PREFACE AND ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS .......................................................................................................

1. INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................................................................... 5

2. PUMPING SYSTEM HYDRAULIC CHARACTERISTICS .................................................................. 6

2.1 SYSTEM CHARACTERISTICS ........................................................................................................... 6

2.2 PUMP CURVES....................................................................................................................................... 7
2.3 PUMP OPERATING POINT ................................................................................................................. 8
3. ROTODYNAMIC PUMPS ......................................................................................................................... 9

3.1 PUMP PRINCIPLES & PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS ................................................... 9

3.1.1 EFFECT OF SPEED VARIATION ....................................................................................................... 9
3.1.2 EFFECTS OF IMPELLER DIAMETER CHANGE.......................................................................... 11
3.1.3 PUMP SUCTION PERFORMANCE (NPSH) ................................................................................... 12
3.2 METHODS OF VARYING PUMP PERFORMANCE ...................................................................... 13
3.2.1 THE NEED FOR PERFORMANCE VARIATION ........................................................................... 13
3.2.2 PUMP CONTROL BY VARYING SPEED......................................................................................... 13
3.2.3 PUMPS IN PARALLEL SWITCHED TO MEET DEMAND........................................................... 15
3.2.4 STOP/START CONTROL.................................................................................................................... 16
3.2.5 FLOW CONTROL VALVE ................................................................................................................. 17
3.2.6 BY-PASS CONTROL ............................................................................................................................ 17
4. POSITIVE DISPLACEMENT PUMPS ................................................................................................... 18

4.1 PUMP PRINCIPLES, TYPES AND PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS. ............................ 18

4.2 METHODS OF VARYING PUMP PERFORMANCE ...................................................................... 19
4.2.1 PUMP CONTROL BY VARYING SPEED......................................................................................... 19
4.2.2 FLOW CONTROL USING PUMPS IN PARALLEL ........................................................................ 22
4.2.3 PUMPS IN SERIES (ROTARY) .......................................................................................................... 22
4.2.4 FLOW CONTROL VALVE ................................................................................................................. 22
4.2.5 BY-PASS CONTROL ............................................................................................................................ 22
4.2.6 LOAD/UNLOAD CONTROL .............................................................................................................. 22
5. MOTORS.................................................................................................................................................... 23

5.1 MOTOR PRINCIPLES ......................................................................................................................... 23

5.2 MULTI-SPEED MOTORS ................................................................................................................... 23
5.3 ENERGY EFFICIENCY ....................................................................................................................... 23
5.4 EFFICIENCY REQUIREMENTS AND LABELLING ..................................................................... 24
5.5 OTHER ENERGY SAVING OPPORTUNITIES ............................................................................... 26
5.5.1 MOTOR SIZING ................................................................................................................................... 26
5.5.2 SWITCH IT OFF!.................................................................................................................................. 27
5.5.3 A MOTOR MANAGEMENT POLICY ............................................................................................... 27
5.5.4 SHAFT ALIGNMENT .......................................................................................................................... 28
5.5.5 PULLEY SIZING .................................................................................................................................. 28
6. VARIABLE SPEED DRIVES................................................................................................................... 29

6.1 VARIABLE FREQUENCY DRIVE PRINCIPLES ........................................................................... 29

6.2 THE FREQUENCY CONVERTER .................................................................................................... 29
6.2.1 RECTIFIER ........................................................................................................................................... 30
6.2.2 INTERMEDIATE CIRCUIT................................................................................................................ 30
6.2.3 INVERTER ............................................................................................................................................ 30
6.2.4 CONTROL UNIT .................................................................................................................................. 30
6.3 PULSE WIDTH MODULATION ........................................................................................................ 31
6.4 INTEGRATED VARIABLE SPEED MOTORS ................................................................................ 31
7. SELECTING A VARIABLE SPEED DRIVE FOR A NEW INSTALLATION .................................. 32

7.1 SIZING & SELECTION ....................................................................................................................... 32

7.2 CONTROL ............................................................................................................................................. 35
7.2.1 CONTROL BY FIXING PRESSURE BUT VARYING FLOW ....................................................... 35
7.2.2 HEATING SYSTEM CONTROL ........................................................................................................ 35
7.2.3 CONTROL BY FIXING FLOW BUT VARYING PRESSURE: ...................................................... 36
7.2.4 TANK FILLING CONTROL ............................................................................................................... 36

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 7.2.5 IMPLEMENTATION ........................................................................................................................... 36
7.2.6 SOFT STARTING AND STOPPING .................................................................................................. 36
8. RETROFITTING A VARIABLE SPEED DRIVE TO EXISTING EQUIPMENT ............................ 38

8.1 JUSTIFICATION .................................................................................................................................. 38

8.2 MOTOR DE-RATING .......................................................................................................................... 38
8.3 SIZING AND SELECTION OF A VSD ON EXISTING EQUIPMENT .......................................... 39
9. EFFECTS OF NOISE & VIBRATION WHEN VARYING SPEED .................................................... 42

9.1 TYPICAL NOISE LEVELS ................................................................................................................. 43

9.1.1 PUMPS.................................................................................................................................................... 43
APPENDIX - ADDITIONAL INFORMATION ................................................................................................ 44

A.1 MAGNETIC DRIVE PUMPS................................................................................................................... 44

A.1.1 EFFECTS OF PUMP SPEED ............................................................................................................... 44

A.1.2 EFFECTS OF IMPELLER DIAMETER CHANGE.......................................................................... 44

A.2 MOTOR CONSIDERATIONS ................................................................................................................. 44

A.2.1 PROTECTION ....................................................................................................................................... 44

A.2.2 SPEED .................................................................................................................................................... 45

A.2.3 INSULATION DESIGN ........................................................................................................................ 45

A.2.4 MOTOR BEARINGS ............................................................................................................................ 45

A.3 LEGISLATIVE REQUIREMENTS ........................................................................................................ 45

A.3.1 THE MACHINERY DIRECTIVE ....................................................................................................... 45

A.3.2 THE EMC DIRECTIVE ....................................................................................................................... 46

A.3.2.1 RADIATED EMISSIONS ................................................................................................................. 46

A.3.2.2 CONDUCTED EMISSIONS ............................................................................................................. 46

A.3.2.3 HARMONICS .................................................................................................................................... 46

A.3.3 THE LOW VOLTAGE DIRECTIVE .................................................................................................. 47

A.3.4 THE ATEX DIRECTIVE ..................................................................................................................... 47

A.4 ABBREVIATIONS .................................................................................................................................... 48

A.5 REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING ......................................................................................... 48

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PREFACE AND ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This guide is the result of co-operation between three different industries whose goal was to
produce a document that would clearly define in simple terms the information required when
planning to use an electronic Variable Speed Driven Pumping System. The guide focuses mainly
on applications within the Industrial Sector, however the principles used will be applicable to
most pumping applications.
Members from the British Pump Manufacturers’ Association (BPMA), the GAMBICA Variable
Speed Drive group and BEAMA’s Rotating Electrical Machinery group assisted with this guide.

The guide was updated to Version 2 on 27th June 2016, with references to standards and codes
being updated.

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1. INTRODUCTION
Pump systems are often operated inefficiently. The reasons will vary from process to process
and application to application, but the constant outcome is the cost to industry through wasted
energy, which runs into millions of pounds per year, and the cost to the environment through
the generation of this wasted energy.
It is estimated that in the United Kingdom, pumps use a total of 20TWh/annum, responsible for
the emission of 2.7MtC/annum (2.7 million tons of carbon). Pumps therefore represent the
largest single use of motive power in industry and commerce as shown in the breakdown of
energy usage by motor driven equipment:
Pumps-31%
Fans- 23%
Air Compressors- 8%
Other Compressors – 14%
Conveyors – 8%
Others 16%

A pump installation is often sized to cope with a maximum predicted flow, which, may never
happen. This principle of over sizing is frequently used in Industry, which subsequently leads
to wasted energy and damage to parts of the pump installation.
Procurement costs of the pump equipment in general amount to less than 1% of the total
investment of a plant, yet the operational quality of a pump may be the decisive factor in the
overall functionality of the plant and its associated running costs.
Flow control by speed regulation of pumps, is one of today’s best methods of varying the
output on both Rotodynamic and Positive Displacement pumps and this guide describes its
many advantages and potential system drawbacks.The benefits covered include:
 Energy cost savings
 Reliability improvements
 Simplified pipe systems (elimination of control valves & by-pass lines)
 Soft start & stop
 Reduced maintenance

All amounting to lower life cycle costs.

Whilst other methods of control are available, this guide concentrates on the variable frequency
AC Pulse Width Modulated Variable Speed Drive because it has the greatest benefits of
control, energy efficiency, and ease of retrofitting.

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2. PUMPING SYSTEM HYDRAULIC CHARACTERISTICS
2.1 SYSTEM CHARACTERISTICS

In a pumping system, the objective, in most cases, is either to transfer a liquid from a source to
a required destination, e.g. filling a high level reservoir, or to circulate liquid around a system,
e.g. as a means of heat transfer.
A pressure is needed to make the liquid flow at the required rate and this must overcome head
‘losses’ in the system. Losses are of two types static and friction head.
Static head is simply the difference in height of the supply and destination reservoirs, as in Figure
2.1. In this illustration, flow velocity in the pipe is assumed to be very small. Another example
of a system with only static head is pumping into a pressurised vessel with short pipe runs. Static
head is independent of flow and graphically would be shown as in Figure 2.2.

