the
pattern to reinforce and bind the cut edges of the flat metal sheet and to make them less
hazardous. You can form these folds with a hand seamer while the sheet is still flat. Finish
wired edges for the rims of cylindrical objects before shaping the sheet metal. On more
complex sheet-metal shapes, such as boxes, cones, and tapers, add the wired edge after
you complete the shaping and seaming operations. However, when forming a box, make
sure to form on the flat sheet the open folds where the wire will be fitted.

For folded and grooved seams, use a hand seamer to make open-edged folds, called seam
locks, before you shape the flat sheet. Leave clearance under the folds so that the layers of
metal slip together easily on the finished object. Form the folds on opposite sides of the flat
sheet so that they interlock.

After forming the seam locks, your net step is to make the sharp bends that define the
corners of boxes and rectangular forms, and make the curved bends that shape cylinders
and tapered shapes. For each kind of bend, use the appropriate stake, or you can
improvise with pipes, blocks, and angle irons. To make an angular bend, for instance,
secure the metal with an angle iron and clamps and crease it over the edge of the
workbench. Form the sides of a box with the help of a wooden block that is cut to size and
clamped to the bottom of the box. Bend up the sides against the wood.

A length of pipe clamped firmly in a vise is an adequate substitute for stakes in shaping
curves, cones, and tapers. For unusual or complex curves, cut wooden formers —
interlocking blocks of hardwood — in the shape you need. Clamp the two pieces of wood
with the metal between them and use the vise to squeeze the sheet metal into the shape.

After you've bent and folded the metal into its final form, secure the seams by hooking the
seam locks and then hammering them flat to form folded seams. To seam projects with
curved sides, clamp a piece of pipe in a vise to support the operation. For boxes or open-

Notes on module 7 Page 10

 ended rectangles, support the workpiece by attaching a length of flat bar stock or railroad
rail to the edge of the bench.

For a very secure seam, finish the joint with a hand groover. Select a grooving tool with a
slot about 1/16-inch wider than the seam itself. If you are forming a number of objects
with grooved seams, settle on a common seam size. For example, if you plan for ¼-inch
seams throughout the project, you can then finish every seam with a standard 5/16-inch
(No. 2) hand groover.
Some metal-shaping operations present special problems. Attaching the base of a container
to a cylindrical or tapered wall with a double seam, or wiring the rim of a tapered object,
requires that you make sharp folds along curved rims and edges. You can use a pair of flat-
nosed pliers provided that you wrap the jaws in masking tape to avoid marring the metal.
Use a mallet and a setting hammer to crimp the folded metal around a wire to form a wired
edge, or for locking the flanges together in a double seam. In turning a flange with pliers,
as in shaping sheet metal with any hand tool, wear gloves and work slowly and patiently to
avoid stretching or kinking the metal.

Sheers, Punches and Other Metalworking Hand Tools Used to Cut Sheet Metal
These hand-held snips, shears, and punches are used for cutting sheet metal to any shape
or size. There are three standard types of aviation snips:

 Aviation snips with a serrated blade that are curved and beveled to cut a straight line
 Aviation snips with a right-hand curve
 Aviation snips with a left-hand curve
Widely available brands of aviation snips have color-coded grips for quick identification in
the workshop. The shape of the metalworking tool blades helps the metal to curve away
from the tool as its cut, which allows the cut to progress more easily.

Hawk-billed snips have long handles and slender blades, making them especially useful for
cutting curves in tight spots.

The ripping shear is handy for short, hard-to-reach inside cuts.

Punches, when tapped repeatedly with a ball-peen hammer, make holes of various sizes:

 The solid punch pushes small circular sections out of a metal sheet
 The hollow punch works like a cookie cutter to remove circular sections
A hand-held power shear makes quick work of big jobs. Its reciprocating blade shears
easily along both straight and curved guidelines.

Cutting a Large Hole with Punch and Snips

You can cut a large hole in sheet metal with a pair of snips, but to begin the cut you'll need
to punch a starting hole inside the larger hole.

Beginning the Cut with a Punch

Set the approximate center of the projected hole over the end-grain portion of a hardwood
block or over a soft lead block. Set the head of a hollow punch within the scribed guideline

Notes on module 7 Page 11

and over the block, press down firmly and, with the flat poll of a ball-peen hammer, strike a
solid blow on the end of the punch. Try to punch entirely through the metal with no more
than two blows. Repeated light taps will result in a jagged edge.

Cutting with Hawk-Billed Snips

Working from above or below the metal surface, whichever is more comfortable, use hawk-
billed snips to cut in an arc-shaped path from the edge of the punched hole to
within ¼ inch of the scribed guideline, using the technique described for aviation snips.
Continue cutting just inside the guideline, periodically bending the waste metal away from
your hand. When you have completed this first cut, discard the waste and then go back
and cut directly along the guideline to trim the hole to finished size. Clean up any rough
edges with a fine round file.

How to Make a Preliminary Fold in Sheet Metal

Using a hand seamer or sheet metal seamer, grasp the middle of the edge of sheet metal
you are going to bend, positioning the jaws of the seamer so that they close at the fold line
previously scribed on the metal. Tighten the adjusting screws until they butt against the
metal edge. Use the edge of the lower jaw as a fulcrum by pressing down firmly against the
work surface while you lift the handles of the seamer to start the bend. On a long edge, it is
best to work from the middle of the piece to either side, grasping and bending the metal
edge every 3 to 4 inches along the fold line. To avoid kinking the metal, bend each section
only slightly, and then move on to the next section of metal, bringing it even with the
previous section. Continue folding bit by bit until you have worked the edge to an angle
halfway between vertical and completely closed. The edge is now ready for wiring, or for
further creasing to form a folded hem or a seam lock.

Measuring Correctly for Seams in Sheet Metal:

In sheet metal work, the extra material needed for each seam depends on the size of the
seam, the number of folds it involves, and the thickness of the metal. For a 1-inch standing
seam, typical on a large duct, you need â…ž inch extra metal for the edge with the single
fold, and 1â…ž inches extra for the edge with the double fold, plus a bit extra for the
thickness of the metal.
When you are planning for folded or grooved seams, both of which are typically ¼ inch
wide, allow for ¼-inch folds on each edge, plus a small additional amount to accommodate
the thickness of the folds. When you're using a folded seam or a grooved seam to join the
lengthwise edges of a duct or a pipe, be sure that you enlarge the pattern by the width of
the seam — in this case ¼ inch — to allow for the reduction in circumference caused by

Notes on module 7 Page 12

the seam. A standard ¼-inch double seam requires a ¼-inch allowance along the wall of
the container where you will join the wall to the base. You need ½ inch of extra metal to
accommodate the two folds along the edge of the base, along with small additional
allowances for the thickness of the folds.
How to Make Sheet Metal Seams Flush on One Side Using a Hand Groover Tool

Grooving an Outside Seam:After you join the metal seams, support the piece of metal over
a stake, pipe, or rail. Fit a hand groover tool of the proper size over one end of the metal
joint and hammer it sharply to start the groove; repeat at the other end. Tip the hand
groover back down the seam line and hammer it along the entire length. The three layers of
metal in the joint will form a ridge down the outside of the metal object. The inner surface
will stay flush and smooth.

