Appendix A

Soil Classification Systems

Many typical soil properties given in this book refer to soil classes, as
defined in commonly used soil classification systems. This appendix gives
a summary of the more common systems and the definitions of the soil
classes within each system.
The purpose of a soil classification system is to group together soils with
similar properties or attributes. From the engineering standpoint, it is the
geotechnical properties such as permeability, shear strength and compress-
ibility that are important.
The first step in classifying a soil is to identify it. To be of practical
value, a classification system should permit identification by either
inspection or testing, and tests should be as simple as possible. In this
respect, tests that require disturbed samples are preferable: not only do
they dispense with the need for undisturbed sampling or field testing but,
in addition, the properties they measure do not depend on the structure of
the soil mass. Properties such as grain size, mineral composition, organic
matter content and soil plasticity are therefore preferred as a basis for a
classification system rather than properties such as moisture content,
density and shear strength.
Implicit in the concept that soils with similar properties can be grouped
together is the assumption that correlations exist between the various soil

Soil Properties and their Correlations, Second Edition. Michael Carter and Stephen P. Bentley.
© 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Published 2016 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Soil Classification Systems 187

properties. That this is true is borne out not only by the success of soil
classification systems but also by the many correlations given throughout
this text. However, since correlations are only approximate, classification
systems can give only a rough guide to suitability and behaviour: a limita-
tion which must be appreciated if classification systems are to be used
sensibly. This is particularly important where a classification system
based on the testing of disturbed samples is used to predict properties that
depend on the state of the soil mass. For instance, since the shear strength
of a clay is heavily influenced by factors such as moisture content and
field density, a classification system based on soil plasticity tests alone
cannot be expected to predict bearing capacity to any great accuracy. In
this respect, classification systems are more applicable where soils are
used in remoulded form than where they are used in their natural state,
and it is not surprising that the most commonly used engineering soil
classification systems were all developed for earthworks, highways and
airports work.

A.1  Systems Based on the Casagrande System

A.1.1  The Unified System
The Unified system is the oldest system to be widely adopted, and varia-
tions of this system still represent probably the most widely used form of
soil classification in the English‐speaking world. It was developed from a
system proposed by Casagrande (1948) and referred to as the Airfield
Classification System. Coarse‐grained soils (sands and gravels) are classi-
fied according to their grading, and fine‐grained soils (silts and clays) and
organic soils are classified according to their plasticity, as indicated in
Table A1 which shows the basic classifications.
An ingenious feature of the system is the differentiation of silts and
clays by means of the plasticity chart shown in Figure A1. The posi-
tion of the A‐line was fixed by Casagrande based on empirical data.
However, the use of this chart for distinguishing silt from clay leads to
a subtle change in the definition of silt compared with its definition in
terms of particle size – for instance, it is defined as comprising parti-
cles of 5‐75 μm in the AASHTO system and 2‐63 μm in the BS system.
The BS system suggests the use of the term ‘M‐soil’ for silt defined in
terms of its plot on the plasticity chart, to avoid confusion with silt
defined in terms of particle size, but the term has never gained popular
acceptance.
Table A1  The Unified soil classification system.

Major divisions Typical names Group symbols

Clean gravels (little Well graded gravels, gravel‐sand mixtures, little or no fines GW
or no fines) Poorly graded gravels, gravel‐sand mixtures, little or no fines GP
Gravels with fines Silty gravels, poorly graded gravel‐sand‐silt mixtures GM
(appreciable amount Clayey gravels, poorly graded gravel‐sand‐clay mixtures GC

than 4.75mm)
of fines)

fraction is larger
than half of coarse
GRAVELS (More
Clean sands (little Well graded sands gravelly sands, little or no fines SW

than 75μm)
or no fines) Poorly graded sands gravelly sands, little or no fines SP
Sands with fines Silty sands poorly graded sand‐silt mixtures SM

than half the material is larger

(appreciable amount Clayey sands poorly graded sand‐clay mixtures SC

half of coarse
than 4.75mm)

COARSE GRAINED SOILS (More

of fines)

fraction is smaller

SANDS (More than

Inorganic silts and very fine sands, rock flour, silty or clayey ML
fine sands with slight plasticity
SILTS AND CLAYS
Inorganic clays of low to medium placticity, gravelly clays, CL
‐ liquid limit less than 50
sandy clays, silty clays, lean clays
Organic silts and organic silt‐clays of low plasticity OL

smaller
than 75μm)
Inorganic silts, micaceous or diatomaceous fine sandy or silty MH
soils,elastic silts
SILTS AND CLAYS

than half the material is

‐ liquid limit greater than 50 Inorganic clays of high plasticity, fat clays CH

FINE GRAINED SOILS (More

Organic clays of medium to high plasticity OH
Highly organic soils Peat and other highly organic soils Pt
Soil Classification Systems 189

