An analysis of terminology use

in place branding
Received (in revised form): 10th September, 2007

Sonya Hanna
is a PhD candidate at Bangor Business School. She holds an MBA in General Management.

Jennifer Rowley
is Professor of Information and Communications at Manchester Metropolitan University, and was previously Professor of
Marketing and Information Management at Bangor University.

Abstract The inception of place branding evolved from research within various fields
including place image and marketing. The literature reports on studies focusing on the
application of the branding concept to various geographical entities ranging from
countries to towns and the challenges of branding the multidimensional construct
‘place’ especially in relation to stakeholder engagement. There seems to be a
recognisable gap in the literature regarding the application of the term ‘place’ and its
associated vocabulary: location, country, nation, city and region. While a ‘destination’
indicated tourism only, there is no agreed language for the holistic or all encompassing
brand. This exploratory research attempts to identify the application of the term
‘place’ and it associated vocabulary. The application of place brand terms was
examined by discipline and in relation to geographical entities using the sample
population of place-branding case-study research. Content analysis was used to elicit
place brand terms and geographical entities within various articles published in
various disciplines. The data were analysed using the chi-square test for
independence. The content analysis affirmed that the focus of place branding has
shifted from the discipline of tourism to branding and business. The research also
affirmed that a ‘destination’ indicates tourism only, articulated in various geographical
entity forms, while the absence of ‘town’ as a possible place brand term became
apparent as did the lack of case-study research relating to towns; countries and cities
commanded the majority share of the case-study research. The results of the study
depict the application of place brand terms in a generic manner from which guidance
for the specific application of place terms may provide future consensus either
implicitly or through the formation of distinctive place term definitions.
Place Branding and Public Diplomacy (2008) 4, 61–75. doi:10.1057/palgrave.pb.6000084

Keywords: Place branding, place terminology, destination branding, place marketing

Correspondence:
Sonya Hanna,
Bangor Business School
Bangor University INTRODUCTION the application of branding techniques to
Hen Goleg Place branding has gained visibility as one places is growing in frequency. Research
College Road
Bangor, Gwynedd of the hot topics among academics and based on the branding practices of various
Wales LL57 2DG, UK. practitioners. Given that places are geographical entities (countries, regions,
Tel: +44 07748 103932
e-mail: [email protected]/
increasingly facing global competition in cities, towns) has accentuated the
[email protected] both their external and domestic markets, challenges of branding the multidimensional

© 2008 Palgrave Macmillan Ltd 1751-8040 $30.00 Vol. 4, 1, 61–75 Place Branding and Public Diplomacy 61
www.palgrave-journals.com/pb
 Hanna and Rowley

construct ‘place’. Additionally, contributions neighbouring images prevailing on the ‘place’

from various texts1 that range in terms of the brand (Cai, 2002).
politics of branding places, branding and Given the dynamic and growing nature of
national identity, and destination branding on the academic discipline of place branding
the web have augmented place-branding coupled with increased practitioner interest,
literature while the creation of the Journal of Lodge (2004, 2006) called for the development
Place Branding has provided a comprehensive of an agreed place-branding vocabulary. This
and coherent forum with which to drive the paper takes one step in this direction exploring
discipline forward. the use of place terms such as place, location,
Re-current themes within the various destination, country, nation, city and regions
disciplines that discuss place branding include: within the two broad discipline groups of
comparisons between branding a product/ business and branding, and tourism. Further, the
service and destinations/cities (Gnoth, 2002; research goes on to analyse the use of these
Cai, 2002; Parkerson and Saunders, 2005; terms to refer to branding initiatives associated
Kavaratzis and Ashworth, 2005); comparison with different geographical entities. The paper
between corporate branding and city brands starts with a brief review of the importance of
(Olins, 2003; Trueman et al., 2004; Kavaratzis, place branding, and its development. The next
2004) and similarity to corporate umbrella section summarises other authors’ discussions of
branding (Papadopolos and Heslop, 2002; the use of various place terms, and on this basis
Gnoth, 2002); impressions between place proposes a model of the relationships between
branding and (re)positioning (Gilmore, 2002a,b); the meanings of such terms. The methodology
image building and reconstruction for the analysis undertaken in this project is
(Curtis, 2001; Hall, 2004); the importance discussed next, and this leads into an analysis of
of unique identity and use of branding the findings. Finally, conclusions are outlined
elements (Cai, 2002); and the role of and further research is proposed.
emotional links with consumers (Hall, 2004;
Gilmore, 2002b). PLACE BRANDING AND ITS
In addition, a wide range of other themes DEVELOPMENT
have been explored, including: the application Branding as a construct can be traced back
of branding concepts on different geographical to the late 19th century with the development
entities using corporate identity methodology to of branded consumer goods such as Quaker
examine interface dissonance (Trueman et al., Oats and Gillette (Low and Ronald, 1994). A
2004); the investigation of collaborative definition of a brand was originally provided by
destination branding considering various the American Marketing Association as ‘a name,
characteristics and industry structures within term, sign, symbol or design, or a combination
different destinations (Wang and Fesenmaier, of these intended to identify the goods and
2006); the investigation of stakeholder brand services of one seller or a group of sellers and
relationships to identify the extent to which to differentiate them from those of competitors’
place brand management is a collective activity (Kotler et al., 2002: 469). Although criticised for
embraced by the local community (Morgan, being too product oriented, this definition has
2004); the provision of criteria for brand success endured contemporary literature (Wood, 2000)
as the basis for the analysis of ‘place’ branding and is viewed as a common starting point for
practices (Rainisto, 2004; Gnoth, 2004); works associated with brands (Kerr, 2006).
exploration of the relationship between culture Further, McGnally et al. (1999) identified the
and branding given that it is the cultural post-modern approaches of ‘brand as company’
difference of a ‘place’ that permeate (p. 2) and ‘brand as policy’ (p. 3): disseminating
differentiation (Morgan, 2003; Hankinson, the dependence of applying branding concepts
2005); and, evaluating the presence of to consumer products to include all physical