Grooving an Inside Seam:Clamp a rail with a groove of the proper size to the edge of the
work bench, rounded face up for cylindrical objects, flat face up for rectangular metal ducts
and metal boxes. Position the locked seam over the groove and use a mallet to drive each
end of the seam into the groove. Then use a mallet along the entire length of the metal joint
from end to end to form a ridge of folded metal on the inside of the metal piece and a
smooth, flush seam on the outside.
How to Make Hems and Seam Locks with Folds in Sheet Metal

Sheet metal projects can be joined together with interlocking seams made from simple
bends and folds along the mating edges. Most hems and seams are made in stages, starting
with the preliminary sheet metal fold.

Interlocking Folded Seams in Sheet Metal:Join the edges of a formed object by hooking
the seam locks together. Then support the object on a length of pipe, a piece of rail, or

Notes on module 7 Page 13

either end of a mandrel stake. Use a rounded surface for a cylindrical form or a flat surface
for rectangles and boxes. Turn the object until the seam is directly over the support, and
then tap along its length with a mallet. Use even pressure when you flatten the seam to
avoid distorting the metal.

Closing a Seam with a Seamer: If you are making a seam lock to join with another in a
folded or grooved seam, slip two thicknesses of scrap metal or a thin scrap of wood under
the middle of the preliminary fold. Fit the jaws of the seamer over the creased edge and the
scrap, and squeeze firmly. Work along the full length of the fold, moving the scrap as you
go. Then remove the scrap, and check to make certain that enough clearance remains for
the fold to mate with another seam lock.

For a simple folded hem, as on the top edge of a box, leave out the scrap and close the fold
completely (inset). For a double hem, fold a single-fold hem a second time, turning the edge
with the seamer and crimping it closed.
Double-Seaming around a Container Base;To install a tight base in a sheet-metal
container, use the technique of double-seaming.

Turning the Flange;Fit a cylindrical or tapered container wall over a section of pipe or a
mandrel stake. Steady your work with one hand and use flat-nosed pliers to grasp the edge
marked for folding, bending it up in small sections. Work slowly and do not bend any
section sharply without evening off the rest of the edge.
As the turned-up portion approaches a right angle, remove the container wall from the
support. Up-end it on the work surface and strike along the flange with a mallet to square
off the bend and form a right angle.

Edging the Base

Form a matching right-angled flange around the container base by bending up the circular
edge, marked off with a divider. Begin by using flat-nosed pliers to crease the edge in small
sections around the base. Then position the base against the end of a piece of pipe or a
mandrel stake, aligning it so that the folded edge hooks just over the horizontal surface of
the pipe or stake. Use a mallet to hammer the edge down onto the curved surface, rotating
the base slowly until you finish the flange at a right angle to the base.

Closing the Seam

With the base flat on a work surface, fit the wall of the container down inside the turned-
up flange of the base. Then use the tapered peen of a setting hammer to bend down the
edge of the base onto the flange at the bottom of the container wall (inset). Hold the
hammer at a sharp angle so you don't dent or scratch the workpiece with the hammer
head.

Notes on module 7 Page 14

Locking the Base in Place;Support the container on a pipe or a mandrel stake. Use a
mallet to turn up the joined edges of the base and walls so that they lie flat against the
container sides (inset), rotating the container as you work around the entire seam.
A Wired Edge for Smooth Reinforcement on Sheet Metal

You can add rigidity to a sheet-metal box or bucket by folding the top rim around a thick
wire. This detail gives a professional finish to shop-made sheet-metal projects.

Bending the Wire to Fit the Rim;Measure and cut a length of wire equal to twice the
combined length and width of the box, plus twice the diameter of the wire. Clamp the wire
in a vise with about 1-½ inches extending from one side. Hammer that short section to a
right-angled bend, then unclamp the wire and pass through the vise an additional length
equal to one side of the box. Reclamp for a second right-angled bend. Unclamp the wire,
and repeat the process twice more. On the fourth side, don't butt the wire ends together
right at the corner, but rather, about 1-½ inches away from the corner bend. This will
strengthen the corner seams of the box and give the appearance of continuous wiring all
around the rim.
Fixing the Wire to the Rim;Slip the formed wire into the folds that you have left partially
open around the top of the box. Fit the box over an improvised support or the flat end of a
mandrel stake. Use pliers with taped jaws to press the wire snugly into the fold at one end
of a side. Tap with a mallet to bend the creased edge over the wire. Work along the side in
small sections, moving the pliers as you go so that you are always holding the wire close to
the sheet metal being flattened. Continue all the way around the rim, rotating the box on
the support as you work.
Setting the Edge;Upend the box on the work surface and crimp the edge farther around
the wire by tapping along it with the square face of a setting hammer. To complete the
tucking, reverse the hammer and drive the metal edge behind the wire with the hammer's
tapered peen.
How to Make Holes and Countersinks for Screw Heads in Metal

To widen the top of a hole to accommodate a tapered screw head, fit a cone-shaped
countersinking bit into the chuck of a drill press or a hand drill. Drill at the slowest
possible speed, and apply cutting fluid liberally. As you drill, check the circumference of
the hole by setting an upside-down screw head over the hole. The two should match
perfectly, so that the screw will be flush with the surface of the metal when it is in place
(inset).

To inset bolt heads, make a cylindrical, or counter bored, hole with a counter bore bit 1/16

Notes on module 7 Page 15

inch larger than the bolt head. Make the hole deep enough that the top of the bolt sits flush
with the metal surface when it is in place.
How to Form Sheet Metal into Angles and Curves

Making a Right-Angled Bend in Sheet Metal

Align the fold line on the metal with the edge of the workbench. Lay an angle iron across
the sheet, flush with the fold line and the workbench edge, and clamp it in place with two C
clamps. Force the flap of metal down by hand, and then square off the bend at a crisp right
angle by tapping along the length of the crease with a mallet.

To use a special hatchet stake (inset) in forming an angled bend, position the fold line
directly over the stake and press down on both sides. When the fold reaches the desired
angle, keep the bend fitted tightly over the sharp edge of the stake; pound with a mallet
along the crease, to make the bend sharper.

Bending the Sides of a Metal Box

Cut a block of wood to the exact width and length of the bottom of the metal box you have
planned. Center it on the cut-out sheet metal, aligning the block's edges with the fold lines.
Clamp the assembly to the workbench, positioning one fold line directly over and flush with
the bench edge. Bend up the side by hand, and tap along the crease with a mallet to make
a sharp bend. To bend up the remaining sides, unclamp each one, turn it, then reposition
the assembly and reclamp the block so that the next unbent side projects over the
workbench edge.

