Arithmetic

A. Fundamental Operations
PEMDASN – order of precedence of operations
1. Parenthesis - perform all operations inside parentheses, from innermost to outermost,
then from left to right.
2. Exponentiation and extraction of roots – perform all exponentiation and extraction of
roots from innermost to outermost, then from left to right
NOTE: When taking the root of a power, it would be difficult to evaluate the
expression using the prescribed order without the aid of a calculator: it will eventually
involve taking the root of a large number. To facilitate its computation, use the
  m
property a a m  n a , which suggests that extraction of root should be performed first.
3. Multiplication and Division – these are same level operations, and are performed from
left to right if they occur together in the same arithmetical expression
4. Addition and Subtraction – these are same level operations, and are performed from left
to right if they occur together in the same arithmetical expression
5. Negation – changes the sign of the number to the opposite

B. Divisibility
A number x is divisible by
1. 2 if N is even (N ends with 0, 2, 4, 6, or 8)
2. 5 if N ends with 5 or 0
3. 10 if N ends with 0
4. 3 if the sum of the digits of N is divisible by 3
5. 9 if the sum of the digits of N is divisible by 9
6. 4 if the last 2 digits of N are 00 or is divisible by 4
7. 8 if the last 3 digits of N are 000 or is divisible by 8
8. 6 if N is divisible by both 2 and 3
9. x if N is divisible by all the factors of x.

Examples:
1. Find the value of N so that 679,53N is divisible by 36.
a. 0 b. 2 c. 4 d. 6 e. 8
2. Which of the following does not divide 123,456?
a. 3 b. 4 c. 6 d. 8 e. 9
C. Rounding Off and Scientific Notation

D. Formula Evaluation
- Given a formula (usually an expression that defines a * b, read as a operation b, and an
expression x * y, substitute the left operand x and the right operand y to a and b in the
formula, respectively

Examples
1. Given the formula a * b = a – b + ab,
a. Evaluate -2 * 4
b. Solve for x in the equation 3 * x = 6
2. Given the formula a * b = a2 + 8b, solve for x in the equation 2 * x = 20

E. LCM and GCF

- To find the LCM (least common multiple) or GCF (greatest common factor) of a set of
numbers, express first each number in the list as product of primes. The LCM is the
product of all the resulting primes, each prime is raised to the highest exponent of that
prime in the list. The GCF is the product of all the common primes, each prime raised
to the lowest exponent of that prime in the list.

Examples:
1. Find LCM and GCF of 150, 96 and 108.
2. One bell rings every 10 minutes and another bell rings every 6 minutes. If both
bells rang together at 5 pm, when will they ring together next?
3. Three moons of a certain planet rotates around the planet every 36, 48 and 75 Earth
months. If the three moons are aligned now, in how many months will the three
moons be aligned next?

F. Comparison of Decimals, Fractions and Negative Numbers

G. Conversion of Units
H. Evaluating Expressions with Fractions and Decimals
I. Percentage

J. Ratio and Proportion

K. Logarithms and Exponents
L. Real, Imaginary and Complex Numbers

II. ALGEBRA

A. Operations on Algebraic Expressions

B. Exponents
am
- The following properties can be applied: (a) a m a n  a mn ; (b) n
 a mn ; (c)
a
a 
m n
 a mn ; (d) a 0  1 ; (e) a1  a
C. Special Products
1. Distributivity: ax  y   ax  ay
2. Product of the Sum and Difference of the Same Two Terms: x  y x  y   x 2  y 2
3. Square of a Binomial: x  y 2  x 2  2 xy  y 2
4. Square of a Trinomial: x  y  z 2  x 2  y 2  z 2  2 xy  2 yz  2 xz
5. Cube of a Binomial: x  y 3  x3  3x 2 y  3xy2  y 3
6. Product Yielding the Sum/Difference of Two Cubes: x  y x 2  xy  y 2   x3  y 3
7. Product of Two Binomials: FOIL (sum of the product of the first terms, outer
terms, inner terms and last terms)