62 Place Branding and Public Diplomacy Vol. 4, 1, 61–75 © 2008 Palgrave Macmillan Ltd 1751-8040 $30.00
 An analysis of terminology use in place branding

entities, hence the expanding application of personality secures consumer satisfaction,

branding to include corporations, destinations and economic and political attention
and more recently places. (van Ham, 2004).
Among the conditions that make place The study of place branding extends across
branding a necessity is the growing power of a wide range of academic areas (Hankinson,
international media, the falling cost of 2001); however, it is in the sphere of travel
international travel, rising consumer spending tourism, defined as a life away from home, that
power, the threat of place parity, a scarce pool an understanding of place branding is most
of international investors, competition for skilled developed, hence the primary focus of the
and professional immigrant’s and growing branding literature (Hankinson, 2005). Studies
consumer demand for a diverse cultural diet on destination image as a concept of branding
stimulated by low-cost global communication theory began in the early 1970s through Hunt’s
media. To be precise, place branding, both as influential works on the role of image in
a necessity and a phenomenon, is mainly tourism development (Hunt, 1975). Branding
provoked by globalisation processes where the theories within the context of leisure tourism
market place for ideas, culture, reputation, in began to gain visibility in 1998 as the focal
addition to products, services and funds are topic of the Annual Travel and Tourism and
fusing into a single global community (Anholt, Research Association’s Conference (Blain et al.,
2005). People can now simply work and live 2005); destination branding is defined as ‘name,
almost anywhere, abandoning failing and symbol, logo, word or other graphic that both
deteriorating places for ones offering growing identifies and differentiates the destination …
opportunities (Kotler, 2004). Places are and [while] convey[ing] the promise of a memorable
have always been subject to ‘internal growth and travel experience … [as well as] serv[ing] to
decline cycles [along with] external shocks and consolidate and reinforce the recollection of
forces beyond their control’ (Kotler et al., 1993: 4). pleasurable memories of the destination
Therefore, whether at the national, regional, city experience’ (Ritchie and Ritchie, 1998: 17).
or town level, branding is as much a way of Practitioners’ perspectives on destination
planning developmental policies as branding in branding argue for leveraging gains from
the private sector is about business strategy. tourism marketing for further economic
Globalisation has created a competitive arena development (Kotler and Gertner, 2002; Gnoth,
where newly developing places can now 2002; Park and Petrick, 2006), the rationale
compete with the charm and appeal of older being that the most arresting aspect of place
more established places. Unless the latter retain brand images are quite often to be found in
and enhance resources, outward migration is tourism marketing efforts (Sundaram, 2007).
inevitable; residents wish for opportunity-filled Further, destination branding consultants
places in order to exercise their individual skills proclaim that ‘destination branding refers to
and interests and to have ‘pride of place’ (Kotler, efforts to increase tourist visits and tourist
2004: 12). As visitors, investors and residents, we spending for a particular travel destination’
all tend to seek ‘the harmonious city’ (p. 472) (Whisper: brand strategy consultants) and that
where various aspects of comfort, economic ‘a destination can be anything from a nation to
development and political stability can satisfy a region, a resort to a city, an attraction to an
our individual and differentiated requirements event …’ (The Hat Factory: Destination
(Paddison, 1993). Branding).
Accordingly, place managers need to become The forgoing affirms that a destination brand
involved in the formation of a brand identity represents a single industry, tourism and a
that accords the multidimensional construct destination is an aspect within the conceptual
‘place’ purpose and direction, while the brand’s entity ‘place’. On the other hand, a destination
delivery on attributes, benefits, values and brand has the potential to serve as a