STATIC HEAD
STATIC
HEAD

FLOW

Figure 2.1 Figure 2 .2

Static head Static head vs. flow

Friction head (sometimes called dynamic head loss) is the friction loss, on the liquid being
moved, in pipes, valves and equipment in the system. The losses through these are proportional
to the square of the flow rate. A closed loop circulating system without a surface open to
atmospheric pressure, would exhibit only friction losses and would have a system head loss vs.
flow characteristic curve as Figure 2.3
FRICTION HEAD

FLOW

Figure 2.3
Friction head vs. flow

Most systems have a combination of static and friction head and the system curves for two cases
are shown in Figures 2.4 and 2.5. The ratio of static to friction head over the operating range
influences the benefits achievable from variable speed drives (see section 3.2.2)

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 SYSTEM CURVE

FRICTION HEAD
SYSTEM HEAD

SYSTEM HEAD
SYSTEM CURVE

FRICTION HEAD
STATIC HEAD

STATIC HEAD

FLOW FLOW

Figure 2.4 Figure 2.5

System with high static head System with low static head

Static head is a characteristic of the specific installation and reducing this head where this is
possible, generally helps both the cost of the installation and the cost of pumping the liquid.
Friction head losses must be minimised to reduce pumping cost, but after eliminating
unnecessary pipefittings and length, further reduction in friction head will require larger diameter
pipe, which adds to installation cost.

2.2 PUMP CURVES

The performance of a pump can also be expressed graphically as head against flow rate. See
Fig 2.6 for rotodynamic pumps and Fig 2.7 for positive displacement (PD) pumps.
HEAD
HEAD

FLOW FLOW

Figure 2.6 Figure 2.7

Rotodynamic Pump Positive displacement Pump

The Rotodynamic pump, (usually a centrifugal pump) has a curve where the head falls
gradually with increasing flow, but for a PD pump, the flow is almost constant whatever the
head. It is customary to draw the curve for PD pumps with the axes reversed (see Section 4),
but to understand the interaction with the system, a common presentation is used here for the
two pump types.

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2.3 PUMP OPERATING POINT

When a pump is installed in a system the effect can be illustrated graphically by superimposing
pump and system curves. The operating point will always be where the two curves intersect.
(Fig 2.8 and Fig 2.9).

HEAD FLOW CURVE

HEAD FLOW CURVE

OPERATING POINT
OPERATING POINT
HEAD

HEAD
SYSTEM CURVE

SYSTEM
CURVE

FLOW
FLOW

Figure 2.8 Figure 2.9

Rotodynamic pump with system curve P.D. pump with system curve

If the actual system curve is different in reality to that calculated, the pump will operate at a
flow and head different to that expected.
For a PD pump, if the system resistance increases, the pump will increase its discharge pressure
and maintain a fairly constant flow rate, dependant on viscosity and pump type. Unsafe
pressure levels can occur without relief valves.
For a rotodynamic pump, an increasing system resistance will reduce the flow, eventually to
zero, but the maximum head is limited as shown. Even so, this condition is only acceptable for
a short period without causing problems. An error in the system curve calculation is also likely
to lead to a rotodynamic pump selection, which is less than optimum for the actual system head
losses.

Adding comfort margins to the calculated system curve to ensure that a sufficiently large
pump is selected will generally result in installing an oversized pump, which will operate
at an excessive flow rate or in a throttled condition, which increases energy usage and
reduces pump life.

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3. ROTODYNAMIC PUMPS
3.1 PUMP PRINCIPLES & PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS

A rotodynamic or centrifugal pump is a dynamic device for increasing the pressure of liquid.
In passing through the pump, the liquid receives energy from the rotating impeller. The liquid
is accelerated circumferentially in the impeller, discharging into the casing at high velocity
which is converted into pressure as effectively as possible.
Since the pump is a dynamic device, it is convenient to consider the head generated rather than
the pressure. The pump generates the same head of liquid whatever the density of the liquid
being pumped. The actual shapes of the hydraulic passages of the impeller and the casing are
extremely important, in order to attain the highest efficiency possible.
The standard convention for rotodynamic pump is to draw the pump performance curves
showing Flow on the horizontal axis and Head generated on the vertical axis. Efficiency,
Power & NPSH Required (see Section 3.1.3 for explanation of NPSH), are also all
conventionally shown on the vertical axis, plotted against Flow, as illustrated in Fig 3.1.

HEAD

EFFICIENCY

POWER

NPSH Required

FLOW RATE

Figure 3.1:
Example of Pump performance curves

3.1.1 EFFECT OF SPEED VARIATION

As stated above, a centrifugal pump is a dynamic device with the head generated from a
rotating impeller. There is therefore a relationship between impeller peripheral velocity and
generated head. Peripheral velocity is directly related to shaft rotational speed, for a fixed
impeller diameter and so varying the rotational speed has a direct effect on the performance of
the pump. All the parameters shown in fig 3.1 will change if the speed is varied and it is
important to have an appreciation of how these parameters vary in order to safely control a
pump at different speeds.
The equations relating rotodynamic pump performance parameters of flow, head and power
absorbed, to speed are known as the Affinity Laws:

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 𝑄2 𝑛2
=
𝑄1 𝑛1

𝐻2 𝑛2 2
=[ ]
𝐻1 𝑛1

𝑃2 𝑛2 3
=[ ]
𝑃1 𝑛1

Q= Flow, H= Head, P = Power, n = Rotational Speed

A centrifugal pump running at half speed consumes only one-eighth of the energy compared to
one running at full speed

Efficiency is essentially independent of speed

The implication of the squared and cubic relationships of head and power absorbed, is that
relatively small changes in speed give very significant changes in these parameters as shown in
an example of a centrifugal pump in fig 3.2.

80 400

70 350
1480rpm
Total Head m

60 71% 300
83%
1350rpm
50 86% 250
1184rpm 83%
40 200

30 150
1480rpm
Power kW

20 1350rpm 100
1184rpm
10 50

0 0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
Flow Rate m3/h

Figure 3.2
Example of speed variation effecting rotodynamic pump performance.

Points of equal efficiency on the curves for the 3 different speeds are joined to make the iso-
efficiency lines, showing that efficiency remains constant over small changes of speed
providing the pump continues to operate at the same position related to its best efficiency point
(BEP).
The affinity laws give a good approximation of how pump performance curves change with
speed but in order to obtain the actual performance of the pump in a system, the system curve
also has to be taken into account, as will be explained later.
Magnetically driven pumps, with metallic containment shell, as well as the hydraulic power,
which obeys the affinity laws, have a magnetic power absorbed, which follows a square law
with speed.
The two types of power must therefore be calculated separately for a change of speed.
In Appendix A1-1 this is explained further.

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 3.1.2 EFFECTS OF IMPELLER DIAMETER CHANGE

Changing the impeller diameter gives a proportional change in peripheral velocity, so it follows
that there are equations, similar to the affinity laws, for the variation of performance with
impeller diameter D:
QD
H  D2
P  D3

Efficiency varies when the diameter is changed within a particular casing. Note the difference
in iso-efficiency lines in Figure 3.3 compared with Figure 3.2. The relationships shown here
apply to the case for changing only the diameter of an impeller within a fixed casing geometry,
which is a common practise for making small permanent adjustments to the performance of a
centrifugal pump. Diameter changes are generally limited to reducing the diameter to about
75% of the maximum, i.e. a head reduction to about 50%. Beyond this, efficiency and NPSH
are badly affected. However speed change can be used over a wider range without seriously
reducing efficiency. For example reducing the speed by 50% typically results in a reduction of
efficiency by 1 or 2 percentage points. The reason for the small loss of efficiency with the
lower speed is that mechanical losses in seals and bearings, which generally represent <5% of
total power, are proportional to speed, rather than speed cubed.
It should be noted that if the change in diameter is more than about 5%, the accuracy of the
squared and cubic relationships can fall off and for precise calculations, the pump
manufacturer’s performance curves should be referred to.

80 400
70 350
Total Head m

400mm
60 70 300
79%
83%85%
50 373m 250
86%
40 326mm 81% 200
30 150
Power kW

400mm
20 373mm
100
10 326mm 50
0 0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200

Flow Rate m3/h

Figure 3.3
Example of impeller diameter reduction on rotodynamic pump performance.

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The illustrated curves are typical of most rotodynamic pump types. Certain high flow, low
head pumps have performance curve shapes somewhat different and have a reduced operating
region of flows. This requires additional care in matching the pump to the system, when
changing speed and diameter.
Magnetically driven pumps, may also need to be treated differently because a change of
impeller diameter affects only the hydraulic power. Mechanical power loss in the drive is
independent of diameter and so if the speed is unchanged the magnetic losses will not change.
See Appendix A1-2.

3.1.3 PUMP SUCTION PERFORMANCE (NPSH)

Liquid entering the impeller eye turns and is split into separate streams by the leading edges of
the impeller vanes, an action which locally drops the pressure below that in the inlet pipe to the
pump. If the incoming liquid is at a pressure with insufficient margin above its vapour
pressure, then vapour cavities or bubbles appear along the impeller vanes just behind the inlet
edges. This phenomenon is known as cavitation and has three undesirable effects:
1) The collapsing cavitation bubbles can erode the vane surface, especially when pumping
water-based liquids.
2) Noise and vibration are increased, with possible shortened seal and bearing life.
3) The cavity areas will initially partially choke the impeller passages and reduce the pump
performance. In extreme cases, total loss of pump developed head occurs.