Examples:
1. a  b 3  a  b 3
2. 2c  3d  5e2
3.
4.
D. Factoring
1. Common Factors: ax  ay  ax  y 
2. Difference of Two Squares: x 2  y 2  x  y x  y 
3. Perfect Square Trinomial: x 2  2 xy  y 2  x  y 2
4. Ordinary Trinomial – may be factored as the sum of two binomials; FOIL is used to
check if the factors are correct
5. Sum/Difference of Two Cubes: x3  y 3  x  y x 2  xy  y 2 
6. Factoring by Grouping – used to factor 4 terms (or more); terms are grouped either
3-1 (first group has 3 terms and second group has 1 term) or(first group has 2 terms
and second group has two terms). (a) 3-1 grouping is used if there is a perfect
square trinomial in the given expression; the goal is to produce a difference of two
squares; (b) 2-2 if otherwise; the goal is to produce a common factor between the
two groups.

Examples: Factor the following expressions completely:

1. 1113 2  1112 2
2. 993  3  99 2  3  99  1
 3. a 2  4b 2  9c 2  12bc
4. ab  bc  ac  c 2
5. m 6  64n 6

E. Simplification of Fractions
- A fraction is simple if its numerator and denominator have no common factor
- To simplify a fraction, factor its numerator and denominator, then cancel factor/s
common to both
- If there are 2 factors with the same terms but are opposite in signs, one in the
numerator and the other in the denominator, then a common factor can be produced
by factoring out -1 from that factor in either the numerator or the denominator
- Cancellation between the numerator and the denominator is allowed provided the
main operation in both the numerator and denominator is multiplication.

Examples:
1.
x  2x  3
x  2x  1
x 2  xz  xy  yz
2.
x2  z 2

F. Operations on Fractions
-

G. Negative Exponents
1
- Must be removed first using the rule a n 
an
-

H. Complex Fractions
- A fraction whose numerator or denominator or both contains fraction/s.
- To simplify, convert both numerator and denominator as single fractions, the
perform division. Simplify the final answer.

I. Rational Exponents
- Convert to radicals using the rule a m / n  n a m

J. Simplification of Radicals
1. Bringing out of factors from the radicand
 - A factor can be brought out from the radicand if it is a perfect power (its
exponent s equal to the index)
2. Reduction of Index
- The index of the radical can be reduced if the exponents if each fractor in the
radicand have a common factor with the index
3. Removal of Fractions from the radicand
a na
- To remove a fraction in the radicand, use the property n 
b nb
4. Removal of Radical from the denominator
- To remove a radical from the denominator, multiply to both the numerator and
denominator a rationalizing factor. If the denominator is a
o Monomial – the rationalizing factor must make the exponent of each
factor in the radicand of the denominator equal to the index.
o Binomial of the form n a  n b , the rationalizing factor is an n-term
expression such that when the denominators are multiplied, the product
is of the form  a   b
n
n
n
n

K. Operations on radicals
1. Addition/Subtraction of Radicals
- Simplify the addend radicals first before their sum/difference is taken
- Only similar radicals (same index and same radicand) can ne directly added
or subtracted.
- Perform addition/subtraction on the coefficients of similar radicals, then
attach to the result the common radical.
2. Multiplication/Division of Radicals
- Only radicals with the same index can be directly multiplied or divided
- If the radicals to be multiplied or divided have different indices, convert
them into radicals with the same index first.
- Simplify the final product or quotient.

Examples:

1. a  3 a 4  6 a5
6
x
2
4
x3  3 x 2

L. Solving Equations with One Unknown

1. Linear Equation
 -of the form ax  b  0 , can be solved for x using transposition of term and
division of factor
2. Quadratic Equations
- Of the form ax 2  bx  c  0 , can be solved for x using the factoring method
(if ax 2  bx  c  0 is factorable) or the quadratic formula (if ax 2  bx  c  0
is not factorable)
3. Exponential Equations
- Equation where x is in the exponent
- To solve for x, express both sides of the equation as single powers with the
same base, then equate the exponents, then solve the resulting equation for
x. There is no need to check for extraneous solution (a derived value of x
that does not satisfy the original equation.
- If the bases of the powers in the equation cannot be made equal, then use
logarithms to solve for x.