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 Hanna and Rowley

‘coordinating symbol for a broad range of archipelago may be the entire country; place
community developments and promotion branding, travel, tourism and brand management
efforts, many of which may fall outside the literature provide ample evidence of the
normal responsibility of tourism DMO forgoing (Morgan et al., 2004; Bramwell and
[destination management organisation]’ (Ritchie Rawding, 1996; Wilson et al., 2001; O’Leary
and Ritchie, 1998: 19). This supports the notion and Deegan, 2005; Baloglu and McCleary,
that place branding has transcended into a 1999; Kerr, 2006). Decorously, the form of
composite construct that not only encompasses geographical entity does not limit the scope
tourism but also economic, socio-political and of destination branding provided a direct
historical prospects (Gnoth, 2002; Papadopoulos association with tourism is established, although
and Heslop, 2002, van Ham, 2001; Olins, 2002). it has been noted that destination branding has
Dinnie (2004) postulates that there exists a been conflated with nation branding (Anholt, 2005).
strong argument for place branding to transcend Perceived as a ‘whole’, it is argued that the
the confines of a single industry in order to components of nations, defined as ‘a country,
achieve a more cohesive image. Subsequently, especially when thought of as a large group
Anholt (2004, cited in Kerr (2006)) defined of people living in one area with their own
place branding as ‘the practice of applying brand government, language, traditions etc’
strategy and other marketing techniques and (Cambridge Dictionary Online), such as
disciplines to the economic, social, political and tourism, agriculture and entertainment, can be
cultural developments of cities, regions and individually promoted and sold, but by
countries’ (Kerr, 2006: 278), asserting that definition, nations are unlikely to have a single
holistic place branding ‘encompasses everything target market or offering (Anholt, 2005). To
a place wishes to sell’ (Lodge, 2006: 9). It is clarify, just as companies such as General
now widely acknowledged that the Motors and Procter and Gamble offer various
‘understandings and experiences of places are distinct products to the market so do countries
mediated by a range of everyday texts through produce ‘outputs’ that consist of products,
which landscapes are presented’ (Gibson and services and actions of their governments,
Davidson, 2004: 390). exporters and industry associations (Papadopoulos
In addition to the work on leisure tourism, and Heslop, 2002). Therefore, when referring to
research has focused on four forms of place the importance of nation brands in relation to
branding: business tourism (Ulaga et al., 2002; countries, the reference is in the context of
Bradley et al., 2002; Hankinson, 2005); culture, country ‘outputs’ which within the context of
including gastronomy (Sharples, 2003; Roberts tourism is a destination brand.
and Hall, 2001; Telstrom et al., 2006, Waragenau Lodge (2004: 33) asserts that ‘if destination
and Che, 2006); sports (Smith, 2005; Chalpin branding (tourism only) is well established, the
et al., 2003); and film, literature and music same cannot yet be said of what might be
(Hudson and Ritchie, 2006; Johns and Mattsson, termed location branding (which may include
2005; Gibson and Davidson, 2004). any or all of investment, exports, tourism,
education, culture, sports, events and attracting
‘PLACE’ AND ASSOCIATED back exports)’. Morgan (2006: 12) affirms that
VOCABULARY within the context of tourism his studies have
The general supposition that a ‘destination’ particularly focused on ‘destination branding
brand denotes the tourism dimension of a place within the wider strategy of location branding’.
is widely supported. The complexity of Accordingly, a ‘location’ brand implies the
identifying a single destination, however, is branding of a composite construct: a ‘place’.
complicated by the fact that a destination may Therefore, comparatively and by implication
include several towns, cities or municipalities, a Nation can equate to a Place; on a smaller
other government provinces or even an island scale, while a Location is a place in as far as

64 Place Branding and Public Diplomacy Vol. 4, 1, 61–75 © 2008 Palgrave Macmillan Ltd 1751-8040 $30.00
 An analysis of terminology use in place branding

places are defined as cities, towns and rural felt inappropriate to develop formal hypotheses.
regions (Cambridge Dictionary Online), all of The research was therefore guided by two
which may produce their own ‘outputs’. Based research questions:
on the aforementioned conceptualisations,
Figure 1 illustrates the hierarchical relationship RQ1: Are place terms applied
between ‘place’ and its associated vocabulary proportionately across various
encompassing a range of brand dimensions disciplines?
including destination brands (leisure tourism). RQ2: Is there a relationship between the
Alternatively, the lack of a clear academic application of specific place terms
distinction between ‘place’ and its associated and geographical entity?
vocabulary may be pure semantics.
The methodology involved the identification of
METHODOLOGY as many case-study papers published in
While it is possible to divine some definitions academic journals in the area of place branding
of place terms, it is not evident that they are as possible. The relevant journals were found to
always used consistently. Accordingly, this be broadly in the business and branding areas
research sets out to establish the use of place and in tourism. A range of search tools were
terms in different disciplines, and, in relation to used to establish the data set, including Emerald
different geographical entities. The research was Full-text and Management Review, Ingenta
conducted from the perspective of ‘applied’ Connect, Sage, Web of Knowledge and Google
terms to geographical entities and did not Scholar. The search procured a total of 67
consider the ‘correct’ application of applied papers in 12 journals. In some instances, the
terms in relation to the form of geographical researchers’ judgment was used to determine
entity. As this was an exploratory study, it was the nature of the paper as a ‘case-study’ as it