The value, by which the pressure in the pump suction exceeds the liquid vapour pressure, is
expressed as a head of liquid and referred to as Net Positive Suction Head Available –
(NPSHA). This is a characteristic of the system design. The value of NPSH needed at the
pump suction to prevent the pump from cavitating is known as NPSH Required – (NPSHR).
This is a characteristic of the pump design.
The three undesirable effects of cavitation described above begin at different values of NPSHA
and generally there will be cavitation erosion before there is a noticeable loss of pump head.
However for a consistent approach, manufacturers and industry standards, usually define the
onset of cavitation as the value of NPSHR when there is a head drop of 3% compared with the
head with cavitation free performance. At this point cavitation is present and prolonged
operation at this point will usually lead to damage. It is usual therefore to apply a margin by
which NPSHA should exceed NPSHR.
As would be expected, the NPSHR increases as the flow through the pump increases, see fig
3.1. In addition, as flow increases in the suction pipework, friction losses also increase, giving
a lower NPSHA at the pump suction, both of which give a greater chance that cavitation will
occur.
NPSHR also varies approximately with the square of speed in the same way as pump head and
conversion of NPSHR from one speed to another can be made using the following equations.

QN
NPSHR  N 2
It should be noted however that at very low speeds there is a minimum NPSHR plateau,
NPSHR does not tend to zero at zero speed
It is therefore essential to carefully consider NPSH in variable speed pumping.

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3.2 METHODS OF VARYING PUMP PERFORMANCE

3.2.1 THE NEED FOR PERFORMANCE VARIATION

Many pumping systems require a variation of flow or pressure. To do so, either the system curve
or the pump curve must be changed to get a different operating point. Where a single pump has
been installed for a range of duties, it will have been sized to meet the greatest output demand,
it will therefore usually be oversized, and will be operating inefficiently for other duties. There
is therefore an opportunity to achieve an energy cost saving by using control methods which
reduce the power to drive the pump during the periods of reduced demand. Not all control
methods achieve this goal as explained in this section.
Varying pump performance by changing speed is explained first, it is the main focus of this
guide, and in many cases is a cost effective approach with good pay back and even though the
capital expenditure is relatively high, there can be savings on other equipment e.g. control valves.
Other methods of control are then explained so that the most appropriate approach, to minimise
life cycle cost, can be chosen. To make an effective evaluation of which control method to use,
all of the operating duty points and their associated run time and energy consumption have to be
identified, so that the total costs can be calculated and alternative methods compared.
Changing pump impeller diameter also effectively changes the duty point in a given system, (see
Section 3.1.2), and at low cost, but this can be used only for permanent adjustment to the pump
curve and is not discussed further as a control method.

3.2.2 PUMP CONTROL BY VARYING SPEED

To understand how speed variation changes the duty point, the pump and system curves are over-
laid. Two systems are considered, one with only friction loss and another where static head is
high in relation to friction head. It will be seen that the benefits are different. In Figure 3.4,
reducing speed in the friction loss system moves the intersection point on the system curve along
a line of constant efficiency. The operating point of the pump, relative to its best efficiency
point, remains constant and the pump continues to operate in its ideal region. The affinity laws
are obeyed which
means that there is a substantial reduction in power absorbed accompanying the reduction in
flow and head, making variable speed the ideal control method for systems with friction loss.

80 400

70 Iso-efficiency 350
Lines
1480rpm
Total Head m

60 71 System 300
83% Curve
1350rpm
50 86% 250

40 1184rpm 83% 200

30 150
Operating points 1480rpm
Power kW

20 100
1350rpm
1184rpm
10 50

0 0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
Flow Rate m3/h

Figure 3.4
Example of the effect of pump speed change in a system with only friction loss

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In a system where static head is high, as illustrated in Figure 3.5, the operating point for the
pump moves relative to the lines of constant pump efficiency when the speed is changed. The
reduction in flow is no longer proportional to speed. A small turn down in speed could give a
big reduction in flow rate and pump efficiency, which could result in the pump operating in a
region where it could be damaged if it ran for an extended period of time even at the lower
speed. At the lowest speed illustrated, (1184 rpm), the pump does not generate sufficient head
to pump any liquid into the system, i.e. pump efficiency and flow rate are zero and with energy
still being input to the liquid, the pump becomes a water heater and damaging temperatures can
quickly be reached.

80 400

70 Iso-efficiency 350
Lines
1480rpm
Total Head m

60 71% System 300

83% Curve
1350rpm
50 86% 250
1184rpm 83%
40 200

30 150
Operating points 1480rpm

Power kW
20 1350rpm 100
1184rpm
10 50

0 0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
Flow Rate m3/h

Figure 3.5
Example of the effect of pump speed change with a system with high static head.

The drop in pump efficiency during speed reduction in a system with static head, reduces the
economic benefits of variable speed control. There may still be overall benefits but economics
should be examined on a case -by -case basis.
Usually it is advantageous to select the pump such that the system curve intersects the full
speed pump curve to the right of best efficiency, in order that the efficiency will first increase
as the speed is reduced and then decrease. This can extend the useful range of variable speed
operation in a system with static head. The pump manufacturer should be consulted on the safe
operating range of the pump.
It is relevant to note that flow control by speed regulation is always more efficient than by
control valve.
In addition to energy savings there could be other benefits of lower speed. The hydraulic forces
on the impeller, created by the pressure profile inside the pump casing, reduce approximately
with the square of speed. These forces, are carried by the pump bearings and so reducing speed
increases bearing life. It can be shown that for a rotodynamic pump, bearing life is inversely
proportional to the 7th power of speed. In addition, vibration and noise are reduced and seal life
is increased providing the duty point remains within the allowable operating range.

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The corollary to this is that small increases in the speed of a pump significantly increase power
absorbed, shaft stress and bearing loads. It should be remembered that the pump and motor
must be sized for the maximum speed at which the pump set will operate. At higher speed the
noise and vibration from both pump and motor will increase, although for small increases the
change will be small. If the liquid contains abrasive particles, increasing speed will give a
corresponding increase in surface wear in the pump and pipework.
The affect on the mechanical seal of the change in seal chamber pressure, should be reviewed
with the pump or seal manufacturer, if the speed increase is large. Conventional mechanical
seals operate satisfactorily at very low speeds and generally there is no requirement for a
minimum speed to be specified, however due to their method of operation, gas seals require a
minimum peripheral speed of 5 m/s.

3.2.3 PUMPS IN PARALLEL SWITCHED TO MEET DEMAND

Another energy efficient method of flow control, particularly for systems where static head is a
high proportion of the total, is to install two or more pumps to operate in parallel. Variation of
flow rate is achieved by switching on and off additional pumps to meet demand. The combined
pump curve is obtained by adding the flow rates at a specific head. The head/flow rate curves
for two and three pumps are shown in Figure 3.6

70

65

60

55
HEAD

50

45
Single Two Three
40

35

30
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500
FLOW RATE

Figure 3.6
Typical head-flow curves for pumps in parallel

The system curve is usually not affected by the number of pumps that are running. For a system
with a combination of static and friction head loss, it can be seen, in Fig 3.7, that the operating
point of the pumps on their performance curves moves to a higher head and hence lower flow
rate per pump, as more pumps are started. It is also apparent that the flow rate with two pumps
running is not double that of a single pump. If the system head were only static, then flow rate
would be proportional to the number of pumps operating.
It is possible to run pumps of different sizes in parallel providing their closed valve heads are
similar. By arranging different combinations of pumps running together, a larger number of
different flow rates can be provided into the system.

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Care must be taken when running pumps in parallel to ensure that the operating point of the pump
is controlled within the region deemed as acceptable by the manufacturer. It can be seen from
fig 3.7 that if 1 or 2 pumps are stopped then the remaining pump(s) would operate well out along
the curve where NPSHR is higher and vibration level increased, giving an increased risk of
operating problems.

70

65
SYSTEM
60
CURVE
55
Three Pumps
HEAD

50 Two Pumps In Parallel

Single Pump
In Parallel
45

40

35
Flow-1 Flow-2 Flow-3
30
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500
FLOW RATE

Figure 3.7
Typical Head-flow curves for pumps in parallel, with system curve illustrated.

3.2.4 STOP/START CONTROL

In this method the flow is controlled by switching pumps on or off. It is necessary to have a
storage capacity in the system e.g. a wet well, an elevated tank or an accumulator type pressure
vessel. The storage can provide a steady flow to the system with an intermittent operating pump.
When the pump runs, it does so at the chosen (presumably optimum) duty point and when it is
off, there is no energy consumption. If intermittent flow, stop/start operation and the storage
facility are acceptable, this is an effective approach to minimise energy consumption.
The stop/start operation causes additional loads on the power transmission components and
increased heating in the motor. The frequency of the stop/start cycle should be within the motor
design criteria and checked with the pump manufacturer.
It may also be used to benefit from “off peak” energy tariffs by arranging the run times during
the low tariff periods.
To minimise energy consumption with stop start control it is better to pump at as low flow rate
as the process permits. This minimises friction losses in the pipe and an appropriately small pump
can be installed. For example, pumping at half the flow rate for twice as long can reduce energy
consumption to a quarter.

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 3.2.5 FLOW CONTROL VALVE

With this control method, the pump runs continuously and a valve in the pump discharge line is
opened or closed to adjust the flow to the required value.