60

50 A-line: PI = 0.73(LL-20)
CH
Plasticity index (PI)

40
U-line, approximate upper
limit for natural soils:
30 PI = 0.9(LL-8)

20 CL MH & OH

10
CL-ML ML & OL

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Liquid limit (LL)

Figure A1  Plasticity chart for the Unified/ASTM soil classification system.

A.1.2  The ASTM System

An advantage of the Unified system is that it can easily be extended to
include more soil groups, giving a finer degree of classification if required.
The American Association for Testing and Materials (ASTM 2006) has
adopted the Unified system as a basis for the ASTM soil classification,
­entitled Standard Test Method for Classification of Soils for Engineering
Purposes, designation D2487, which uses an extended classification over
that given in Table A1, and gives more standardisation by defining the classes
in terms of laboratory test values. A summary of the ASTM classes is given
in Table A2 for coarse‐grained soils and in Table A3 for fine‐grained soils.

A.1.3  The British Standard System

The British Standard classification system (BS 1990) is, like the Unified
system, also based on the Casagrande classification but the definitions of
sand and gravel are slightly different, to be in keeping with other British
Standards, and the fine‐grained soils are divided into five plasticity ranges
(Fig. A2) rather than the simple ‘low’ and ‘high’ divisions of the Unified
and the original Casagrande systems. In addition, a considerable number of
sub‐groups have been introduced. The definitions of the soil groups and
sub‐groups are given in Table A4.
Table A2  The Unified soil classification system. Extended soil groupings for coarse‐grained soils defined by specific laboratory test
values, as used in ASTM D2487.
Test criteria Group
Major divisions
symbols
Passing 75μm sieve Other test criteria*

Clean gravels < 5% D60

(little or no fines) Cu = greater than or equal to 4
D10
D302 GW
Cc = between 1 and 3
D10 × D60
Not meeting both criteria for GW GP
Gravels with fines > 12% Plots below the A‐line or PI < 4 GM
(appreciable Plots above the A‐line and PI > 7 GC
amount of fines)
Plots in hatched area of plasticity chart, marked CL‐ML GC‐GM

larger than 4.75mm)

Gravels with 5‐12% Meets the criteria in this column for GW and GM GW‐GM
intermediate Meets the criteria in this column for GW and GC GW‐GC
amount of fines
Meets the criteria in this column for GP and GM GP‐GM

GRAVELS (More than half of coarse fraction is

Meets the criteria in this column for GP and GC GP‐GC
Clean sands < 5% D60
(little or no fines) Cu = greater than or equal to 6
D10

larger than 75μm)

D302 SW
Cc = between 1 and 3
D10 × D60

Not meeting both criteria for SW SP

Sands with fines > 12% Plots below the A‐line or PI < 4 SM
(appreciable Plots above the A‐line and PI > 7 SC

COARSE GRAINED SOILS (More than half the material is

amount of fines)
Plots in hatched area of plasticity chart, marked CL‐ML SC‐SM
Sands with intermediate 5–12% Meets the criteria in this column for SW and SM SW‐SM
amount of fines

fraction is smaller than 4.75mm)

Meets the criteria in this column for SW and SC SW‐SC

SANDS (More than half of coarse

Meets the criteria in this column for SP and SM SP‐SM
Meets the criteria in this column for SP and SC SP‐SC

* Cu is the coefficient of uniformity and Cc is the coefficient of curvature.

 Table A3  The Unified soil classification system. Extended soil groupings for
fine‐grained soils defined by specific laboratory test values as used in ASTM D2487.