Shaping Sheet Metal into Curves and Cylinders

Notes on module 7 Page 16

Using a vise, secure a length of pipe with a radius at least 25 percent smaller than that of
the metal curve or cylinder you plan, or use a conductor stake of the proper size (inset).
Support the flat sheet with one edge extending just past the top of the curve, and bend
down the sheet in small sections by hand or with a mallet. Move the sheet gradually across
the pipe or stake. If you form the curve with bends that are separated too widely, the curve
will be uneven.

wider end over the broad part of the stake, bending the metal gradually.
How to Fill a Sheet Metal Dent That Cannot Be Banged Out Using a Mallet

When working on a metal repair or metal fabrication project, dents in metal are often in
need of correcting. Banging dents out of metal is the easiest way to fix dented metal, but
sometimes metal cannot be smoothed out by banging with a mallet. It must be filled.
Follow these steps to fill dents in sheet metal that cannot be malleted.

Drill Anchor Holes in the Sheet Metal

If you cannot reach the back of a dent with a hammer or a stake because the object has a
double layer of metal, sand the dent and a 1-inch area around it, exposing the bare metal.
Drill â…›-inch holes ½-inch apart in the dent. Be careful that you do not drill through the
inside layer of metal. These holes will help anchor the filling compound.

Apply the Metal Filler for Metal Repair;

Use a putty knife or other applicator to fill the dent in the metal with an epoxy mixture or
dent-filling compound. Press the filler material into the drilled holes so that some of it
spreads onto the inaccessible side of the metal. Build the filler slightly higher than the
surface of the surrounding metal, and overlap the edges of the dented area. Allow the epoxy
to cure completely. File and sand the filled metal surface to the correct level and finish of
the original metal surface. Clean and paint the filler, feathering the paint into the surface of
the metal object.
INSPECTION OF SHEET METAL WORK, the inspection of sheet metal work is confine to
visual or assisted visual methods.
Personnel who have approval may also perform dye penetrant procedures in the search for
cracks in suspect areas.
Notes on module 7 Page 17
Specially trained and approved NDT personnel may use Eddy Current, Ultrasonic or
Radiographic procedures to detect faults in aluminium alloy sheet metal work
Countersunk Rivets
An improperly made countersink reduces the strength of a flush-riveted joint and may
even cause failure of the sheet or the rivet head. The two methods of countersinking
commonly used for flush riveting in aircraft construction and repair are:
• Machine or drill countersinking.
• Dimpling or press countersinking.
The proper method for any particular application depends on the thickness of the parts to
be riveted, the height and angle of the countersunk head, the tools available, and
accessibility.
Dimpling
Dimpling is the process of making an indentation or a dimple around a rivet hole to make
the top of the head of a countersunk rivet flush with the surface of the metal.
Dimpling is done with a male and female die, or forms, often called punch and die set. The
male die has a guide the size of the rivet hole and is beveled to correspond to the degree of
countersink of the rivet head. The female die has a hole into which the male guide fts and
is beveled to a corresponding
degree of countersink.
Some precautions that may eliminate or minimize chatter include:
• Use sharp tooling.
• Use a slow speed and steady frm pressure.
• Use a piloted countersink with a pilot approximately
0.002-inch smaller than the hole.
• Use back-up material to hold the pilot steady when countersinking thin sheet material.
• Use a cutter with a different number of flutes.
• Pilot drill an undersized hole, countersink, and then
enlarge the hole to fnal size.

Coin Dimpling;
The coin dimpling, or coin pressing, method uses a countersink rivet as the male dimpling
die. Place the female die in the usual position and back it with a bucking bar. Place the
rivet of the required type into the hole and strike the rivet
with a pneumatic riveting hammer. Coin dimpling should be used only when the regular
male die is broken or not available. Coin pressing has the distinct disadvantage of the rivet
hole needing to be drilled to correct rivet size before the dimpling operation is
accomplished. Since the metal stretches during the dimpling operation, the hole becomes
enlarged and the rivet must be swelled slightly before driving to produce a close ft.
Radius Dimpling
Radius dimpling uses special die sets that have a radius and are often used with
stationary or portable squeezers. Dimpling removes no metal and, due to the nestling
effect, gives a stronger joint than the non-flush type. A dimpled joint reduces the shear
loading on the rivet and places more load
on the riveted sheets.
Hot Dimpling:
Hot dimpling is the process that uses heated dimpling dies to ensure the metal flows better
during the dimpling process. Hot dimpling is often performed with large stationary
equipment available in a sheet metal shop. The metal being used is an important factor
because each metal presents different dimpling problems. For example, 2024-T3 aluminum
alloy
can be satisfactorily dimpled either hot or cold, but may crack in the vicinity of the dimple
after cold dimpling because of hard spots in the metal.
Dimpling Inspection:
To determine the quality of a dimple, it is necessary to make a close visual inspection.
Several features must be checked. The rivet head should ft flush and there should be a
sharp break from the surface into the dimple. The sharpness of the break is affected by

Notes on module 7 Page 18

dimpling pressure and metal thickness.
Selected dimples should be checked by inserting a fastener to make sure that the flushness
requirements are met. Cracked dimples are caused by poor dies, rough holes, or improper
heating.
Two types of cracks may form during dimpling:
• Radial cracks:—start at the edge and spread outward as the metal within the dimple
stretches.

Circumferential cracks:—downward bending into the draw die causes tension stresses in
the upper portion of the metal. Under some conditions, a crack may be created that runs
around the edge of the dimple.
Such cracks do not always show since they may be underneath the cladding. When found,
they are cause for rejection.
pneumatic squeeze riveter., a dimpling bar and flush set, rivet gun and a bucking bar
Dimpling can be accomplished with a dimpling bar and flush set, The rivet head is the die
that forms the dimple.
hot dimpling employs a resistance heating machine.
dimpling often is accomplished with dimpling dies used in a pneumatic squeeze riveter.
to dimple heavy sheet in a highly stressed part of the airplane in order to retain the
maximum strength of the sheet. A process called hot dimpling has been developed for this
purpose.
A process wherein the sheet metal is caused to flow to the shape of dies is called coin
dimpling.
Dimpling :Dimpling for countersunk rivets is a common practice when using a relatively
thin skin such as 0.016 to 0.025 in [0.41 to 0.64 mm] in thickness.
Dimpling can be accomplished with a dimpling bar and flush set, The rivet head is the die
that forms the dimple. When thin skin is attached to a heavier structural member, the
heavy member is subcountersunk and the skin is dimpled into the countersunk
depression, as illustrated in Fig. 8-97. For production work in a factory, dimpling often is
accomplished with dimpling dies used in a pneumatic squeeze riveter.