70
System Curve with Half Open Valve
65

60 System Curve
with Fully Open Valve
55

HEAD
50 Head Drop Across
Half Open valve
45

40

35

30 Flow 2 Flow 1

25
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500
FLOW RATE

Figure 3.8
Control of pump flow by changing system resistance using a valve.

To understand how the flow rate is controlled see Figure 3.8. With the valve fully open, the pump
operates at “Flow 1”. When the valve is partially closed it introduces an additional friction loss
in the system, which is proportional to flow squared. The new system curve cuts the pump curve
at “Flow 2”, which is the new operating point. The head difference between the two curves is the
pressure drop across the valve.
It is usual practice with valve control to have the valve 10% shut even at maximum flow. Energy
is therefore wasted overcoming the resistance through the valve at all flow conditions.
There is some reduction in pump power absorbed at the lower flow rate (see Figure 3.1), but the
flow multiplied by the head drop across the valve, is wasted energy. It should also be noted that,
whilst the pump will accommodate changes in its operating point as far as it is able within its
performance range, it can be forced to operate high on the curve where its efficiency is low, and
where its reliability is impaired.
Maintenance cost of control valves can be high, particularly on corrosive and solids-containing
liquids. So the lifetime cost could be unnecessarily high.

3.2.6 BY-PASS CONTROL

In this approach, the pump runs continuously at the maximum process demand duty, with a
permanent by-pass line attached to the outlet. When a lower flow is required the surplus liquid
is bypassed and returned to the supply source. An alternative configuration may have a tank
supplying a varying process demand, which is kept full by a fixed duty pump running at the peak
flow rate. Most of the time the tank overflows and recycles back to the pump suction. This is
even less energy efficient than a control valve because there is no reduction in power
consumption with reduced process demand.
The small by-pass line sometimes installed to prevent a pump running at zero flow is not a means
of flow control, but required for the safe operation of the pump.

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4. POSITIVE DISPLACEMENT PUMPS
4.1 PUMP PRINCIPLES, TYPES AND PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS.

Positive Displacement Pumps can be classified into two main groups: Rotary and Reciprocating.

Rotary pumps (typical pressures up to 25 bar), transfer liquid from suction to discharge through
the action of rotating screws, lobes, gears, valves, rollers etc, which operate inside a rigid casing.
Rotary pumps do not require non-return valves on the inlet and outlet sides of the pump.
Reciprocating pumps (typical pressures up to 500 bar) discharge liquid by changing the internal
volume of the pump. Reciprocating pumps incorporate both inlet and outlet non-return valves.
These are generally integral with the pump body.
Flow rate and Pressure
The relationship between flow rate and pressure of the two types is shown in Figures 4.1 and 4.2.

Theoretical
Theoretical
MAX
MAX Volumetric
q Efficiency
High Speed 100 %

q = Slip flow
Flow rate
Flow rate

Low Speed q
0 0
MIN MAX MIN MAX
Pressure Pressure

Figure 4.1 Figure 4.2

Rotary Reciprocating

There is only a small fall off in flow rate with increasing pressure. This flow rate discrepancy is
referred to as ‘slip flow’ for rotary pumps. Different types of PD pumps have different
magnitudes of ‘slip flow’.
Discharge pressure will match the system’s demand. Very high and dangerous pressures can be
created by ‘Dead Heading’ i.e. operating the pump at zero flow. This condition is usually
avoided, to comply with Statuary requirements, by fitting a pressure relief device before any
isolating valve or potential blockage.

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Efficiency
Typical pump efficiency curves are shown in figures 4.3 and 4.4 below.
100
100

90 90

80 80

70 70

60

Efficiency %
60
Efficiency %

50 50

40 40

30 30

20 20

10 10

MIN MIN MAX

MAX
Pressure Pressure

Figure 4.3 Figure 4.4

Rotary Pump Efficiency Reciprocating Pump Efficiency

SUCTION PERFORMANCE ( NPIP)

In a similar way to that described in 3.1.3, a PD pump needs the incoming liquid to have a
pressure margin above liquid vapour pressure to prevent cavitation in low-pressure areas in the
suction passages of the pump. For a PD pump this required pressure is known as Net Positive
Inlet Pressure (NPIP), sometimes referred to as Net Positive Suction Pressure. (NPSP)

4.2 METHODS OF VARYING PUMP PERFORMANCE

Unlike a rotodynamic pump, a PD pump cannot be controlled in flow by changing system

resistance e.g. by closing a valve and so this simple but inefficient method is ineffective and
potentially unsafe for PD pumps. Therefore, apart from changing stroke length on a limited
number of reciprocating pumps, variable speed is the method generally used.

4.2.1 PUMP CONTROL BY VARYING SPEED

SPEED AND FLOW RATE

The flow rates of both types of PD pumps can be varied by changing the operating speed.
In general flow rates are directly proportional to speed and volumetric flow rate does not change
significantly with pressure, below 200 bar. See figure 4.5 below.

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 PRESSURE
HIGH
LOW

HIGH

Flow rate

LOW
0 20 40 60 80 100
SPEED (% max)

Figure 4.5
Speed/Flow Rate

Speed and Torque

The torque required to drive a PD pump, in general, is directly proportional to the differential
pressure across the pump and independent of speed (see Figure 4.6). Note that this is very
different to the characteristic for a centrifugal pump where torque is proportional to speed
squared.
MAX

INCREASING
PRESSURE
Torque

MIN MAX
Speed

Figure 4.6
Generalised PD Pump Speed Torque relation

Some types of PD pump have a high starting torque; this can be a significant factor in sizing a
drive. Some types of PD pumps (disc/diaphragm) have an increasing torque at the highest
speeds.
PD pumps, which depend on the pumped fluid for lubrication of their moving mechanical
components, can show a torque characteristic which increases rapidly at low speed, see figure
4.7.

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 INCREASING
PRESSURE

Torque
0 MAX
Speed

Figure 4.7
Progressive Cavity Pump Speed Torque Relation

Speed and Power Absorbed

Typical power absorbed curves vary linearly with speed and pressure; examples are shown as
figures 4.8 and 4.9. Flow control by varying speed is therefore the most efficient method, as it
does not waste any of the input energy.
The liquid’s viscosity can have an effect on absorbed power and the liquid density affects the
system, the pump manufacturer’s data should be consulted.
MAX
MAX 100

80
Absorbed Power (kW)

Absorbed Power (kW)

60
Pressure

Speed
40

20

MIN 0
20 40 60 80 100 MIN MAX

Pressure
Speed (% Max.)

Figure 4.8 Figure 4.9

Rotary Pump Power Curve Reciprocating Pump Power Curve

Other Considerations of Variable Speed with PD Pumps

The pressure can be maintained with reduced speed and flow, so large speed turndowns can be
useful. It is important therefore to avoid a speed which is too low for stable and reproducible
operation and to consider, at the system design stage, the constant torque characteristic and
possible low speed torque effects, because of its demand on electronic variable speed drives. In
particular low speed running at constant torque requires that motor cooling is carefully studied.
Running some types of pump too slowly can have detrimental effects on wear rates when
handling slurries containing settling solids. PD pumps with directly driven lubrication systems
may also have limitations on minimum speeds.
PD pumps are not inherently high in noise and vibration and any perceived noise from a pump
unit can usually be attributed to either the drive, or to hydraulic noise in the associated pipes and
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valves. Some PD pumps do contain out of balance moving components, but increasing speed
within practical limits does not normally produce abnormal vibration.

4.2.2 FLOW CONTROL USING PUMPS IN PARALLEL

PD pumps can generally be run in parallel without problems. This gives increased flow rates at
the pressure rating of a single pump. The principle considerations are, the correct design of inlet
and outlet pipe work to avoid problems of NPIP in the inlet, over pressure in the discharge pipe
work, and back-flow through a stationary pump.
Different PD pumps can be operated in parallel; they do not have to be ‘matched’.
With reciprocating pumps, synchronising the strokes in order to minimise pressure pulsation is
a consideration.

4.2.3 PUMPS IN SERIES (ROTARY)

Rotary PD pumps can be run in series, this gives increased pressure capability at the flow rate of
a single pump. Careful design of the control logic and overpressure prevention/relief are
important.
Matching the speed of the two pumps is important in order to avoid over or under feeding of the
secondary pump. Over feeding the secondary pump will cause overpressure of the primary pump.
Under feeding the secondary pump will cause cavitation and NPIP problems.
The use of one motor to drive both pumps ensures synchronised starting of the two pumps and
speed variations, due to the electrical supply or motor loading, are automatically compensated.
Some types of PD pumps (e.g. progressive cavity) tend to balance out any small mismatches in
flow rates and this minimises operational problems.

4.2.4 FLOW CONTROL VALVE

This is not an acceptable technique. Throttling a PD pump will change pump pressure but will
not change the flow rate and can lead to excessive pressures.

4.2.5 BY-PASS CONTROL

Control is by either ‘modulating’ or on/off control of the bypass flow, but is not commonly used
because of the energy wasted and wear on control valves in the bypass circuit.

4.2.6 LOAD/UNLOAD CONTROL

Unlike a rotodynamic pump this can be an effective way of controlling a PD pump discharge
rate.
Load/unload control is similar to bypass control and energy wastage is relatively low, however,
wear of the load/unload valve is a problem.