Major divisions Test criteria Group

symbols
Liquid Plasticity Other test criteria
limit index

SILTS AND < 50 <4 Inorganic. or plots ML

CLAYS – liquid below the A‐line
FINE GRAINED SOILS (More than half the

limit less < 50 >7 Inorganic. Plots on or CL

than 50 above the A‐line
material is smaller than 75μm)

< 50 – Organic. (LL oven dried)/ OL

(LL not dried) < 0.75
SILTS AND ≥ 50 – Inorganic. Plots MH
CLAYS – liquid below the A‐line
limit greater ≥ 50 – Inorganic. Plots on or CH
than 50 above the A‐line
≥ 50 – Organic. (LL oven dried)/ OH
(LL not dried) < 0.75
≥ 50 – Inorganic. Plots in CL‐ML
hatched area of
plasticity chart
Highly organic soils – – Peat, muck and other Pt
highly organic soils

60 CE

50 CV
A-line: PI = 0.73(LL-20) ME &
Plasticity index (PI)

40 OE

CH MV & OV
30

20 CM MH & OH

10 CL
MI & OI
6 SF & SC
ML & OL
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Liquid limit (LL)

Figure A2  Plasticity chart for the British Standard soil classification system.
Table A4  The British Standard soil classification system.
Soil Groups Description and Sub‐Groups Liquid Fines
Identification Limit (% <0.06 mm)

Well graded GRAVEL GW – –

Slightly silty or
G Uniformly graded^ GPu
clayey GRAVEL Poorly graded GRAVEL GP 0–5
Gap graded GPg
Well graded GWM
Silty GRAVEL G‐M
Silty or clayey Poorly graded GPM
G‐F 5–15
GRAVEL Well graded GWC
Clayey GRAVEL G‐C
Poorly graded GPC
Very silty GRAVEL GM Subdivisions as for GC GML etc. As GC

size – >2mm)
Low plasticity fines GCL <35
Very silty or clayey Intermediate plasticity fines GCI 35–50 15–35
GF
GRAVEL Very clayey GRAVEL GC High plasticity fines GCH 50–70
Very high plasticity fines GCV 70–90

GRAVELS (>50% of coarse material is of gravel

Extremely high plasticity fines GCE >90
Well graded SAND SW – –
Slightly silty or
S Uniformly graded^ SPu 0–5
clayey SAND Poorly graded SAND SP
Gap graded SPg
Well graded SWM

COARSE SOILS (<35% fines)

Silty SAND S‐M
Silty or clayey Poorly graded SPM 5–15
S‐F
SAND Well graded SWC
Clayey SAND S‐C
Poorly graded SPC
Very silty SAND SM Subdivisions as for SC SML etc. As SC
Low plasticity fines SCL <35
Intermediate plasticity fines SCI 35–50 15–35
Very silty or clayey
SF High plasticity fines SCH 50–70

of sand size – 0.06mm to 2.00mm)

SAND Very clayey SAND SC

SANDS (>50% of coarse material is

Very high plasticity fines SCV 70–90
Extremely high plasticity fines SCE >90
 Gravelly* SILT MG As for CG MLG etc. As CG

Low plasticity CLG <35

Gravelly SILT or
FG Intermediate plasticity CIG 35–50
gravelly CLAY*
Gravelly* CLAY CG High plasticity CHG 50–70
Very high plasticity CVG 70–90

Gravelly or sandy SILTS

or CLAYS (35‐65% fines)
Extremely high plasticity CEG >90

Sandy* SILT MS As for CG MLS etc. As CG

Sandy SILT or sandy
FS
CLAY*
Sandy* CLAY CS As for CG CLS etc. As CG

FINE SOILS (>35% fines)

SILT M As for C ML etc. As C

Low plasticity CL <35

SILT or CLAY F Intermediate plasticity CI 35–50
CLAY C High plasticity CH 50–70

SILTS and CLAYS (>65% fines)

Very high plasticity CV 70–90
Extremely high plasticity CE >90
ORGANIC SOILS Letter ′O′ suffixed to any group or subgroup symbol. e.g. MHO – organic silt of high plasticity.
PEAT Pt Peat soils consist predominantly of plant remains (fibrous or amorphous)

* Gravelly if >50% coarse material is gravel sized: sandy if >50% coarse material is sand sized.
^ Material is generally considered to be uniformly graded if it has a uniformity coefficient of less than 6, where the uniformity coefficient is defined
as U = D60/D10 where D60 and D10 are the 60% and 10% particle sizes, respectively.
194 Soil Properties and their Correlations

A.2  The AASHTO System

Unified system and its derivatives classify soil by type rather than by
engineering suitability for specific uses, although they can nevertheless
be used to infer suitability. By contrast, the system defined by the
American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials
(AASHTO 2012) does not classify soils by type (e.g. sands, clays) but
simply divides them into seven major groups, essentially classifying soils
according to their suitability as subgrades. Some groups may be further
divided into subgroups, as indicated in Table  A5 which describes the
materials present in each group. The definition of each group, based on
laboratory testing, is given in Table A6.
As a further refinement in assessing the suitability of materials, each
material can be given a ‘group index’ value defined as:

group index F – 35 0.2 0.005 LL – 40 F – 15 PI – 10

where  F is the percentage passing the 75 μm (0.075 mm) sieve, expressed

as a whole number. This percentage is based only on the material
passing the 75 mm sieve.
LL is the liquid limit and
PI is the plasticity index.