It is sometimes necessary to dimple heavy sheet in a highly stressed part of the airplane in
order to retain the maximum strength of the sheet.
A process called hot dimpling has been developed for this purpose. Hot dimpling is
performed with a special hot-dimpling machine, consisting of heated dies that can be
pressed together pneumatically to form a dimple, as shown in Fig. 8-98.
A process wherein the sheet metal is caused to flow to the shape of dies is called coin
dimpling.
Figure 8-99 shows an automatic hot-dimpling machine manufactured by Aircraft Tools,
Inc.
The operator sets the controls of the machine according to charts supplied by the
manufacturer, which give the temperatures and pressures required for various types of
thicknesses of materials.
hot dimpling employs a resistance heating machine.
The dies of the machine are electrodes,which pass a current through the metal to be
riveted and cause it to heat.
When the metal has been heated suffciently, full pressure is applied to the dies to form the
dimple.

Notes on module 7 Page 19

 The rivets are installed by the use of a rivet gun and a bucking bar. The sizes of the rivet
gun and bucking bar are selected to match the size of the rivet.
The various rivet guns can be adjusted to deliver the required blow for each size of rivet.
The most desirable practice is to adjust the gun so that the bucked head of the rivet will be
properly shaped, using as few blows of the rivet gun as possible. When the rivet gun is
adjusted with too light a blow, the rivet may be work-hardened to such a degree that the
head will not be formed properly without cracking the rivet.

A bucking bar is held frmly against the shank of the rivet while the rivet gun with the
correct set is applied to the manufactured head. It is essential that the bucking bar be
placed against the shank of the rivet before the rivet is driven. If the operator of the rivet
gun starts to drive the rivet before the bucking bar is in place, the sheet in which the rivet
is being installed will be damaged.
The correct installation of a rivet is dependent upon the proper use of the bucking bar as
well as the rivet gun. The face of the bucking bar must be held square with the rivet, or the
rivet may “clinch”; that is, the bucked head will be driven off center. Sometimes the
operator can control the formation of the bucked head by carefully tilting the bucking bar.
Both the rivet gun and the bucking bar must be frmly in place against the rivet before the
throttle of the gun is opened to drive the rivet.

Scales
Scales are available in various lengths, with the 6-inch and 12-inch scales being the most
common and affordable.
Dividers
Dividers are used to transfer a measurement from a device to a scale to determine its value.
Rivet Spacers:A rivet spacer is used to make a quick and accurate rivet pattern layout on a
sheet.
Scribes :A scribe is a pointed instrument used to mark or score metal to show where it is to
be cut
Prick Punch :A prick punch is primarily used during layout to place reference marks on
metal because it produces a small
indentation
Automatic Center Punch :The automatic center punch performs the same function as an
ordinary center punch, but uses a spring tension mechanism
to create a force hard enough to make an indentation without the need for a hammer.
Center Punch:
A center punch is used to make indentations in metal as an aid in drilling
Transfer Punch:
A transfer punch uses a template or existing holes in the structure to mark the locations of
new holes.
Drive Punch:
The drive punch is made with a flat face instead of a point because it is used to drive out
damaged rivets, pins, and bolts that sometimes bind in holes
Kett Saw:
The Kett saw is an electrically operated, portable circular cutting saw that uses blades of
various diameters
Hole Duplicator:
Available in a variety of sizes and styles, hole duplicators, or hole fnders, utilize the old
covering as a template to locate and match existing holes in the structure .
Pneumatic Circular Cutting Saw:The pneumatic circular cutting saw, useful for cutting out
damage, is similar to the Kett saw.
Cutting Tools:Powered and nonpowered metal cutting tools available to the aviation
technician include various types of saws, nibblers,shears, sanders, notchers, and grinders.
Circular-Cutting Saws :The circular cutting saw cuts with a toothed, steel disk that rotates
at high speed.

Notes on module 7 Page 20

Squaring Shear :The squaring shear provides a convenient means of cutting and squaring
sheet metal
Disk Sander :Disk sanders have a powered abrasive-covered disk or belt and are used for
smoothing or polishing surfaces
Aviation snips: are used to cut holes, curved parts, round patches, and doublers (a piece of
metal placed under a part
to make it stiffer) in sheet metal. Aviation snips have colored handles to identify the
direction of the cuts: yellow aviation snips cut straight,
A. green aviation snips curve right, and
B. red aviation snips curve left.

Cut-off Wheel :A cut-off wheel is a thin abrasive disc driven by a high-speed pneumatic die-
grinder and used to cut out damage on aircraft skin and stringers. The wheels come in
different thicknesses and sizes.
Files;The fle is an important but often overlooked tool used to shape metal by cutting and
abrasion.
Burring Tool:This type of tool is used to remove a burr from an edge of a sheet or to deburr
a hole.:
Portable Power Drills:Portable power drills operate by electricity or compressed air.
Pneumatic drill motors are recommended for use on repairs around flammable materials
where potential sparks from an electric drill motor might become a fire hazard.
Drill Press:The drill press is a precision machine used for drilling holes that require a high
degree of accuracy. It serves as an accurate
means of locating and maintaining the direction of a hole that is to be drilled and provides
the operator with a feed lever
that makes the task of feeding the drill into the work easier.
Types of Drill Bits :
1) Cobalt Alloy Drill Bits 2) Step Drill Bits3) Twist Drill Bits

)Dimple Dies will work in material as thick as 1/8 inch chrome moly steel and are
meant to be used in an ironworker or press. The proper size hole must be drilled
beforehand.

)Punch & Flare tools will punch the hole and flare material up to 16 gauge mild steel
in one operation. These work by tightening a draw bolt or in a bench press. Punch &
Flare tools can create a smooth hole, with or without a flare in one easy step. Simply
drill a pilot hole for the draw bolt, then apply the tool and tighten the bolt.


)Aircraft Punch & Flare tools are designed for thin aluminum (.020 - .040 inches).

Notes on module 7 Page 21

 They work just like the standard punch & flare tools but eliminate cracking in
aircraft aluminum.
)Flare Tools use the draw bolt method for forming the flare in a pre-drilled hole.
Good for material up to 16 gauge steel. can flare an existing hole in sheet metal
panels for improved strength and appearance.
 simply place the two halves of the die on either side of the properly sized hole
drawing the tool together with a standard wrench. 16 gauge steel is the maximum
thickness.