Nation OR Country

E
Q
U
A
L
Place OR Location

Cities Towns Regions

Agriculture
Industry Heritage

Culture Tourism

BRAND
Gastronomy/Sports/ DIMENSIONS Leisure / Business
Film/Literature/Music

Figure 1: ‘Place’ and Associated Vocabulary

© 2008 Palgrave Macmillan Ltd 1751-8040 $30.00 Vol. 4, 1, 61–75 Place Branding and Public Diplomacy 65
 Hanna and Rowley

Table 1a: Place term used (unit of analysis) Table 1c: Journal discipline

Place Place Branding

Location Brand Management
Destination Travel Research
Country Tourism Research
Nation Tourism Management
City Vacation Marketing
Region Business Research
Rural Studies
International Public Management Review
Corporate Communications
Nordicom Review
Table 1b: Geographical entity descriptors

Region
City
Country journal disciplines for analysis. The researchers’
Town
Resort judgment was used to decide geographical
State entity place descriptors used either within the
Province
County
article title and/or the abstract. For instance, the
entity descriptor for ‘Branding Britain’ would
be country, A Distorted Destination Image: the
case of Turkey would also be country and so
was not made profusely clear, reducing the forth. Geographical entity descriptors are
number of journals to 11 encompassing a total displayed in Table 1b.
of 59 papers. To ensure greater accuracy and
substance, papers before 2000 were omitted as it DATA ANALYSIS
was felt that the emerging discipline of ‘place The research questions were addressed using the
branding’ pre-2000 was not clearly established chi-square test for independence; the test is
due to a certain degree of conflation with place used to investigate the relationship between two
image and marketing. categorical variables, each with two or more
An analysis was undertaken of the use of categories based on the null hypotheses that
place terms in the identified data set. A content the two variables do not affect each other
analysis, an ‘objective, systematic and quantitative (Pallant, 2006: 288). Once administered, a
description of the manifest content of a cross-tabulation2 is automatically performed to
communication’ (Malhotra, 2004: 189), of the validate the assumption of the minimum
paper title and its abstract was undertaken to expected cell frequency3 (Malhotra, 2004: 438).
identify the use of specific place brand terms. A The data were analysed using the categorical
content analysis of entire papers would have variables depicted by Tables 1a–1c. On the basis
been extremely time consuming and may have of this initial analysis, the categorical variables
even resulted in some confusion. The number were consolidated as shown in Tables 2a and 2b,
of case studies recorded was dependent on the respectively.
number of geographical entities mentioned in ‘Resort’ was omitted as it was felt that a total
each paper. Therefore, a ‘case-study’ paper was of one paper investigating resorts as destinations
recorded according to geographical entities would further obscure the cross-tabulation.
‘studied’ (see Appendix A); a total of 89 case Similarly, the purpose of Nordicom Review was
studies were analysed. The latter was deemed to provide media-based research, which was felt
necessary if the study was to analyse the to be too specific to be grouped in either
‘application’ of place terms within disciplines discipline. Place brand terms used were not
and in relation to geographical entities combined as that would have violated the
accurately. Tables 1a and 1c display the deduced purpose of the study, to establish how each place
categorical variables of place terms used and the term is applied by discipline and in relation to

66 Place Branding and Public Diplomacy Vol. 4, 1, 61–75 © 2008 Palgrave Macmillan Ltd 1751-8040 $30.00
 An analysis of terminology use in place branding

Table 2a: Geographical entity descriptors Table 3a: Cross-tabulation: Place brand term vs.
discipline
Region/State/County/Province
City Discipline Total
Country Branding Tourism
Town and
business

Place brand term used

Place
Table 2b: Discipline Count 15 0 15
% within discipline 25.9 0 16.9
Branding and Business Tourism % of Total 16.9 0 16.9
Location
Place Branding Journal of Travel Research Count 12 1 13
Journal of Brand Annals of Tourism % within discipline 20.7 3.2 14.6
Management Research % of Total 13.5 1.1 14.6
Journal of Business Journal of Tourism Destination
Research Management Count 6 29 35
Journal of Rural Studies Journal of Vacation % within discipline 10.3 93.5 39.3
Marketing % of total 6.7 32.6 39.3
International Public Country
Management Review Count 8 0 8
Corporate % within discipline 13.8 0 9.0
Communications, an % of total 9.0 0 9.0
International Journal Nation
Count 10 0 10
% within discipline 17.2 0 11.2
% of total 11.2 0 11.2
City
geographical entities. The cross-tabulation of the Count 3 1 4
% within discipline 5.2 3.2 4.5
collated variables was analysed to determine the % of total 3.4 1.1 4.5
frequency of application of place brand terms Region
Count 4 0 4
used. The analysis of the collated variables was %within discipline 6.9 0 4.5
deemed more appropriate and necessary to % of total 4.5 0 4.5
Total
reduce complexity and to produce meaningful Count 58 31 89
interpretations of variable associations. % within discipline 100.0 100.0 100.0
% of total 65.2 34.8 100.0