This is usually shown in brackets after the soil class. When applying the
formula, the following rules are used:

•• the group index is reported to the nearest whole number and, if it is nega-
tive, it is reported as zero;
•• when calculating the group index of subgroups A‐2‐6 and A‐2‐7, only the
plasticity index portion of the formula should be used; and
•• because of the criteria that define subgroups A‐1‐a, A‐1‐b, A‐2‐4, A‐2‐5
and group A3, their group index will always be zero, so the group index
is usually omitted from these classes.

Originally the group index was used directly to obtain pavement

thickness designs, using the ‘group index method’ but this approach
has long since been superseded and the group index is used only as a
guide.
Table A5  Description of soil types in the AASHTO soil classification system.

Classification of materials in the various groups applies only to the fraction passing

the 75 mm sieve. The proportions of boulder‐ and cobble‐sized particles should
be recorded separately and any specification regarding the use or A‐1, A‐2 or A‐3
materials in construction should state whether boulders are permitted.

Granular materials Silty clay materials

Group A‐1. Typically a well graded Group A‐4. Typically a non‐plastic or

mixture or stone fragments or gravel, moderately plastic silty soil usually
coarse to fine sand and a non‐plastic with a high percentage passing the
or feebly plastic soil binder. However, 0.075 mm sieve. The group also
this group also includes stone includes mixtures of silty fine sands
fragments, gravel, coarse sand, and silty gravelly sands.
volcanic cinders, etc. without soil
Group A‐5. Similar to material
binder.
described under group A‐4 except
Subgroup A‐1‐a is predominantly stone that it is usually diatomaceous or
fragments or gravel, with or without micaceous and may be elastic as
binder. indicated by the high liquid limit.
Subgroup A‐1‐b is predominantly Group A‐6. Typically a plastic clay
coarse sand with or without binder. soil having a high percentage
passing the 0.075 mm sieve. Also
Group A‐3. Typically fine beach sand or
mixtures of clayey soil with sand
desert sand without silty or clayey
and fine gravel. Materials in this
fines or with a very small proportion
group have a high volume change
or non‐plastic silt. The group also
between wet and dry states.
includes stream‐deposited mixtures of
poorly graded fine sand with limited Group A‐7. Similar to material
amounts of coarse sand and gravel. described under group A‐6 except
that it has the high liquid limit
Group A‐2. Includes a wide variety of
characteristic of group A‐5 and may
‘granular’ materials which are
be elastic as well as subject to high
borderline between the granular A‐l
volume change.
and A‐3 groups and the silty clay
materials of groups A‐4 to A‐7. It Subgroup A‐7‐5 materials have
includes all materials with not more moderate plasticity indices in
than 35% fines which are too plastic relation to the liquid limits and may
or have too many fines to be classified be highly elastic as well as subject
as A‐1 or A‐3. to volume change.
Subgroups A‐2‐4 and A‐2‐5 include Subgroup A‐7‐6 materials have high
various granular materials whose finer plasticity indices in relation to the
particles (0.425 mm down) have the liquid limits and are subject to
characteristics of the A‐4 and A‐5 extremely high volume change.
groups, respectively.
Group A‐8. Includes highly organic
Subgroups A‐2‐6 and A‐2‐7 are similar materials. Classification of these
to those described above but whose materials is based on visual
finer particles have the characteristics inspection and is not related to
of A‐6 and A‐7 groups, respectively. grading or plasticity.
Table A6  The AASHTO soil classification system.