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5. MOTORS

Whilst there are many types of prime movers available (such as diesel engines, steam turbines,
dc motors, permanent magnet motors, synchronous reluctance motors and wound rotor motors)
the majority of pumps are driven by an ac induction motor. Although this document is principally
about pumps and Variable Speed Drives it should be mentioned that, on a typical industrial site,
motor driven equipment accounts for approximately two thirds of electricity costs and
improvements in motor efficiency can offer major energy savings. The principles outlined will
apply to all motors on a given site, not just those used as pump drivers.

5.1 MOTOR PRINCIPLES

The speed of an induction motor is normally fixed because the supply frequency is fixed, as is
the number of poles in the motor. The speed ( ignoring slip ) is calculated from the formula :
Speed (RPM/min) = 120 x Supply frequency (Hz)
number of poles
i.e.: - a 2 pole motor on 50 Hz supply has a speed of 120 x 50 = 3000 rpm
2
Equally a 2 pole motor on a 60 Hz supply has a speed of 3600 rpm. Therefore, by varying the
frequency the speed can also be varied.

5.2 MULTI-SPEED MOTORS

Varying the frequency can give a step-less change of speed, but if a small number of
predetermined speeds are acceptable, a multi-speed motor is an effective solution.
Two, three or four fixed speeds can be achieved by special windings within the same stator or
frame and a dedicated controller.

5.3 ENERGY EFFICIENCY

The average electric motor will consume its capital cost in energy in less than 2 months, typically
a motor, costing £500 will consume over £50,000 in its lifetime. Therefore a single percentage
point increase in efficiency will save lifetime energy cost generally equivalent to the purchase
price of the motor. This illustrates the importance of giving close attention to efficiency criteria.
The calculation for the energy cost per annum of any electric motor application is:
Hours used per year x kWh tariff x operating point kW
Efficiency at operating point

Typically for a pumping system: -

Design duty point 80 kW Installed motor rating 90 kW
Operating point 67.5 kW Operating 6000 hrs/yr
Motor efficiency 95.0% Tariff 11 p/kWh

Energy cost = 6000 x £0.11 x 67.5

0.95

= £ 46, 894 per year

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Using this formula, comparisons can be made between different types of motor. Based on a
typical fourteen-year life of an electric motor, lifetime cost savings for high efficiency motors
are in the order of 3-4 times the purchase cost.
Efficiency depends not only on motor design, but also on the types and quantity of active
materials used. The efficiency can therefore vary considerably from manufacturer to
manufacturer.
Manufacturers have focused on the following key factors to improve the efficiency of a motor:
 Electromagnetic design – Making the best use of copper by winding techniques and
lamination design.
 Magnetic steel – Utilising a low loss, high permeability steel.
 Thermal design – Ensuring optimum fit between stator, frame and laminations.
 Aerodynamics – Using a more efficient cooling system by change of fan and/or fan cover
design.
 Manufacturing quality – Improving assembly techniques.

By adopting these techniques, manufacturers have made efficiency improvements in the range
of 3%, on motors up to 400kW. The percentage gains on the lower kW output motors could be
greater than 3%, the gains on the higher kW output motors will not be as great.

There are several international standards for measuring the efficiency of a motor. European (EN
60034-2-1 which is identical to IEC 60034-2-1) and North American (IEEE 112) standards vary
and will inevitably produce differing results. In comparing any manufacturers’ data, the supply
input and test method utilised must be common to each set of data. Manufacturers are now using
IEC 60034-30-1 to classify the energy efficiency of their motors.

5.4 EFFICIENCY REQUIREMENTS AND LABELLING

Previously in Europe, low voltage three-phase motors have been graded and marketed in three
efficiency classes – EFF3, EFF2 and EFF1 – based on a voluntary agreement between motor
manufacturers and the European Commission. This classification system was well proven and
was adapted in many countries around the world. However some countries also developed their
own national systems, which led to a common international standard that replaces all the
different national systems. This new international standard, IEC 60034-30-1, defines Efficiency
classes of line operated AC motors (IE code). It currently has four IE efficiency classifications,
IE1, IE2, IE3 and IE4. Future editions of the Standard will also include IE5.

In Europe, as part of the Ecodesign Directive, the European Commission has passed a
regulation that stipulates the minimum efficiency levels for LV electric motors that can be sold
within Europe. The Regulation had its first effect in June of 2011 after which motors had to be
of an efficiency class IE 2 or higher. In 2015, the minimum rose to IE3 or IE2 if equipped with
a VSD.

Figure 5.1 below illustrates the rough relationship between the IE and EFF and NEMA levels.
Figure 5.2 shows an example of a motor nameplate and Figure 5.3 shows examples of Indication
of the necessity to equip IE2 motors with a variable speed drive

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 Figure 5.1 Rough relationship between the IE and EFF and NEMA levels

Figure 5.2 Example of a Motor nameplate

Figure 5.3 examples of Indication of the necessity to equip IE2 motors with a variable
speed drive

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 Figure 5.4 IE class for 50 Hz 4-pole motors according to IEC 60034-30-1:2014

Figure 5.4 illustrates the energy efficiency band for a 50Hz 4-pole moor according to IEC 60034-
30-1. It is apparent that the spread of motor efficiencies is very wide in smaller sizes and becomes
much narrower in larger sizes. The convergence in larger sizes is realistic since most motors in
larger sizes have similar numerical efficiencies, but small differences are very significant in
terms of lifetime energy consumption and cost for larger motors.

5.5 OTHER ENERGY SAVING OPPORTUNITIES

5.5.1 MOTOR SIZING

Electric motors are designed to deliver full load or rated output power, at rated voltage, twenty-
four hours per day, three hundred and sixty five days per year. However, it is estimated that only
20% of machines in operation are running at their full rated output. The practice of utilising a
10% or perhaps 15% margin can often lead to the selection of a higher power rating and, in some
cases an increase in the physical size, and therefore cost of the machine.
The loading of a motor affects the motors slip (shaft speed), its efficiency and its power factor.
All new motors are designed with a focus on their efficiency, needing to meet international
efficiency requirements and as such most motors are designed to provide a consistent efficiency
between 75% and 100% of rated power; Fig 5.5 shows the typical relationship between
efficiency, power factor and rated output. As can be seen in the diagram whilst the efficiency
remains relatively constant in relation to the load, the reduction in slip will result in an increased
shaft speed and the reduction in power factor reduces the available power for the supply network

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 Figure 5.5
Typical relationship between efficiency, power factor and rated output

5.5.2 SWITCH IT OFF!

The first rule of energy savings is ‘If it isn’t being used, switch it off’. This is a low cost maxim,
which has great effect, but is not frequently enough applied. Put simply, the operator does not
feel the pain of the energy expenditure.

5.5.3 A MOTOR MANAGEMENT POLICY

When a motor is rewound its efficiency may be reduced unless good practice is employed
throughout the process. The modest cost saving of the rewind compared with a new machine
may then be lost through the additional energy losses. A motor management policy should be
introduced to provide a structured approach to replace/repair decisions. Rewinds should be in
accordance with the best practices detailed by the Association of Electrical and Mechanical
Trades (AEMT1). The good practice guide is entitled “The repair of Induction Motors”
Replacement motors should be at least IE2 and should be correctly sized for the application.

1
AEMT Best Practice Guide from: http://www.aemt.co.uk

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 5.5.4 SHAFT ALIGNMENT

Misalignment of motor couplings is also surprisingly wasteful. An 0.6 mm angular offset in a

pin coupling can result in as much as 8% power loss and eventual coupling failure with attendant
production downtime. Check and realign motor drive couplings, starting with the largest motors.

5.5.5 PULLEY SIZING

Significant energy savings can be often be made simply by changing pulley sizes, to ensure a fan
or pump runs at a more appropriate duty point. This doesn’t provide the flexibility of variable
speed control but costs very little and can probably be done within the maintenance budget and
doesn’t require capital approval.

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6. VARIABLE SPEED DRIVES
6.1 VARIABLE FREQUENCY DRIVE PRINCIPLES

As seen earlier in section 5.1, a motor is capable of operating over a range of speeds if correctly
fed at a varying frequency.
In section 3.1.1 we have seen that a rotodynamic pump performance curves show a power
demand that follows the affinity laws, and therefore torque is proportional to (speed) 2 See also
Fig 6.1. This means that in principal a rotodynamic pump (without influence from the system
curve), when slowed by 10% will demand only around 70% of the energy at full speed.
For a great majority of Positive displacement pumps, torque remains constant over the operating
speed range. This is significant in the selection of the drive system, and in determining motor de-
rating.

120

PD Pump
Torque = Constant
100
PD Pump
Power  Speed

Po 80
we
r/T
or
qu 60
e
%

40 Rotodynamic Pump
Torque  Speed 2 Rotodynamic Pump
Power  Speed 3

20

0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600
Speed (r/min)
Figure 6.1
Power and torque vs. speed

6.2 THE FREQUENCY CONVERTER

The most commonly used type of electronic variable speed drive is a frequency converter used
in conjunction with an induction motor.
The frequency converter may be referred to by several terms and abbreviations, including an
inverter (which is only part of the converter system), or as a VVVF (variable voltage, variable
frequency drive) or VFD (variable frequency drive).
Irrespective of type, a frequency converter will consist of four basic parts, and the combination
of these parts will affect the final performance of the system. Parts described below in 6.2.1 to
6.2.4 and Figure 6.2
In addition to the electronics described here the drive system will require conventional switching
components in the supply and safety circuitry.

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 6.2.1 RECTIFIER

A frequency converter will operate by rectifying the incoming AC supply to a DC level. The
type of rectifier can vary depending on the type of performance required from the drive.
The rectifier design will essentially control the harmonic content of the rectifier current, as the
rectifier may not draw current for the full cycle of the incoming supply. It will also control the
direction of power flow.