===========================

WHEEL BEARING INSPECTION :

1. nce cleaned,h t..e w..ee. - are many unacceptable he,nng bearing cup, which are
grounds tut rriectp,n. In fas:,. nearly any flaw detected in a hearing .1,Scmhiv i►kelv to be
grounds for replacement.
2. Common conditions of a bearing that are cause for rejection are as follows:
A. Galling—caused by rubbing of mating surfaces. The metal gets so hot and the
surface metal is destroyed as the motion continues and pulls the metal apart in the
direction of motion.
B. Spalling—a chipped away portion of the hardened surface of a bearing roller or race.
Overheating—caused by lack of sufficient lubrication results in a bluish tint to the metal
surface. The ends of the rollers shown were overheated causing the metal to flow and
deform, as well as discolor. The bearing cup raceway is usually discolored.
C. Brinclling—caused by excessive impact. It appears as indentations in the bearing cup
raceways. Any static overload or ere impact can cause true brinelling that leads to vibration
and premature GAL, re_
3. Falk! Brinening—caused by vibtolon of the bowing while in a staticstate, Len with a
stab( overload, lubricant can be forted from between the rollers and the raceway
Submicroscopic' particles removed at the points of metal-to-metal contact oxidize. They
work to remove more particles spreading the damage. This is also known as frictional
corrosion. It can be identified by a rusty coloring of the lubricant. (Figure 114)
A. Staining and surface marks—located on the bearing cup as grayish black streaks
with the same spacing as the rotten and caused b water that has gotten into the bearing. It
is the first stage of deeper corrosion that follows.
B. Etching and corrosion—caused when water and the damage caused by water
penetrates the surface treatment of the bearing element. It appears as a reddish/brown
discolonition.
C. Bruising—caused by fine particle contamination poisibly from a bad seal or improper
maintenance of bearing cleanliness. It leaves a less than smooth surface on the bearing
cup.
4. The hearing cup does not require removal for inspection e L.—m.4 in the wheel half
boss.

Notes on module 7 Page 22

 CLEANING of WHEEL BEARINGS :
1. the bearings should be removed from the wheel to be cleaned with the recommended
solvent, such as Varsol, Naptha, or Stoddard• solvent.
2. Soaking the bearing in solvent is acceptable to loosen any dried-on grease.
3. Bearings are brushed clean with a soft bristle brush and dried with compressed air.
4. Never rotate the bearing while drying with compressed air.
5. The high speed metal-to-metal contact of the bearing rollers with the race causes
heat that damages the metal surfaces.
6. The bearing parts could also cause injury should the bearing come apart. Always
avoid steam cleaning of bearings.
7. The surface finish of the metals will be compromised leading to early failure.

Due to the possibility of damage to the nose landing gear, extreme caution should be
exercised when towing the airplane with a vehicle.
If attempting to tow or move the aircraft, caution should be exercised to assure the nose
landing gear is not damaged.
The best way of moving the aircraft is by positioning a person, or people, in safe positions
around the aircraft, making sure not to apply excessive pressure to aircraft components. In
addition, use care when turning the aircraft.
When moving the airplane backward, the nose landing gear will tend to caster to a “hard
over” left or right position.
Maintain a firm grip on the tow bar to prevent the nose landing gear from contacting limit
stops at 80-degree left or right position.
If using a tow bar, attach the tow bar to the nose landing gear. See the note on page 5 of
this chapter. 3. Remove chocks and release the parking brake. 4. Move airplane to desired
position.
5. Chock main wheels.
6. If using a tow bar to move the airplane, remove tow bar.
7. Replace the forward and aft nose gear faring.
8. Set the parking brake to on .
General Procedures. The following procedures are for all ground
movements:(1)Disconnect and move clear all ground support, ground servicing,
and maintenance equipment not essential to movement of the aircraft.
(2)Assign an authorized ground crewmember to operate aircraft brakes, as required,
from the time chocks are removed until they are installed.
(3)Assign a ground crewmember to stand near tip of each wing to act as a
guide during ground movements.(4)Stand clear of aircraft immediately prior to and
during movement.
(5)Assign a qualified ground crew member to direct departure from, or approach to, a
parking position.Only approved standard signals will be used.
Use a flashlight or luminescent wand to signal instructions at night.
(6)Do not stand, sit, or lie on any externa lportion of an aircraft while it is in motion.
Do not jump from or board a moving aircraft
.(7)When moving aircraft, avoid sudden stop sand starts
.(8)No person, vehicle, or aircraft shall approach close to an oncoming
taxiing aircraft, pass closer than 200 feet to the rear of an operating turbine-powered
aircraft, or pass closer than 100 feet to the rear of other operating aircraft.
(9)Do not taxi or tow aircraft, or start or run up engines within 50 feet of any
fuel, oil, or water-alcohol servicing operation, or within 50 feet of any spill until the spill
has been removed and the area rendered safe.
b.Towing. Tow aircraft in accordance with the applicable maintenance manual.The
following procedures are for general towing of all aircraft.
(1)Prior to towing aircraft, ensure that towing attachments, lines, and bars are of
adequate capacity,serviceable, and secured firmly to designated towing tips

Notes on module 7 Page 23

of aircraft and tow vehicle
.(2)Do not exceed the walking speed of the slowest team member, with a
maximum speed of 5mph. Tow with extreme care over ice, snow, rough,rocky or
muddy ground and in congested areas
WARNING Keep clear of skids, aircraft wheels,and/or ground handling wheels.(1)Position
ground handling wheels (whenapplicable) in down-and-locked position.
(2)Apply physical pressure for pushing,lifting, and turning only at authorized
pressure points asdesignated in applicable maintenance manual.
(3)Push by hand at proper pressure points.
(4)Senior person will brief duties anddangers of ground handling aircraft.d.Standard
Visual Signals. Visual signals for movement of Army aircraft are contained in FM 1-
105 orFM 21-60.3-4.Static Grounding of Aircraft. Standardgrounding of aircraft is
explained in the followingparagraphs.a.Grounding Requirements.
Positiverequirements for grounding or bonding of aircraft are asfollows:NOTEGrounding
of aircraft shall be inaccordance with the samerequirements as FM 10-69,
PetroleumSupply Point Equipment andOperations.All aircraft parked outside will be
grounded and bonded, in accordance with FM 1-500, to the aerospace ground equipment
while servicing (i.e., fueling or defueling, oxygen, hydraulicfluids, or any
flammable liquids).
Grounding is not necessary for aircraft parked outside unless one of the above is
being accomplished.Grounding of aircraft is required when external power is applied to the
aircraft.

Notes on module 7 Page 24

CONTROL OF TOOLS

)One form of control is the ‘shadow board’ and ‘tool tag’ system,

)Each tool is positioned over its silhouette, on the tool board. Technicians are
issued with identification tokens (numbered ‘tags’) which are exchanged for the
tool and, usually, a tag is hung above the silhouette, to be reclaimed, in exchange
for the tool, when it is returned to the board.
) The shadow board/tool tag system works equally well when the tools are held within a
designated Tool Store arrangement.
)In workshops and bays it is normal for a toolkit to be held by the department in
addition to its engineers holding personal sets of tools. The tools held by the
department are often referred to as ‘special tools’, meaning that they are only for
maintenance work on the items being serviced in that workshop.