GENERAL GRANULAR MATERIALS SILT‐CLAY MATERIALS

CLASSIFICATION (35% or less passing 0.075mm sieve) (> 35% passing
0.075mm sieve)

Group classification A‐1 A‐2 A‐7

A‐3 A‐4 A‐5 A‐6 A‐7‐5
A‐1‐a A‐1‐b A‐2‐4 A‐2‐5 A‐2‐6 A‐2‐7
A‐7‐6
Sieve analysis, % passing:
2mm 50 max – – – – – – – – – –
0.425mm 30 max 50 max 51 min – – – – – – – –
0.075mm 10 max 25 max 10 max 35 max 35 max 35 max 35 max 36 min 36 min 36 min 36 min
Fraction passing 0.425mm:
Liquid limit – Non‐plastic 40 max 41 min 40 max 41 min 40 max 41 min 40 max 41 min
Plasticity index 6 max 10 max 10 max 11 min 11 min 10 max 10 max 11 min 11 min*
Usual types of significant Stone fragments, Fine sand Silty or clayey gravel and sand Silty soils Clayey soils
constituents gravel, sand
General rating as a subgrade Excellent to good Fair to poor

* Plasticity index of A‐7‐5 subgroup is equal to or less than liquid limit – 30.
* Plasticity index of A‐7‐6 subgroup is greater than liquid limit – 30.
Soil Classification Systems 197

Table A7  Comparison of soil groups in the Unified and British Standard soil

classification systems.

British Standard system Unified/ASTM system,

most probable group
Group Subgroup Subdivision
G GW GPu GP
GP Gpg GP
G‐F GM GWM GW‐GM
GPM GP‐GM
GC GWC GW‐GC
GPC GP‐GC
GF GM GM
GC GC
S SW SW
SP SPu SP
SPg SP
S‐F S‐M SWM SW‐SM
SPM SP‐SM
S‐C SWC SW‐SC
SPC SP‐SC
SF SM SM
SC SC
FG MG MLG, MIG ML,OL
MHG, MVG
MEG MH, OH
CG CLG, CIG CL
CHG, CVG
CEG CH
FS MS MLS, MIS ML, OL
MHS,MVS
MES MH, OH
CS CLS, CIS CL
CHS,CVS, CES CH
F M ML,MI ML, OL
MH,MV,ME MH, OH
C CL, CI CL
CH, CV, CE CH
Pt Pt
198 Soil Properties and their Correlations

A.3  Comparison of the Unified, AASHTO and BS Systems

A correlation between the BS and Unified/ASTM systems is given in
Table A7. Because the two systems share a common origin, it is possible to
correlate the soil groups with a reasonable degree of confidence. However,
minor differences between the systems mean that the possibility of ambi-
guity can arise, so that equivalence of the classes shown in the table may not
hold true for all soils.
The totally different basis of the AASHTO system means that there is no
direct equivalence between it and the groups of the Unified system but
probable equivalent classes, applicable for most soils, are indicated in
Table A8. A full comparison of the Unified, AASHTO and now‐superseded
US Federal Aviation Agency (FAA) systems is given by Liu (1967).

Table A8  Comparison of soil groups in the Unified and AASHTO soil

classification systems.

Comparing Unified ASTM with Comparing AASHTO with

AASHTO Unified ASTM

Unified/ASTM Most probable AASHTO Most probable

soil group AASHTO soil soil group Unified/ASTM
group soil group

GW A‐1‐a A‐1‐a GW, GP

GP A‐1‐a A‐1‐b SW, SP, GM, SM
A‐1‐b, A‐2‐4
GM A‐3 SP
A‐2‐5, A‐2‐7
GC A‐2‐6, A‐2‐7 A‐2‐4 GM, SM
SW A‐1‐b A‐2‐5 GM, SM
SP A‐3, A‐1‐b A‐2‐6 GC, SC
A‐1‐b, A‐2‐4
SM A‐2‐7 GM, GC, SM, SC
A‐2‐5, A‐2‐7
SC A‐2‐6, A‐2‐7 A‐4 ML, OL
ML A‐4, A‐5 A‐5 OH, MH, ML, OL
CL A‐6, A‐7‐6 A‐6 OL
OL A‐4, A‐5 A‐7‐5 OH, OM
MH A‐7‐5, A‐5 A‐7‐6 CH, CL
CH A‐7‐6
OH A‐7‐5, A‐5
Pt –
Soil Classification Systems 199

References
AASHTO. 2012. Classification of soils and soil‐aggregate mixtures for highway construction
purposes. M145‐91. American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials.
Washington, DC, USA.
ASTM. 2006. Standard practice for classification of soils for engineering purposes. Unified
Soil Classification System). D2487. West Conshohocken, PA, USA.
BS. 1990. Methods of test for soils for civil engineering purposes. British Standards Institution,
BS 1377.
Casagrande, A. 1948. Classification and identification of soils. Transactions ASCE 113:
901–932.
Liu, T. K. 1967. A review of engineering soil classification systems. Highway Research Board
Record 156: 1–22.