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

On initial administration of the chi-square test,
the minimum expected cell frequency was of Branding and Business (65.2 per cent) are
violated by 75 cells for RQ1 and 51 cells for double those in Tourism (34.8 per cent); the
RQ2 (see Appendix B: Tables B1 and B2, focus of discussion for place branding seems to
respectively). The results obtained from the have shifted from tourism to business and
collated variables also revealed a violation by marketing. The totals for both disciplines
seven cells for RQ1 and 23 cells for RQ2 (see depicted ‘Destination’ (39.3 per cent) as the
Appendix B: Tables B3 and B4, respectively). It overall re-current brand term used, supporting
was therefore concluded that there are too the supposition that ‘Destination’ branding is
many different place brand terms used in the the primary focus of place branding literature
sample population. This meant that the chi- (Hankinson, 2005) and that a ‘Destination’
square tests could not be used to establish the brand indicates tourism only (Lodge, 2006).
presence or lack of a significant difference in At 4.5 per cent, the brand term ‘city’ is the
the application of place brand terms by least used by both disciplines, indicating a
discipline and geographical entity. recognisable gap in the literature as observed
The results obtained from the cross-tabulation by Anholt (2002) and Hankinson (2001), who
of the combined variables reveal that in relation also postulate that branding as a concept is
to RQ1 (Table 3a), studies within the discipline increasingly being applied to locations; at 20.7

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 Hanna and Rowley

per cent, ‘Location’ branding is second to congruent with the aforementioned place
‘Place’ within Branding and Business and a terms by definition.
close third in total (14.6 per cent) post place In relation to RQ2 (Table 3b), most studies
(16.9 per cent). are related to Countries (52.8 per cent) although
The brand term ‘Place’ accounts for 25.9 per a significant number (32.6 per cent) investigated
cent, the highest total percentage, in Branding the branding of Cities, the visibility of country
and Business while for Tourism ‘Destination’ and city branding initiatives being more
accounted for 93.5 per cent of the total; the pronounced due to the availability of continuous
other 10.3 per cent of the total was possibly and greater funding for place marketers (Morgan
due to the holistic nature of Branding and et al., 2004: 62). 6.7 per cent of studies
Business ergo accounting for a degree of investigated the branding of towns. More
overlap with Tourism. Further, an association significantly, the branding practices of Regions,
was only deduced between Branding and States, Counties and Provinces accounted for 7.9
Business and the place terms ‘Place’, ‘Country’, per cent of the total. The totals for geographical
‘Nation’ and ‘Region’ indicated by 0 per cent entity descriptors depict ‘Destination’ (37.1
case studies relating to Tourism; a consequence per cent) as the dominant re-current brand
that may relate to the holistic nature of the term used; a smaller variation was observed
journals defining Branding and Business that is between ‘Place’ (16.9 per cent) and ‘Location’

Table 3b: Cross-tabulation: Place brand term vs. geographical entity

Geographical entity descriptor (GED) Total
Region/State/ City Country Town
County/Province

Place brand term used

Place
Count 2 3 10 0 15
% within GED 28.6 10.3 21.3 0 16.9
% of total 2.2 3.4 11.2 0 16.9
Location
Count 0 7 1 5 13
% within GED 0 24.1 2.1 83.3 14.6
% of total 0 7.9 1.1 5.6 14.6
Destination
Count 3 11 18 1 33
% within discipline 42.9 37.9 38.3 16.7 37.1
% of total 3.4 12.4 20.2 1.1 37.1
Country
Count 1 0 7 0 8
% within GED 14.3 0 14.9 0 9.0
% of total 1.1 0 7.9 0 9.0
Nation
Count 0 0 10 0 10
% within GED 0 0 21.3 0 11.2
% of total 0 0 11.2 0 11.2
City
Count 0 6 0 0 6
% within GED 0 20.7 0 0 6.7
% of total 0 6.7 0 0 6.7
Region
Count 1 2 1 0 4
% within GED 14.3 6.9 2.1 0 4.5
% of total 1.1 2.2 1.1 0 4.5
Total
Count 7 29 47 6 89
% within GED 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
% of total 7.9 32.6 52.8 6.7 100.0

68 Place Branding and Public Diplomacy Vol. 4, 1, 61–75 © 2008 Palgrave Macmillan Ltd 1751-8040 $30.00
 An analysis of terminology use in place branding