4. Logarithmic Equations
- Equation involving a logarithm
- If the equation involves
o One logarithm, convert the equation to its exponential form, then
solve the resulting equation for x. Check for extraneous solution (a
derived value of x that makes the argument or base of a logarithm in
the original equation zero or negative.
o Two or more logarithms, convert these into a single logarithm then
proceed as in the preceding case.

5. Rational (Fractional) Equations

- Equation with x in the denominator
- To solve for x, express both sides of the equation into single fractions, then
cross-multiply. Expand resulting products, then solve the resulting equation
for x. Check for extraneous solution (a derived value of x that makes a
denominator in the original equation zero)

6. Radical Equations
- Equation with x inside a radical
- To solve for x, remove all radicals from the equation first (isolate a radical
on one side of the equation, then raise both sides of the equation to the same
exponent. Repeat this process until all radicals have been removed). Solve
the resulting equation for x. Check for extraneous solution (a derived value
of x that does not satisfy the original equation)
 Examples:
Solve the following equations for x:
1. x 2 / 3  4
2. 3
3x  1  2
3. x2  2x  x  6

4. 2x  1  x  2  3
5. 2x  1  x  3  2

7. Literal Equations
- An equation that involves 2 or more letters, one of which is to be isolated
- To isolate a letter, (a) remove all radicals (if any), then (b) remove all
denominators (if any), then (c) expand all products (if any), then (d) group
all terms with the unknown letter on one side of the equation, the other
terms on the other side, then (e) factor out unknown letter and isolate it
through division.

Examples:
Solve the following equations for the indicated letter.
1 1 1
1.   , R1  ?
E R1 R2
AC B
2.  , C ?
BC A

Solving System of Equations

- Given two equations involving the unknowns x and y, the two variables can
be solved by using either elimination method or substitution method
- A system of two linear equations in x and y is best solved by using the
elimination method while a system of one linear equation and one quadratic
equation in x and y is best solved using the substitution method. A system of
two quadratic equations in x and y is best solved using the elimination
method.
M. Solving Word Problems
- to solve a word problem, one can either solve it using
1. the traditional method
o (a) let x = unknown, (b) let y = another unknown, (c) set up
equation/s involving the letter/s identified, (d) solve the equation/s
set-up, (e) check the answer/s for appropriateness.
o Time consuming for many word problems, not advisable for use
during an entrance examination
2. Test of Choices
o Select a choice, then test it against the problem. If the problem is
satisfied, then that choice is the correct answer. If not, try again.
o Trial and error based: best case is when the first trial is the correct
answer; worst case is when four trials were made, all incorrect and
hence the 5th choice is correct.

Examples:
1. Find a two digit number such that the sum of the digits is 10 and if
the digits are reversed, the new number is 54 more than the original.
a. 28 b. 37 c. 46 d. 64 e. 73
2. Find a two digit number such that the sum of the digits is 12. If the
digits are reversed, the new number is 12 less than twice the original.
a. 28 b. 39 c. 48 d. 57 e. 75
3. A purse has 28 coins with total value of P13. If the coins consist of
only P1 and 25c coins, how many 25c coins are there in the purse?
a. 12 b. 14 c. 16 d. 20 e. 24
4. A rectangle has perimeter 28 ft. If its length is 2 more than twice its
width, find the length of the rectangle.
a. 8 ft b. 9 ft c. 10 ft d. 12 ft e. 13 ft
5. A right triangle has area 24 sq. in. If the height of the triangle is 4
less than twice the base of the triangle, find its base.
a. 4 b. 4.5 c. 5 d. 5.5 e. 6
6. John is four times as old as Paul. In 20 years, John will be twice as
old as Paul. How old is John now?
a. 32 b. 36 c. 40 d. 48 e. 60
7. John left the camp at 6:00 am walking at 6 kph. Two hours later,
Paul left the same camp to follow John, walking at 8 kph. At what
time will Paul catch up with John?
a. 11 am b. 12 nn c. 1 pm d. 2 pm e. 3 pm
 8. Two cars A and B left the same place at the same time but were
headed in opposite directions. If car A is 8 kph faster than card B
and were 792 km after 9 hours, find the speed of car A.
a. 32 b. 40 c. 48 d. 54 e. 60
9. How much 30% salt solution must be added to 120 liters of a 60%
salt solution to produce a 50% salt solution?
a. 36 b. 48 c. 60 d. 75 e. 80
10. Answer the preceding problem if pure water is used instead of the
30% salt solution.
a. 12 b. 18 c. 20 d. 24 e. 30
11. John can do a job in 24 minutes while Paul can do the same in 48
minutes. Working together, how long will it take for John and Paul
to do the same job?
12. John and Paul can finish a task in 12 minutes working together. If
Paul alone can finish the same task in 20 minutes working alone,
how long will it take John to do the same?