6.2.2 INTERMEDIATE CIRCUIT

Having rectified the incoming AC supply, the resultant will be an uneven rectified DC. This is
smoothed in the intermediate circuit, normally by a combination of inductors and capacitors.
Over 98% of drives currently in the marketplace use a fixed voltage DC link.

6.2.3 INVERTER

The inverter stage converts the rectified and smoothed DC back into a variable AC voltage and
frequency.
This is normally done with a semiconductor switch. The most common switches in low voltage
systems are currently IGBTs – Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistors. To complete the circuit when
one semiconductor is switched on, each switch is bridged in the reverse polarity by a “flywheel
diode”.

6.2.4 CONTROL UNIT

The control unit gives and receives signals to the rectifier, the intermediate circuit and the
inverter to achieve the correct operation of the equipment.

Intermediate
Rectifier circuit Inverter

Power

Control Unit

I/O MMI

Figure 6.2
Basic Elements of frequency converter

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6.3 PULSE WIDTH MODULATION

For commercial purposes the inverter control may be described differently, however, there is one
fundamental technique that is used – Pulse Width Modulation (PWM)
The principle of PWM is to generate a pulse train by switching between the positive and the
negative legs of the DC link, to simulate the required voltage and frequency as shown in fig 6.3
below.

Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) Principle

+

+ + + SPEED 100%
100 % Volts
- - -

-
u0

M
3~

SPEED 50%
50 % Volts

Figure 6.3
PWM Waveform Generation

When a frequency converter is connected to a motor, it provides a voltage and frequency; the
current is controlled solely by the motor internal impedances.
One major benefit of this is that there is no starting inrush current from the supply, compared to
a direct on line system, allowing soft start both electrically and mechanically.

6.4 INTEGRATED VARIABLE SPEED MOTORS

A recent trend amongst many of the motor manufacturers has been to develop a motor with an
integral inverter. These packages are currently available to approximately 11kW. The major
advantages to the pump designer are the reduced control panel space, the simplified installation,
the straightforward electromagnetic compatibility compliance, and ensured matching of motor
and drive, all leading to greater life cycle cost savings.

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7. SELECTING A VARIABLE SPEED DRIVE FOR A NEW
INSTALLATION
7.1 SIZING & SELECTION

When the pump maximum duty is known, the peak power and speed for the drive will become
clear. It is essential to commence the sizing exercise with the hydraulic system, and to work
systematically to select the pump, motor and drive.
It would be normal to add a tolerance equal to the potential fall off in efficiency over the
maintenance life of the system. It is recommended when selecting a Rotodynamic pump that the
maximum flowrate should be to the right hand side of the best efficiency point.
Some operating profiles will be best satisfied by sharing the duty between multiple Variable
Speed Driven Pumps.

The following selection flow chart (A) is a step-by-step approach to see if a Variable Speed
Driven pump will benefit the system and explain the decisions required.

Throughout this process we recommend consultation with the suppliers whose expertise should
assist your selection.

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 7.1.1 Flowchart to assess the suitability of a VSD for a pump system
Start

Define Duty Required

Head, Flow, Liquid
Details

Does the Pump No

Select Fixed
Duty Vary ? Speed Pump

Yes

Variable speed
potentially useful

Define all operating

conditions & run time at
each operating point

Consider reducing the system losses

as far as economically possible.
Produce system curve.

Is duty fairly equally shared Low or high capacity 2 separate pumps may
No
between all flow rates ? predominates be better than VSD

Yes

System curve mostly friction ? No Mostly static ?

Yes
Check overall benefits-
VSD most likely economics need careful
beneficial checking

Consider switched
Does the pump run for most of No
VSD may still give pumps in parallel
the time ? verall
overall benefit

Yes

VSD will almost certainly

give overall benefit
Flow Chart
A

Continue on next page

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 Continuation of Flowchart (A) to assess the suitability of a VSD
for a pump system

Consider control parameters

- Flow ? Head ? Temperature ? Level ?
Can a control valve or bypass be eliminated ?

What condition monitoring is required

- Low Flow ? Low power ? Vibration ?
Temperature ?

Is pump/motor in Consider integral

No
Hazardous area ? motor/inverter.

Provide details to pump Yes

vendor to supply full
package and quantify the
savings

Or quantify savings and

purchase VSD
separately.

Determine kW rating of drive

Determine supply voltage

Check compatibility of
VSD with motor

Consider EMC issues ,

Examine cable runs from G5/4 (harmonics on
VSD to motor supply)

Receive pump performance

curves for all duties/speeds
Calculate total annual operating
costs and compare with
alternatives e.g. flow control Calculate operating cost at
valve, multiple pumps. each duty, taking account
ofOf drive/motor efficiencies
at different speeds. at

Receive quotes for equipment

and installation – Consider Life
Cycle Cost benefit.

Consider other VSD benefits-

No control valve, reduced
maintenance, improved pump &
motor condition monitoring
benefits

Make pay-back calculations on Review further economic benefits of improved

VSD vs Fixed Speed vs multiple pump efficiency e.g. coatings, low loss seals, and
pumps. the use of high efficiency motors.

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7.2 CONTROL

A pump with variable speed capability will need to be controlled to unlock all the benefits
available from VS operation.
The effect of varying speed with a centrifugal pump is to vary both head and flow. Variation of
speed with a positive displacement pump will vary only the flow rate.

Process Controlled External influence

Parameter
Distribution Pressure Draw- off
(see 7.2.1)
Heating system Temperature Ambient
(see 7.2.2)
Pipeline Flow Level
(see 7.2.3)
Tank filling Level Outflow
(see 7.2.4)

Table 7.1
Examples of control parameter

7.2.1 CONTROL BY FIXING PRESSURE BUT VARYING FLOW

The most common form of control is by use of a discharge pressure sensor which sends a signal
to the VFD which in turn varies the speed allowing the pump to increase or decrease the flow
required by the system.
This form of control is common in water supply schemes where a constant pressure is required
but water is required at different flows dependant on the number of users at any given time.
Capacity changes at constant pressure are also common on centralised cooling and distribution
systems and in irrigation where a varying number of spray heads or irrigation sections are
involved.

7.2.2 HEATING SYSTEM CONTROL

In heating and cooling systems there is a requirement for flow to vary based on temperature.
In this instance the VFD is controlled by a temperature sensor, which allows the flow of hot, or
cold liquid in the system to increase or decrease based on the actual temperature required by the
process.
This is similar in operation to pressure control, where the flow is also the variable entity, but a
constant temperature requirement from a temperature sensor replaces the constant pressure
requirement from a pressure sensor.

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 7.2.3 CONTROL BY FIXING FLOW BUT VARYING PRESSURE:

In irrigation and water supply systems constant flow is sometimes required, even though the
water levels both upstream and downstream of the pumping station vary.
Also many cooling, chiller, spraying and washing applications require a specific flow rate of
water to be supplied even if the suction and delivery conditions vary. Typically suction
conditions vary when the height of a suction reservoir or tank drops and delivery pressure can
change if filters blind or if system resistance increases occur through blockages etc.
The VSD system is usually the optimum choice to keep constant the flow rate in the system using
a control signal from a flowmeter, which can be installed in the suction, but more commonly in
the discharge line.

7.2.4 TANK FILLING CONTROL

Many systems function by maintaining a head from a tank. Traditionally the tank is refilled by
a fixed speed system when it empties below a specific level – control is achieved by two float
switches.
This form of control is common in water supply schemes where flow may vary throughout the
day, and can result in varying pressure. By using a level transducer detecting the tank level the
inflow can be matched to the outflow, the tank volume being used to make up only when very
high outflow occurs, thus a more even pressure in the distribution can be achieved.

7.2.5 IMPLEMENTATION

In many cases there will be an external control system, such as a PLC or PC, which will provide
the start/stop control and an analogue speed reference to the drive, or it will pass this information
to the drive by a serial communications link. In other cases the drive may have adequate on
board intelligence.
All modern drive systems rely on microprocessor control, and this allows the manufacturer to
integrate the basic signal processing functions into the drive. In some instances manufacturers
have installed bespoke control software to the drive to allow specific requirements to be met.
As every case has its own specific requirements, it is important that the control requirements are
understood in order to achieve the optimum system performance.

7.2.6 SOFT STARTING AND STOPPING

When a induction motor is started direct on line, it will generate a high level of torque, which
will cause a very fast breakaway, and it will then accelerate up to speed in an uncontrolled
fashion.
In this case the network has to supply a large inrush current, a very high initial level to establish
flux in the motor, followed by a high level which decreases as the drive accelerates.
The effect on the pump is to place mechanical stresses on the rotating components, followed by
stresses in the hydraulic system, which may include a high initial flow rate causing a vacuum to
be drawn on the suction side, or surge on the discharge, and possible NPSH problems.
Equally when stopping the rate of deceleration is totally uncontrolled, which can lead to further
mechanical stresses, and surges in the hydraulic circuit. This can lead to requirements for
additional inertia to be added to the pumpset, generally in the form of a flywheel, or to surge
control vessels in the hydraulic system.

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The use of electronic starting systems allows smooth acceleration and deceleration of a drive
system.
Electronic soft starters will reduce the voltage at the motor terminals in a controlled manner, but
are generally short time rated devices, whilst a frequency converter is usually continuously rated
and so can be used to give very controlled rates of change.
The only drawback with either electronic scheme is that generally the equipment must be
connected to the network, and therefore problems of uncontrolled deceleration could arise in a
power failure.