(14.6 per cent), ‘Nation’ (11.2 per cent) and discipline of Place Branding has become
‘Country’ (9.0 per cent), and ‘City’ (6.9 per cent) increasingly important for practitioners and is
and ‘Region’ (4.5 per cent), supporting the receiving more attention from researchers.
literature that a ‘Destination’ may take several forms. Researchers have emphasised the need for an
At the town level, the term ‘Location’ agreed vocabulary in the place-branding arena.
dominated the literature (83.3 per cent); the The research has revealed that the focus of
term ‘Place’ was not used (0 per cent) discussion for place branding has shifted from
considering by definition place and location tourism to business and marketing; case studies in the
equate (Cambridge Dictionary Online). ‘Place’ discipline of Branding and Business (65.2 per cent)
and ‘Location’ had a presence in the literature were double that in Tourism (34.8 per cent), with
in relation to cities (10.3 and 24.1 per cent, the majority of case studies relating to countries
respectively) and countries (21.3 and 2.1 per (52.8 per cent) and cities (32.6 per cent).
cent, respectively), supporting their hierarchical The content analysis of paper titles and
status depicted in Figure 1. It should be noted abstracts affirmed that the term ‘Destination’ is
that initial observations from the content used predominantly in the tourism literature,
analysis did not depict ‘Town’ as a possible place articulated in various geographical entity forms,
term and hence its absence in Tables 1a and 2a. shown in Figure 1, and accounting for the
‘Destination’ was most used in relation to the majority of case studies, second to which is
combined entities Region, State, County and ‘Place’. ‘Place’ and ‘Location’ are the most
Province (42.9 per cent), followed by countries dominant terms used in Branding and Business.
(38.3 per cent), cities (37.9 per cent) and a The absence of ‘Town’ as a possible place brand
significantly lower rate for towns (16.7 per cent). term has been noted (town was generally
There was a significant variation in the identified as ‘Location’), as was the lack of
application of place brand term’s ‘Country’ (14.9 case-study research relating to towns (6.7
per cent) and ‘Nation’ (21.3 per cent) in relation per cent), second to which were regions, states
to countries. Although defined as a country, and counties (7.9 per cent), respectively, calling
reference to ‘Nation’ brands may also incorporate for supplementary research. To describe a city
country ‘outputs’ (Papadopoulos and Heslop, the terms most used were ‘Destination’ and
2002) encompassing the various brand dimensions ‘Location’, region was mostly described as a
discussed in the literature and depicted in ‘Destination’ and a ‘Place’ while a country was
Figure 1. A complete lack of case studies was most described as a ‘Destination’, ‘Place’ and a
observed for entity descriptors Region, State, ‘Nation’ but not as a ‘Country’.
County and Province, indicating unanimity in With regard to the hierarchical relationship
regard to the definition of a ‘Nation’ as a country between ‘Place’ and its associated vocabulary
(Cambridge Dictionary Online). The presence of (Figure 1) proposed in this study, a ‘Nation’
14.3 per cent ‘Country’ case studies within the indicated a country while a ‘Place’ signified
entity descriptors Region, State, County and towns, cities, regions and countries (or nations)
Province, however, is also conceivable based on as depicted in Figure 1. A ‘Location’, however,
the understanding of self-governance. Perhaps to indicates a place in as far as places are defined
evade the foregoing confluence, greater association as towns, cities and countries but not regions,
is observed between ‘Place’ and a Region, State, therefore partially reflecting the relationship
County and Province (28.6 per cent). depicted in Figure 1.
The study has provided some evidence of
CONCLUSION academic consensus regarding the application of
This study, which sought to clarify the ‘place’ and its associated vocabulary; however,
application of ‘Place’ and its associated the discipline of place branding is a new
vocabulary by discipline and in relation to phenomenon that has yet to be fully
geographical entities, is considered timely as the investigated. Perhaps, given time, greater

© 2008 Palgrave Macmillan Ltd 1751-8040 $30.00 Vol. 4, 1, 61–75 Place Branding and Public Diplomacy 69
 Hanna and Rowley

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Notes Gnoth, J. (2004) ‘Opinion pieces: Where is place branding
1 Destination Branding: creating the unique destination proposition heading’, Place Branding, Vol. 1, No. 1, pp. 12–35.
by N. Morgan, A. Pritchard and R. Pride (2002, 2004); Hall, J. (2004) ‘Branding Britain’, Journal of Vacation Marketing,
Brand New Justice: the upside of global branding by S. Anholt Vol. 10, No. 2, pp. 171–185.
(2003); National Image and Competitive Advantage: the theory Hankinson, G. (2001) ‘Location branding: A study of the
and practice of place branding by E.D. Jaffe and I.D. Neben- branding practices of 12 English cities’, Journal of Brand
sahl (2006); Competitive Identity: the new brand management Management, Vol. 9, No. 2, pp. 127–142.
for nations, cities and regions by S. Anholt (2006). Hankinson, G. (2005) ‘Destination brand images: A business
2 The merging of frequency distributions of two or more tourism perspective’, Journal of Services Marketing, Vol. 19,
categorical variables in a single table for the purpose of No. 1, pp. 24–32.
understanding how one variable relates to other variables. van Ham, P. (2001) ‘The rise of the brand state: The post-
3 A minimum expected cell frequency of 5 or more or at modern politics of image and reputation’, Foreign Affairs,
least 80 per cent is needed not to violate the assumption Vol. 80, No. 5, pp. 2–6.
of the chi-square. van Ham, P. (2004) ‘Opinion pieces: Where is place branding
heading’, Place Branding, Vol. 1, No. 1, pp. 12–35.
Hudson, S. and Ritchie, B. (2006) ‘Promoting destinations via
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© 2008 Palgrave Macmillan Ltd 1751-8040 $30.00 Vol. 4, 1, 61–75 Place Branding and Public Diplomacy 71
 72
Appendix A