)A wheel bay, for example, may have sets of special spanners, levers, seal applicators and
pre-set torque wrenches, which are used primarily for the servicing of particular types of
aircraft wheels. This dedicated tool kit makes tool control much simpler and safer, with the
tools all being clearly marked as belonging to that specific bay
most important
)check of all is the final, ‘End of Work’ tool check, when all tools must be collected and
checked off against personal inventories, ensuring all borrowed tools (from the Tool Store
for example), are returned and any personal tool tags collected .
calibration :
)Procedures, controlling regular inspection, servicing and, where appropriate,calibration of
such items, are to indicate to the users that the item is within any inspection time limit.
These ‘Next Inspection’ labels must clearly state when, and, if necessary, where the next
calibration is due.
)There should be a programme that plans the periodic inspection, service or
calibration within the defined time limit, which ensures that the item remains in
calibration.

Notes on module 7 Page 25

)The frequency will be in accordance with the manufacturer or
supplier’s instructions, unless the organisation can show that a different interval is
warranted in a particular case.Calibration records or certificates should, as a minimum,
contain the following
information for each appliance calibrated:
 Identification of equipment
 Limits of permissible error
 Standard used
 Authority under which the document was issued
 Results obtained
 Any limitation of use of equipment
 Uncertainty of measurement
 Date when each calibration was conducted
 Assigned calibration interval.
Where calibration services are provided by outside organisations, it is acceptable
that the accuracy of the equipment is attested by a release document in the name
of the Calibration Company
Tool identification
)permanently mark tools for tool identification purposes. Tools can be marked using a
vibra-peen tool.
.
)Marking tools serves two purposes. First of all, it ensures that if a tool is found it is
returned to the stores .
) Second, it helps assure compliance with missing tool reporting.

)other marking methods such as permanent marker may not be very effective in a hangar
environment.
)A tool inventory should be accomplished on a regular basis so that any missing tools can
quickly be identified.
)Tool inspection : Tools should be inspected before and after each use to ensure they are in
proper working order and no parts are missing.

Notes on module 7 Page 26

Procedure to use wire cutter
Insert the wire into the center of the correct cutting slot for the wire size to be stripped.
The wire sizes are listed on the cutting jaws of the hand wire strippers beneath each slot.
2. After inserting the wire into the proper slot, close the handles together as far as they
will go.3.
Slowly release the pressure on the handles so as not to allow the cutting blades to make
contactwith the stripped conductor.
On some of the newer style hand wire strippers, the cutting jawshave a safety lock that
helps prevent this from happening.
Continue to release pressure until thegripper jaws release the stripped wire, then remove.

Volts, Amps, Ohms :Volts

This is the pressure in an electrical circuit:

Amps:This is a measure of the current flowing in an electrical circuit

Ohms:A measure of the resistance to flow in a circuit

Voltage Source:This produces a current flow in a circuit. It could be a battery, portable

generator, mains supply to a home, alternator on your car or bench power supply in a lab
or workshop.

Load:A device or component which draws power from a voltage source. This could be an
electronic resistor, bulb, electric heater, motor or any electrical appliance.

Ground:This is usually the point in a circuit to which the negative terminal of a battery or
power supply is connected.

DC:Direct current. Current flows only one way from a DC source, an example of which is a
battery.

AC:Alternating Current. Current flows one way from a source, reverses, and then flows the
other way. This happens many times a second at a rate determined by the frequency which
is typically 50 or 60 hertz. The mains supply in a home is AC.
If you would like some more detailed information about these quantities, take a detour to
this hub:
Volts, Watts, Amps, Kilowatt Hours, What Does it All Mean ? - The Basics of Electricity.

Using a Multimeter - Measuring Functions on the Instrument:

A basic multimeter facilitates the measurement of the following quantities:
1)DC voltage 2)DC current3)AC voltage4)Resistance5)Continuity - indicated by a
buzzer or tone
Some basic meters don't have an AC current range.
In addition meters may have the following functions:
 Capacitance measurement
 Transistor HFE or DC current gain
 Temperature with an additional probe
 Diode test

Notes on module 7 Page 27

  Frequency
Voltage, current and resistance ranges are usually set by turning a rotary selection dial,
and the measurement is indicated on an LCD display or scale. Laboratory bench DMMs
sometimes have seven segment LED displays.

Voltage, Current and Resistance Ranges

A range selector dial is used to select the function (volts, amps, resistance) and range. Note
the symbols used for AC and DC. | Source
WARNING !!!

Damaged probes and test leads are a hazard. Never use a damaged probe to measure
mains voltages!

How to Measure Voltage:Power off the circuity/wiring under test if there is a danger of
shorting out closely spaced adjacent wires, terminals or other points which have differing
voltages.
1. Plug the black ground probe lead into the COM socket on the meter (see photo below).
2. Plug the red positive probe lead into the socket marked V (usually also marked with the
Greek letter "omega" Ω and possibly a diode symbol).
3. If the meter has has a manual range setting dial, turn this to select AC or DC volts and
pick a range to give the required accuracy. So for instance measuring 12 volts on the
20 volt range will give more decimal places than on the 200 volt range.
If the meter is autoranging, turn the dial to the 'V' setting with the symbol for AC or DC
(see "What Do the Symbols on the Range Dial Mean?" below).
4. A multimeter must be connected in parallel in a circuit (see diagram below) in order to
measure voltage. So this means the two test probes should be connected in parallel
with the voltage source, load or any other two points across which voltage needs to be
measured.
5. Touch the black probe against the first point of the circuitry/wiring.
6. Power up the equipment.
7. Touch the other red probe against the second point of test. Ensure you don't bridge the
gap between the point being tested and adjacent wiring, terminals or tracks on a PCB.
8. Take the reading on the LCD display.
Note: A lead with a 4mm banana plug on one end and a crocodile clip on the other end is very
handy. The croc clip can be connected to ground in the circuit, freeing up one of your hands.

Connecting Probe Leads to Measure Voltage

Notes on module 7 Page 28

Test leads and 4mm sockets on a DMM, setup to measure voltage | Source

Series and Parallel Connections

Explaining series and parallel connections (R1, R2 and R3 are resistors)

Measuring Voltage - Meter in Parallel With Load

DMM connected in parallel with load to measure voltage across it

WARNING:When measuring mains voltages, always turn off power before connecting
measuring probes. Always connect to the neutral first.

WARNING !!! Safety First When Measuring Mains Voltages!

1. Before using a meter to measure mains voltages, ensure the test leads aren't damaged
and that there are no exposed conductors which could be touched inadvertently.
2. Double check that the test leads are plugged into the common and voltage sockets of
the DMM (see photo below) and not the current sockets. This is essential to avoid
blowing up the meter.
3. Set the range dial on the meter to AC volts and the highest voltage range.
4. Always turn off the power (if possible) before inserting the probes into a socket outlet,
using the switch on the socket. Insert a probe into the neutral pin first before inserting
a probe into the hot (live) pin of the socket. If you insert the probe into the hot (live) pin
first and the meter is faulty, current could flow through the meter to the neutral probe.
If you then inadvertently touch the probe, there is a possibility of shock.
5. Finally turn on the power switch and measure the voltage.
Ideally buy and use a meter with a least CAT III or preferably CAT IV protection for testing
mains voltages. This type of meter will incorporate high rupturing capacity (HRC) fuses and
other internal safety components that offer the highest level of protection against overloads
and transients on the line being tested. A meter with less protection can potentially blow
up causing injury if it is connected incorrectly, or a transient voltage generates an internal

Notes on module 7 Page 29

arc.
If you are measuring voltage at a consumer unit/breaker box/fuse box, this video from
Fluke Corporation outlines the precautions you should take
Safe Practice When Taking Single Phase Measurement
Also these safety guidelines by Fluke explain the hazards of voltage spikes and the
Overvoltage Installation Category
How to Read Electrical Drawing:Learn how to read electrical drawing. Get powerful but
easy-to-use Electrical Drawing software to create professional-looking electrical drawings
based on free pre-drawn electrical symbols and templates.