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8. RETROFITTING A VARIABLE SPEED DRIVE TO EXISTING
EQUIPMENT
8.1 JUSTIFICATION

There are approximately 20 times more pumps in service in existing installations than are
supplied new every year.
It is common for fixed speed pumps to be oversized; most system designers allow a contingency
on the system head required. It follows therefore that retrofitting variable speed drives could
match pumps to actual system requirements more accurately and save considerable amounts of
energy.
Also many existing systems use control valves and bypasses, all of which absorb energy not
required to satisfy system demands.
It is therefore apparent that a major opportunity exists for modifying installed systems to make
them more energy efficient. The fitting of variable speed drives and the removal of control valves
and bypasses will save energy and often the payback for the modifications is short. Just consider
that a speed reduction of 10% with a rotodynamic pump will save approximately 30% of the
electrical energy absorbed and 75% of pump systems are oversized, many by between 10 and
20%
Pump Manufacturers should be contacted to ensure pumps can be run at slower speeds with no
detrimental effects and the motor manufacturers to ensure motors are suitable for use with
variable speed drives. There may also be other alternatives; for example if a pump is oversized
but operates at a single duty, the impeller diameter can be permanently reduced, which achieves
the same energy reduction as a VSD but at a small cost.

8.2 MOTOR DE-RATING

When considering adding a variable speed drive to an existing motor, care should be taken to
match the electrical characteristics of the motor and frequency converter; otherwise the risk of
premature failure is introduced into the system.
Early frequency converters produced outputs that had a very high harmonic content in the
waveform. This resulted in substantial additional heating of motor windings, and therefore
motors were de-rated for inverter use. Modern inverter outputs, cause relatively small levels of
harmonic current distortion in the motor windings, and therefore little de-rating is normally
required. Whilst this de-rating will be minimal it will vary from one motor design to another. It
is also dependent on the type of inverter used.
The following parameters vary from one converter design to another and will affect the drive
system performance:
 Total harmonic distortion
 Peak voltage
 Maximum rate of change of voltage
 Switching frequency
 Cable length between the motor and inverter

Motor de-rating may be required to compensate for the reduced cooling at lower speeds when
the motor shaft mounted fan is not generating the airflow achieved at normal synchronous speed.
The motor manufacturer’s expertise must be used to determine how much de-rating is required
and their recommendations applied. There are no definitive rules that can be applied to all motors.

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In general, little or no de-rating is required with most rotodynamic pump drives, however PD
pumps with a constant torque characteristic are more likely to require de-rating of the motor for
reduced speed operation.
Typically motors with a fixed speed-cooling fan can deliver a constant torque continuously over
a wider speed range.
Figure 8.1 shows the effect on torque capabilities of varying the frequency (speed) of a typical
motor, with a power rating based on Class B (800 K temperature rise).
120.00
Constant flux
Constant voltage
(Volts  frequency) area
(Field weakening) area
Motor delivers constant torque (Subject to cooling)
Motor delivers constant power
100.00
Motor with fixed speed fan

80.00

Motor with shaft mounted fan

Torque (%)

60.00

Typical Centrifugal pump

Speed/Torque relation
40.00

20.00

0.00
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80

Frequency (Hz)

Figure 8.1
Typical Isothermal Loadability Curves

8.3 SIZING AND SELECTION OF A VSD ON EXISTING EQUIPMENT

To assist with the decision on whether or not to retrofit on existing equipment, please refer to
flow chart (B) in 8.3.1

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 Flowchart to assess the suitability of retrofitting a VSD to an
8.3.1 existing pump system
IS THIS NEW EQUIPMENT OR
RETROFIT ?
Retrofit
New Equipment
Define all operating conditions &
run time at each operating point

Please refer to Flowchart Consider reducing the system losses

7.1.1. as far as economically possible.
Produce system curve.

Define Duty Required

Head, Flow , Liquid
Details

Retain Fixed Does the Pump

Speed Pump No Duty Vary ?

Yes

Variable speed
potentially useful

Is duty fairly equally shared Low or high capacity 2 separate pumps may
No
between all flow rates ? predominates be better than VSD

Yes

System curve mostly friction ? No Mostly static ?

Yes
Check overall benefits-
VSD most likely economics need careful
beneficial checking

Consider switched
Does the pump run for most of VSD may give overall pumps in parallel
No
the time ? benefit

Yes

VSD will almost certainly

give overall benefit

Flow Chart
B
Continue on next page

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 Continuation of Flowchart (B) to assess the suitability of
retrofitting a VSD to an existing pump system

Consider control parameters

- Flow ? Head ? Temperature ? Level ?
Can a control valve or bypass be eliminated ?

What condition monitoring is required

- Low Flow ? Low power ? Vibration ?
Temperature ?

Is pump/motor in Consider integral

No
Hazardous area ? motor/inverter.

Obtain pump curves Yes

Determine kW rating of drive

Determine supply voltage

Check compatibility of
VSD with motor

Consider EMC issues ,

Examine cable runs from G5/4 (harmonics on
VSD to motor Supply)

Calculate total annual operating

costs and compare with current
costs. Calculate operating cost at
each duty point, taking into
account the drive/motor
efficiencies at different
speeds
Receive quotes for equipment
and installation – Consider Life
Cycle Cost benefit.

Consider other VSD benefits-

No control valve , reduced
maintenance , improved pump &
motor condition monitoring

Make pay-back calculations for

installing VSD

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9. EFFECTS OF NOISE & VIBRATION WHEN VARYING SPEED
Vibration occurs in all rotating machinery when in operation. Vibrations are normally caused
by imbalance of the rotating components, but can also be caused by hydraulic flow through a
pump or valve. It is obviously desirable to maintain sufficiently low vibration levels in order to
prevent mechanical damage. Noise is also created and is undesirable from an environmental
point of view.
In centrifugal pumps, energy is transmitted via the impeller vanes to the pumping liquid Because
the number of vanes is finite, pressure pulsations will arise. Flow around the vanes and flow
separation can occur if the pump is operating away from its design duty, leading to an unsteady
state of flow. The pressure pulsations and unsteady flow may excite vibrations in the pump
casing and associated piping, with the result that noise may be transmitted to the surrounding
environment.
The trend towards higher rotational speeds has an unfavourable effect on the noise developed by
centrifugal pumps, since the overall dimensions of the machine are reduced and the energy
conversion consequently takes place in a much smaller volume (increased power density).
It follows, therefore that a reduction in operating speed leads to lower noise and vibration levels.
Since the operation of a motor driven pump in combination with a variable speed drive system,
often results in lower average speeds (the unit will only operate at a speed to achieve the desired
duty condition), a general reduction in noise levels is to be expected. This is, of course, a benefit
where noise level is a consideration. Typical noise level restrictions in current specifications call
for sound pressure levels to be below 85 dBA in workplaces.
The adoption of a variable speed drive system can also lead to a lowering of hydraulic noise
levels in the piping system. Additionally, the elimination of items such as control valves, will
also lead to a reduction in hydraulic noise levels.
As most pumps are driven by electric motors, consideration should also be given to the noise
emitted by the driver. Combined noise levels for pump/motor combinations are typically 2dBA
more than the item with the higher noise level.
It should also be noted that an increase of between 3 and 6 dBA in motor noise is generally
apparent when motors are used in combination with inverter drives. The overall reduction in
speed level, however, normally leads to an overall decrease in noise levels.
A change in the rotating speed will vary the frequencies of the vibration exciting forces, this can
create a structural resonance not found at the fixed running speed This can occur equally with
reduction or increase in the speed, and is mostly associated with pumps mounted on light
structures, or vertical machines which are inevitably less rigidly mounted. The manufacturer
should always be consulted in these areas.

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9.1 TYPICAL NOISE LEVELS

9.1.1 PUMPS
The table below indicates the noise levels that can be expected from typical single stage
centrifugal pumps operating at different speeds:

Power requirement at Speed (rpm) Sound pressure level

maximum speed (kW) (dBA @ 1m)

3.0 2900 72
1450 63
980 58
37 2900 80
1450 72
980 67

Table 9.1
Typical Noise Levels for Rotodynamic pumps

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APPENDIX - ADDITIONAL INFORMATION

A.1 MAGNETIC DRIVE PUMPS

A.1.1 EFFECTS OF PUMP SPEED

The affinity laws described in section 3.1.1 apply to pumps in which the impeller is driven
directly, with the shaft sealed by gland packing or mechanical seal where it enters the pump
casing.
Pumps which require a higher leak free integrity are hermetically sealed with a stationary
device called a Containment Shell or Sheath. With this design, the pump shaft is driven by
Magnetism across the stationary containment shell, either by the use of permanent magnets
(Synchronous Drive or Canned Magnet Drive Pumps) or by the use of an induced magnetic
field (Canned Motor Pumps). These react differently to speed change.
With magnetically driven pumps, there are usually magnetic power losses to be taken into
account, as well as hydraulic power. These are proportional to speed squared. (The exception
to this rule is that there are generally no magnetic losses incurred for non-metallic magnetically
driven pumps).
Hydraulic Power follows the Affinity Laws, i.e. P2 = P1 x (RPM2/RPM1)3
Magnetic Power(M) follows the physical law:- M2 = M1 x (RPM2/RPM1)2
Then, Total Power = Hydraulic Power (P) + Magnetic Losses (M)
The magnetic power is typically 10% of the total power so the deviation caused by this
departure from the Affinity Laws is only small.
NOTE:-
1. Non-metallic magnetic drive pumps usually have no magnetic losses and so power can be calculated by
the affinity laws, similar to mechanically sealed pumps.
2. For any significant increase in speed, always verify with the pump manufacturer that the magnetic
coupling is adequately rated for this new power & speed.