Table A1: Academic spread — Case studies on Place Branding

Hanna and Rowley

Entity Geo. Des. Term used Article title Year Journal title

South Africa Country Nation A brand valuation methodology for nations 2004 Place Branding

Spain Country Country A country — Can it be repositioned? Spain — The success story of 2002 Brand Management
country branding
Turkey Country Destination A distorted destination image? The case of Turkey 2002 Travel Research

Republic of Armenia Country Place A place brand strategy for the Republic of Armenia: Quality of context 2005 Place Branding
and sustainability as competitive advantage

New South Wales (Australia) Region Place A review of a brand management strategy for a small town — Lessons 2005 Place Branding
learnt!

Glasgow, Liverpool City Destination, A tale of two cities-a commentary on historic and current marketing 2006 Place Branding

Place Branding and Public Diplomacy Vol. 4, 1, 61–75

Place, Region strategies used by Liverpool and Glasgow Regions

Thailand, USA Country Destination An examination of the role of beneficial image in tourist destination 2000 Travel Research
selection

Yugoslavia Country Nation Brand development, tourism and national identity: The re-imaging of 2002 Brand Management
former Yugoslavia

England Country Nation Brand England 2006 Place Branding

Britain Country Location Branding Britain 2004 Vacation Marketing

Hrvatska (Republic of Croatia) Country Country Branding Hrvatska — A mixed blessing that might succeed: The 2002 Brand Management
advantage of being unrecognizable

Northern Ireland Country Place Branding on ambiguity? Place branding without national identity: 2007 Place Branding
Marketing Northern Ireland as a post conflict society in the USA

Thailand Country Nation Branding Thailand: Correcting the negative image of sex tourism 2007 Place Branding

Bradford City City Can a city communicate? Bradford as a corporate brand 2004 Corporate Communications

© 2008 Palgrave Macmillan Ltd 1751-8040 $30.00

Scotland Country Destination, Capturing the essence of a brand from its history: The case of Scottish 2005 Brand Management
Place, Country tourism marketing

Hjorring, Aalborg (Denmark) City City City branding — All smoke, no fire? 2006 Nordicom Review

Birmingham City City City branding: Can goods and services branding models be used to 2004 Place Branding
brand cities
New Zealand Country Place City council websites as a means of place brand identity communication 2006 Place Branding
 Table A1: Continued

Entity Geo. Des. Term used Article title Year Journal title

Elkhart County (Indiana) County Destination Collaborative destination marketing: A case study of Elkhart county, 2006 Tourism Management
Indiana

Old West Country (New Mexico) Region Destination Cooperative branding for rural destinations 2002 Tourism Research

Wales Country Destination Culture, identity and tourism representation: Marketing Cymru or Wales? 2001 Tourism Management

Brazil Country Destination Dazed and confused? An exploratory study of the image of Brazil as a 2003 Vacation Marketing
travel destination

Birmingham City City Delphic brand visioning to align stakeholder buy-in to the City of 2006 Brand Management
Birmingham Brand

New Zealand Country Destination Destination branding and the role of the stakeholders: The case of New 2003 Vacation Marketing
Zealand

Disneyland Resort, Fooxwood Resort Destination Destination branding in a hostile environment 2001 Travel Research
Casino

New Zealand Country Destination Destination positioning analysis through a comparison of cognitive, 2004 Travel Research
affective, and conative perceptions

Costa Rica, Moldova Country Country, Nation Export flagships in branding developing countries: The cases of Costa 2007 Place Branding
Rica and Moldova

Scotland Country Place, Nation How the history of Scotland creates a sense of place 2005 Place Branding

Ireland Country Destination Incongruity between expression and experience: The role of imagery in 2004 Brand Management
supporting the positioning of a tourism destination

Florida State Destination International versus domestic visitors: An examination of destination 2005 Travel Research
image perceptions

Ireland Country Destination Ireland’s image as a tourism destination in France: Attribute importance 2005 Travel Research
and performance

Lincoln, Skegness, Leeds, City, Town Location Location branding: A study of the branding practices of 12 English cities 2001 Brand Management
Scarborough, York,
Stevenage, Sheffield,
Grimsby, Norwich, Ipswich,
Milton-Keynes, Hull

Iceland Country Nation Nation branding 2005 Place Branding

New Zealand Country Destination New Zealand, 100% pure. The creation of a powerful destination brand 2001 Brand Management