How to Read Electrical Drawing :1. Familiarize with the Standardized Electrical
Symbols

Knowing what the symbols in your electrical drawing mean will help you find different
appliances. Symbols usually resemble specific meaning. Familiarize yourself with
descriptions for electrical appliances, understanding that different symbols appear for
different objects. Refer to Basic Electrical Symbols and Their Meanings for specific
resources and learn these symbols visually. You'd better get to know the following basic
symbols by heart.

Lights are shown as ovals with a squiggly line inside. They look like light bulbs. Different
types of lights may be indicated with different symbols.

Switches are symbolized by an opening or break in the line. It looks like the flip of a light
switch.

Thermostats are symbolized by an opening or break in the line, but they also have a
squiggle that connects them to the line.
A fuse is represented by a slight zigzag in the line. Motors are displayed by bumps along
the line. It looks like an "M" with 5 or 6 humps.

Ground is represented by either a triangle pointing down or a set of parallel lines that
become shorter as they appear below each other, in effect representing the inner area of the
triangle pointing down. Ground is a common reference point that schematics use to show
the overall unity of the various functions of the circuit. It does not refer to the actual
ground of the earth.

Notes on module 7 Page 30

A line represents a wire. Wires are used to link the devices together. All points along the
wire are identical and connected. Wires may cross each other on an electrical drawing, but
that does not necessarily mean that they connect. If they do not connect, one will be shown
looping around the other in a semicircle. If they do connect, they will cross and a dot will
be seen at the point where the lines cross.

A zigzag shape stands for a resistor. Resistors act to impede the flow of the circuit to an
extent determined by the resistance value used. They are used to scale and shape the
signal.

Learn that capacitors are represented by two parallel lines. Capacitors are used to
condition rapidly changing signals, as opposed to the static or slower changing signals that
are conditioned by resistors. The traditional use of capacitors in modern circuits is to draw
noise, which is inherently a rapidly changing signal, away from the signal of interest and
drain it away to ground.

2. Learn Reading Pattern :Read schematics in the pattern that you would read text. With
rare exceptions, schematics should be read left to right and top to bottom. The signal being
generated or used by the circuit will flow in this direction. The user can follow the same
path that the signal uses to understand what the signal does or how it is being modified.
3. Identify Polarity :Some components to a circuit board are polarized, meaning one side
is positive and the other negative. This means you have to attach it in the specified way.
For most symbols, polarity is included in the symbol. To identify the polarity of the physical
part, a general rule of thumb is to find out which metal lead wire is longer. The longer part
is the + side.
4. Understand Names and Values :Values help define exactly what a component is. For
electrical components like resistors, capacitors, and inductors the value tells us how many
ohms, farads, or henries they have. For other components, like integrated circuits, the
value may just be the name of the chip. Crystals might list their oscillating frequency as
their value. Basically, the value of a schematic component calls out its most important
characteristic.
Component names usually consist of one or two letters and a number. The letter part of the
name represents the type of component - R's for resistors, C's for capacitors, U's for
integrated circuits, etc. Each component name in an electrical drawing should be unique; if
you have multiple resistors in a circuit, for example, they should be named R1, R2, R3, etc.
Components names help us reference specific points in schematics. The prefixes of names
are pretty well standardized. For some components, like resistors, the prefix is just the first
Notes on module 7 Page 31
letter of the component. Other name prefixes are not so literal; inductors, for example, are
L's (because current has already taken I [but it starts with a C...electronics is a silly place]).
Here's a quick table of common components and their name prefixes:
Table of Components Names
Name Identifier Component
R Resistors ---
C Capacitors
L Inductors
S Switches
D Diodes
Q Transistors
U Integrated Circuits
Y Crystals and Oscillators
TINUIY TSTING AN HOW TO DO IT
CONTINUITY TEST VERIFIES THAT CURRENT WILL FLOW IN AN ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT
(I.E. THAT THE CIRCUIT IS CONTINUOUS). THE TEST IS PERFORMED BY PLACING A
SMALL VOLTAGE BETWEEN 2 OR MORE ENDPOINTS OF THE CIRCUIT.

Continuity Testing :The most common and basic way of performing a continuity test is
with the help of a resistance tester (any simple Multimeter with this function will do). This
is because the resistance of conductors between the two ends is usually very small
(less than 100 ohm).
Continuity tester has two leads connected to a small battery, and when you touch the leads
together to complete the circuit, the meter should register 0 resistance or if you have a
dedicated continuity tester, the light should come on. If you’re using a digital multimeter,
the device may also beep.
Continuity of protective conductors including main and supplementary equipotential
bonding. Every protective conductor, including circuit protective conductors, the earthing
conductor, main and supplementary bonding conductors should be tested to verify that all
bonding conductors are connected to the supply earth. Tests are made between the main
earthing terminal (this may be the earth bar in the consumer unit where there is no
distribution board present) and the ends of each bonding conductor.

How to do Continuity Testing?

Measuring Continuity in an Electrical Device: This method is used for testing continuity
is an easy and reliable way to determine whether a switch or outlet has internal damage. If
you’re using a multimeter, set it to the “Continuity” function, or select a midrange
resistance setting, in ohms.
1: Turn Off the Breaker That Controls the Circuit :The power needs to be off when
testing continuity. Verify that no electricity is flowing by using a noncontact circuit tester.
2: Check the Tester
Check the tester by putting the leads together and ensuring that the device lights up, beeps
or registers 0 ohms of resistance.
3: Touch Lead to Terminal
Touch one lead on one of the hot terminals of the device, identified by a brass screw.
4: Touch Other Lead to Terminal
Place the other lead on any other terminal except the green ground terminal. If the tester
lights up, beeps or shows 0 resistance, it means that electricity can flow freely between
those terminals, and in most cases, that means that the device is good. If the device is a
switch, the tester should go off and on when you flip the switch.
Notes on module 7 Page 32
use this technique to check appliance switches, thermostats and fuses. Be sure the power
is off, then touch the leads to the terminals of the device in question.

procedure to use simple continuity tester using led:

How to test for continuity:

1. Turn the dial to Continuity Test mode ( ). It will likely share a spot on the dial with
one or more functions, usually resistance (Ω). With the test probes separated, the
multimeter’s display may show OL and Ω.
2. If required, press the continuity button.
3. First insert the black test lead into the COM jack.
4. Then insert the red lead into the VΩ jack. When finished, remove the leads in reverse
order: red first, then black.
5. With the circuit de-energized, connect the test leads across the component being
tested. The position of the test leads is arbitrary. Note that the component may need
to be isolated from other components in the circuit.
6. The digital multimeter (DMM) beeps if a complete path (continuity) is detected. If the
circuit is open (the switch is in the OFF position), the DMM will not beep.
7. When finished, turn the multimeter OFF to preserve battery life.