N. Functions and Relations

- A relation from set A to set B is a correspondence of elements between A
and B such that for each element of A, there corresponds at least one
element of B.
- A function from set A to set B is a relation from A to B such that for each
element of A, there corresponds exactly one element of B.
- All functions are relations, but not all relations are functions.
- A relation can be classified as one-to-one, many-to-one, one-to-many or
many-to-many. A one-to-one or many-to-one relation is considered a
function, otherwise the relation is merely a relation.
- A relation can be described by (a) a set of ordered pairs ; (b) an equation
involving x and y, given the replacement set A of x ; (c) a graph on the
Cartesian plane, with one point P(x, y) on the graph corresponding to an
ordered pair (x, y)
- The domain of a relation from set A to set B is the set of all elements in A,
while the range of the relation is set of all corresponding elements in B for
each element in the domain.
- If a relation is defined by a set of ordered pairs, then its domain is the set of
all the abscissas, while its range is the set of all the ordinates. Such a
relation defines a function if no two ordered pair have the same abscissa but
different ordinates.
 - If a relation is defined by an equation in x and y, then its domain is the
replacement set, if given while the range is the set of corresponding y values
for each value in the replacement set assigned to x. If the replacement set is
not given, then the domain is the set of all real numbers except real values at
which the given equation, where y is expressed in terms of x, is undefined or
not real. The range is the set or real values at which the given equation,
where x is expressed in terms of y, is undefined or not real. An equation in
x and y describes a function if its degree in y is odd and y is not found inside
an absolute value.
- If the relation is defined graphically, then its domain is the horizontal extent
of the graph, while its range is the vertical extent of the graph. A graph
describes a function if it satisfies the vertical line test: any vertical line
drawn through the graph intersects the graph in exactly one point.
-

III. GEOMETRY

A. Problems Involving the Pythagorean Relation

B. Problems Involving Special Triangles
- In a right triangle,
hypotenuse2  leg 12  leg 22
sumof 2 acuteangles  180 o
- In a 45-45-90 triangle (also called an isosceles right triangle),
hypotenuse leg 2
- In a 30-60-90 triangle,
3
longerleg  hypotenuse
2
1
shorterleg  hypotenuse
2
longerleg  3 shorterleg
C. Problems Involving the Interior/Exterior Angle of a Regular n-gon
- A regular n-gon is a polygon with n sides/angles that have equal measures.
- The sum of the interior angles of a regular n-gon is n  2  180 o

- The measure of the interior angle is

n  2 180 o and the measure of the exterior
n

angle is 360 o 
n  2  180 o

n
D. Problems on Area of a Shaded Region
- area of shaded region = area of the whole figure – area of the unshaded region
E. Problems on Composite Figures
- A composite figure can expressed as a sum of “regular” figures (circle, square,
rectangle and/or triangle)
F. Problem Involving Supplementary and Complementary Angles
- Two angles that form a right angle are complementary angles. The sum of their
measures is 90.
- Two angles that form a straight line are complementary angles. The sum of their
measures is 180.
G. Problems Involving Partitioning a Figure Into Congruent Triangles
- An area problem with a figure that can be partitioned into congruent triangles if
either (a) there are already congruent triangles in the given figure or (b) two line
segments in the given figure are related by “twice|, “thrice|, etc.
- Line/s are drawn in the given figure to produce the congruent triangles. The area of
one triangle is determined, then solve the main area problem