© 2008 Palgrave Macmillan Ltd 1751-8040 $30.00 Vol. 4, 1, 61–75 Place Branding and Public Diplomacy
Ireland Country Destination People, pace, place: Qualitative and quantitative images of Ireland as a 2003 Vacation Marketing
An analysis of terminology use in place branding

tourism destination in France

South Africa Country Place Place brand architecture: Strategic management of the brand portfolio 2005 Place Branding

73
 74
Table A1: Continued
Entity Geo. Des. Term used Article title Year Journal title

Baltic Sea Region Region Region Region branding: The case of the Baltic Sea Region 2007 Place Branding
Hanna and Rowley

Japan Country Region Regional branding measures in Japan: Efforts in 12 major prefectural and 2007 Place Branding
city governments

Birmingham, Manchester, City Destination Reimaging the city: The value of sports initiatives 2004 Tourism Research
Sheffield

Barbados, Stockholm Country, City Destination Relationship marketing: The challenge for destinations 2003 Tourism Research

Latvia Country Nation Remaking the Nation of Latvia: Anthropological perspectives on nation 2005 Place Branding
branding

New Zealand Country Destination Representing New Zealand: Tourism imagery and ideology 2002 Tourism Research

Scotland Country Destination Scottish tourism: Scenarios and vision 2005 Vacation Marketing

Place Branding and Public Diplomacy Vol. 4, 1, 61–75

Auckland (New Zealand) City Destination Structuring destination image: A qualitative approach 2005 Travel Research

Ontario, New Zealand Province Country Success and failure: The brand stories of two countries 2002 Brand Management
Country

New Zealand Country Country Success and failure: The brand stories of two countries 2002 Brand Management

Tamworth (Australia) City Place Tamworth, Australia’s country music capital: Place marketing, rurality and 2004 Rural Studies
resident reactions

Poland Country Country The country brand as a new challenge for Poland 2005 Place Branding

Russia Country Destination The destination image of Russia: From the online induced perspective 2006 Tourism Management

Orlando (Florida) City Destination The dynamic of destination attribute importance 2006 Business Research

Britain, Denmark, USA Country Place The rebranding of city places: An international comparative investigation 2003 International Public
Management Review

Central, Eastern Europe Region Place The role and challenges of country branding in transition countries: The 2007 Place Branding
central and eastern European experience

© 2008 Palgrave Macmillan Ltd 1751-8040 $30.00

Toronto City Destination Toronto’s image as a destination: A comparative importance — 2001 Travel Research
satisfaction analysis by origin of visitor

Kuala Lumpur (Malaysia) City Destination Tourism attitudes and destination marketing — the case of Australia’s 2005 Tourism Management
northern territory and Malaysia
Darwin (Australia’s northern
territory)

Bradford City City Tourism in difficult areas revisited: The case of Bradford 2001 Tourism Management
 An analysis of terminology use in place branding

Appendix B

Tourism Management
Table B1:

Vacation Marketing
Travel Research
Value df Asymp.

Place Branding

Place Branding
Journal title
(two-sided)

Pearson chi-square 177.53* 60 0.000

Likelihood ratio 149.95 60 0.000
Linear-by-linear 0.094 1 0.759
association
N of valid cases 91
2006

2007

2007

2005

2006
Year

*Seventy-five cells (97.4 per cent) have an expected count

WWW.Branding.States.US: An analysis of brand-building elements in the less than five. The minimum expected count is 0.04.
Toward a destination visitor attendance estimation model: Whistler,

Wish you were here? Some problems associated with integrating

Table B2:
marketing communications when promoting place brands
Turkey’s EU accession as a question of nation brand image

Value df Asymp. Sig.

Uniquely Singapore? A case study in destination branding

(two-sided)

Pearson chi-square 81.988* 42 0.000

Likelihood ratio 75.577 42 0.001
Linear-by-linear 0.425 1 0.515
association
N of valid cases 91

*Fifty-one cells (91.1 per cent) have an expected count

less than five. The minimum expected count is 0.04.
US states tourism website
British Columbia, Canada

Table B3:
Value df Asymp. Sig.
Article title

(two-sided)

Pearson chi-square 59.728* 6 0.000

Likelihood ratio 71.439 6 0.000
Linear-by-linear 0.127 1 0.721
association
N of valid cases 89
Term used
Destination

Destination

Destination

*Seven cells (50.0 per cent) have an expected count less

Nation

than five. The minimum expected count is 1.39.

Place

Table B4:
Geo. Des.

Country

Country

Country

Country

Value df Asymp. Sig.

Town

(two-sided)

Pearson chi-square 60.115* 18 0.000

Likelihood ratio 62.122 18 0.000
Linear-by-linear 1.152 1 0.283
association
N of valid cases 89
Table A1: Continued

Whistler (Canada)

*Twenty-three cells (82.1 per cent) have an expected count

less than five. The minimum expected count is 0.27.
Singapore
Turkey
Entity

Wales

USA

© 2008 Palgrave Macmillan Ltd 1751-8040 $30.00 Vol. 4, 1, 61–75 Place Branding and Public Diplomacy 75