A.1.2 EFFECTS OF IMPELLER DIAMETER CHANGE

The equations in section 3.1.2 define the variation of pump hydraulic performance with
impeller diameter for conventionally driven pumps. For Magnetically Driven pumps, the effect
of diameter change on power, only applies to the Hydraulic Power. If the speed is unchanged
the Magnetic losses will not change.
Using the usual hydraulic power/diameter relationship, P2 = P1 x (D2/D1)3

Then total Power at the new diameter = Hydraulic Power (P2) + Constant Magnetic Losses

A.2 MOTOR CONSIDERATIONS

A.2.1 PROTECTION

As the inverter control monitors the motor current, it will also provide motor protection, based
on the load and speed, and compensate for reduced loadability at reduced speed.
Some more sophisticated drives offer both over and under load protection, which allows
monitoring of imminent seizure, coupling failure, low flow and dry run.

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 A.2.2 SPEED

A motor is not limited to its synchronous speed; it can be both reduced and increased. Figure
8.1 shows that beyond base speed the torque available will drop as the inverter cannot increase
its output voltage, and the motor becomes progressively under fluxed. This is known as field
weakening
There is a specific maximum output speed for any motor, and the advice of the manufacturer
should be sought before running a motor beyond its base speed.

A.2.3 INSULATION DESIGN

Modern motor insulation systems are suitable for inverter use; however, the manufacturer should
be asked to confirm. Further information is available from the Gambica/BEAMA Technical
Report No 12

A.2.4 MOTOR BEARINGS

With a modern PWM inverter the motor bearings should not run hotter than when the motor is
directly fed. Earlier square-wave inverter designs caused some additional losses in the rotor,
which would be dissipated down the shaft, potentially requiring high temperature lubricants, or
more frequent lubrication.
Bearing currents can occur with inverter-fed motors if they are incorrectly installed. Particular
attention must be paid to the supplier’s instructions regarding equipotential bonding and earthing.
In larger motors (with shaft height of 280 mm or more) electric discharge through bearings may
require insulated bearings to be fitted. Further information is available from the Gambica/
BEAMA Technical Report No 23.

A.3 LEGISLATIVE REQUIREMENTS

Within Europe the inter-relation of a system with its environment is laid down by a number of
EU Directives, and by local regulation, these are direct obligations on users and their agents to
be applied when implementing a system.
A number of EU Directives are particularly important when considering variable speed pumping
applications. EU Directives are implemented into UK law by parliamentary Statutory
Instruments.

A.3.1 THE MACHINERY DIRECTIVE4

This Directive deals with the safety of machinery. It is primarily implemented by applying one
or more from a list of harmonised standards.
From the point of view of an electrically driven pump the most important of these standards is
likely to be EN 60204-1 which covers the safety of the electrical equipment of machinery.

2
See Appendix A6
3
See Appendix A6
4
Directive 2006/42/EC of the European Commission available at
http://ec.europa.eu/enterprise/sectors/index_en.htm
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 A.3.2 THE EMC DIRECTIVE5

EMC is the ability of a device or system to function correctly in its intended electromagnetic
environment without disturbing other devices in that environment.

Distribution Network

Supply Network

Conducted Emissions
electromagnetic Immunity
noise
Power Drive System
Converter
Emissions Immunity

Radiated
electromagnetic Motor
noise

Figure A3.1 – EMC aspects of a Power Drive System

The EMC Directive details the levels of electrical disturbances, both radiated and conducted that
the drive system is permitted to emit and also the levels to which must be immune. To meet the
requirements of the Directive a “Power Drive System” should preferably comply with the
harmonised Product Specific Standard EN 61800-36.
To avoid problems, it is essential that the manufacturer’s installation recommendations be strictly
followed.
Figure A3.1 illustrates the coupling paths for disturbances into and out of the drive system.
Emission and immunity are to a considerable degree complementary.

A.3.2.1 RADIATED EMISSIONS

The drive is a source of high frequencies due to the controlling microprocessors, and the rapidly
rising wave fronts of the output voltage pulses.
Unsuitable cabling and incorrect grounding can allow these high frequencies to radiate and
disturb the environment.

A.3.2.2 CONDUCTED EMISSIONS

Lower frequency disturbances can be passed back through the supply network to cause problems
for other users of that network, or by subsequent radiated emission from the network.

A.3.2.3 HARMONICS
Another aspect of EMC is low frequency emissions, or harmonics. The level of harmonics
reflected back to the supply network is usually regulated by the electricity supply utility.
Harmonics are voltages and currents in the electrical system at frequencies that are multiples of
the fundamental frequency (50 Hz in UK power systems).

5
Directive 2004/108/EC of the European Commission available at
http://ec.europa.eu/enterprise/sectors/index_en.htm
6
The application of this standard gives a presumption of conformity with the Directive
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Harmonics are associated with any load that uses a rectifier based power supply such as radio
and TV, computers, lighting ballasts, other domestic equipment such as washing machines and
microwave ovens etc.
Harmonics also come from generators, and transmission equipment. They can affect the
equipment performance and are both caused by and can interfere with the function of VSDs. 7 ,8

A.3.3 THE LOW VOLTAGE DIRECTIVE9

This Directive concerns all electrical equipment with nominal voltages from 50 V to 1000 V AC
(and 75 V to 1500 V DC).
The aim is to provide protection against electrical, mechanical fire and radiation hazards.
The Low Voltage Directive does not apply to products for use in potentially explosive
atmospheres.

A.3.4 THE ATEX DIRECTIVE10

This Directive provides a framework for determining the essential health and safety requirements
for use of any product in a potentially explosive atmosphere.
The Directive applies to the entire equipment INCLUDING the pump. It also includes operation
within dust hazards, as well as flammable gases. The converter and motor have to be considered
both in their own right and also in terms of the effect of the converter on the motor.
Under the terms of the directive it is unlikely that any electric motor manufactured under previous
standards, or meeting earlier versions of this directive will be permitted to be retrofitted with a
variable speed drive.
For further information please refer to the GAMBICA guide “Application of the ATEX
Directives to Power Drive Systems”.

7
Harmonics in the UK are governed by the Electricity Association Engineering Recommendation G5/4-1,
published by The Energy Networks Association at http://www.energynetworks.org
8
Information on compliance is contained in Gambica Technical Guide No 1.
9
Directive 2006/95/EC of the European Commission available at
http://ec.europa.eu/enterprise/sectors/index_en.htm
10
Directive 94/9/EC of the European Commission available at http://ec.europa.eu/enterprise/sectors/index_en.htm

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 A.4 ABBREVIATIONS
PUMP
NPIP Net positive inlet pressure
NPSP Net positive suction pressure
NPSH Net positive suction head
NPSHA Net positive suction head available
NPSHR Net positive suction head required
H Head
Q Flow
rpm Revolutions per minute
PD Positive displacement pump
BEP Best efficiency point

MOTOR AND DRIVE

HEM High efficiency motor
PWM Pulse width modulated
AC Alternating current (voltage)
DC Direct current (voltage)
EMC Electromagnetic Compatibility
PLC Programmable logic controller
VSD Variable speed drive
VFD Variable frequency drive
VVVF Variable voltage variable frequency (drive)
TEFV Totally enclosed fan ventilated

A.5 REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING

 GAMBICA/ BEAMA Technical Report No 1. Motor insulation voltage stresses under
PWM inverter operation
 GAMBICA/ BEAMA Technical Report No 2 Motor shaft voltages and bearing
currents under PWM inverter operation
 GAMBICA Technical Guide Managing Harmonics, A guide to ENA Engineering
Recommendation G5/4-1
- The above may be freely downloaded from the appropriate organisation website
(See below)
 NEMA Standards Publication - Application Guide For AC Adjustable Speed Drive
Systems - may be freely downloaded from the NEMA website (See below)
 Pump Life Cycle Costs - by Europump & Hydraulic Institute, available from BPMA
website (See below)
 Energy Efficiency of Electric Motors by Design, 1994, Walters DG & Williams IJ
 Carbon Trust - Motors and drives - Introducing energy saving opportunities for
business (CTV048)
 Carbon Trust - How to implement higher efficiency motors (CTL155)
 Carbon Trust - Variable speed drives technology guide (CTG070)
 European Pumps and Pumping published by Wiley-Blackwell
 Pump Handbook published by McGraw Hill
 AEMT Good Practice Guide, The repair of Induction Motors.

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Websites:-

www.beama.org.uk
www.bpma.org.uk
www.gambica.org.uk

www.nema.org
http://www.carbontrust.com

Contact details :-

BEAMA
Westminster Tower
3 Albert Embankment
London
SE1 7SL

Tel: +44 (0)20 7793 3000

Email: [email protected]

British Pump Manufacturers Association

National Metalforming Centre
47 Birmingham Road
West Bromwich
B70 6PY

Tel: +44 (0)121 601 6350

E-mail : [email protected]

GAMBICA
Westminster Tower
3 Albert Embankment
London
SE1 7SL

Tel: +44 (0)20 7642 8080

Email: [email protected]

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