Continuity testing overview

 Continuity is the presence of a complete path for current flow. A circuit is complete
when its switch is closed.
 A digital multimeter’s Continuity Test mode can be used to test switches, fuses,
electrical connections, conductors and other components. A good fuse, for example,
should have continuity.

Notes on module 7 Page 33

  A DMM emits an audible response (a beep) when it detects a complete path.
 The beep, an audible indicator, permits technicians to focus on testing procedures
without looking at the multimeter display.
 When testing for continuity, a multimeter beeps based on the resistance of the
component being tested. That resistance is determined by the range setting of the
multimeter. Examples:
o If the range is set to 400.0 Ω, a multimeter typically beeps if the component
has a resistance of 40 Ω or less.
o If the range is set 4.000 kΩ, a multimeter typically beeps if the component has
a resistance of 200 Ω or less.
 The lowest range setting should be used when testing circuit components that
should have low-resistance value such as electrical connections or switch contacts.

 to use a dial bore gauge:


 Zero the gauge. This is accomplished by measuring across the gauge with an outside
micrometer set to the precise bore size. When the zero aligns with the needle you're
ready.
 Insert the gauge into the bore to the depth you need. Rock it back and forth until it's
properly inserted in the pipe.
 Look at the reading. This is the lowest reading, which is taken when the gauge is
square on the bore, and the indicator needle reverses its direction. It can be either
more or less than the zero mark, and will indicate an oversize or undersize bore
 How to Measure Flanges:
 The measuring principles apply to both flanges and gaskets. *Above is a drawing of a
Flange
 . The Bolt Circle is the measurement (diameter) of an imaginary circle passing
through the centers of all the bolts in a round pattern.
 This is represented by the Blue Dashed Circle in the drawing.
 To measure such circle measure from the center of one bolt directly across to the
center of the other bolt.
 The Outside Diameter is the measurement of the outside of the Flange or Gasket.
 The Inside Diameter is the measurement of the inside of the hole of a Flange or
Gasket.
 The Sealing Surface is the area of contact the gasket is placed to seal between two
flange connections.
 All measurements should be made across the center of the flange or gask

Notes on module 7 Page 34

 

===================
)BOWDEN CABLES : The Bowden system of control consists of a stainless steel wire,
housed in a
flexible sleeve or conduit The control is intended for pull operation only, with the
cable being returned, on release of the control lever, by a return spring. The
transmitting end of the cable is attached to the actuating lever whilst, at the
receiving end, the cable is secured to the component to be
operated.
The flexible cable is made up of several strands of stainless steel wire with nipples
soldered onto the end of the wire. The nipples are of different shapes, depending on
their use. The flexible conduit consists of close-coiled wire, covered with cotton
braiding and a waterproof coating. For long runs, or runs not requiring flexibility, the
Bowden cable is fed through rigid metal tubing, which can be bent
over large radius curves if required.
1)Maintenance of bowden cable systems is usually restricted to cleaning and
lubrication of the inner cable at regular intervals and
2)adjustment of the outerconduit (e.g. If the brakes needed adjustment).
3)the lubrication would keep moisture out of the cable to prevent it freezing at low
temperatures.
4)the tension of the cables will be measured, as will the rigging of the complete runs,
to ensure that
the controls remain accurate and precise in their operation.
5)these should all be checked for any signs of damage, corrosion and stressing of the
cable at the end fitting.

Notes on module 7 Page 35

 
 Inspection of CABLE TENSION :
 For the an‘ratt to operate as it was designed, the cab terwon for the flight controls
must be correct. To determine the amount of tension on a cable, a tensiornesa is
used. When properly maintainer., a tensiometer is 98 percent accurate
 . Cable tension is determined by measuring the amount of force needed to make an
offset in the cable between two hardened steel blocks called anvils.
 A riser or plunger is pressed against the cabk to form the offset. Several
manufacturers make a variety of tensiometers, each type designed for different kinds
of cable, cable sizes, and cable tensions. (Firm/340
 Carefully adjust control cable tension in acaxdance with the airframe manufacturer's
recommendations.
 On large aircraft, take the temperature of the immediate area into consideration
when using a tension meter.
 For long cable sections, use the average of two or three temperature readings to
obtain accurate tension values.
If necessarY. compensate for extreme surface temperature variations that may be
encountered if the aircraft is operated primarily in unusual geographic or climatic
conditions such as arctic, arid, or tropic locations.
Tensiometers must be calibrated occasionally, so it may be best to rent or borrow one
from a shop. They are calibrated by hanging weights from a cable in a vertical plane
and measuring the tension on the cable and comparing it to the suspended weight.
The tensiometer gives the most accurate reading for a cable tension when the tension
is measured along a freestanding section of the cable, away from pulleys or
turnbuckles
When making tension adjustments, the cables need to be held in place so they don’t
twist as the turnbuckle is rotated. This can be accomplished by inserting a bent
welding rod or coat hanger through the holes in both cable ends. The turnbuckle can
then spin without twisting the cables.
)As the tension is adjusted on one cable, it changes the tension on the other cables
and the control surface position. (Follow the steps recommended by the
manufacturer for tensioning each cable in the correct order).
Once the tensions are set, the droop can be adjusted by lengthening or shortening
the length of the rod connecting the aileron to the bellcrank.
The rod ends are threaded and most have small holes in which a piece of safety wire can
fit. These ‘witness holes’ ensure that the rod end is not backed off too far. The safety wire
should not pass through the hole because of contact with the rod itself. If it does pass

Notes on module 7 Page 36

 through, the rod-end is backed off too far and will have to be screwed back in and
adjustments will have to be made on the other end.
With the tensions and droop set, the straight edge can be removed from the control
wheels.
Check the ailerons for freedom of movement and make sure that they have a full
range of travel.
The control surface should move freely from stop-to-stop and not bind in any way.
The surface must fall within an acceptable range of up or down travel. The ailerons
will have more “up” travel to overcome adverse yaw produced by the lowered aileron
on the other side.
Once everything is set as it should be, all turnbuckles should be secured and all
hardware installed.
Lubricate and inspect all pulleys as the controls are moved to ensure that they
aren’t “frozen.”

Notes on module 7 Page 37

Notes on module 7 Page 38