A Taxonomy for Learning,Teaching, and Assessing: Educational Objectives

Edited by: Lorin W. Anderson and David Krathwohl,

New York: Addison Wesley Longman, 2001
Compiled by Ivan Mora H.

Every educator needs to read and incorporate A Taxonomy for Learning, Teaching,
and Assessing as soon as possible. Bloom’s knowledge levels is on every teacher
educator and curriculum developer’s mind. His hierarchy has been a major aid to
educators planning for and considering all levels of thinking and focusing on the
inclusion of higher-order thinking in lessons, units of instruction, and even statewide
and national curricula. Its emphasis on cognitive objectives has helped educators
create meaningful learning events and, consequently, worthwhile learning outcomes
in students.

Bloom’s classic work is a hierarchy, and as a hierarchy its higher levels

are built on each level below.

• The knowledge level refers to the ability to remember facts, concepts,or principles.
That level would be reflected in the ability to recite The Pledge of Allegiance (to the
United States flag is an oath of loyalty to the country. It is recited at many public
events. US Congressional sessions open with the recitation of the Pledge. The
current Pledge of Allegiance reads as follows: "I pledge allegiance to the flag of the
United States of America, and to the Republic for which it stands: one Nation under God,
indivisible, with Liberty and Justice for all.") a prayer, or a multiplication table.

• The second level, comprehension, requires students to understand what they know
and to “translate” the known into their own words. To use the Pledge of Allegiance
example above, we know that a kindergartener can recite the Pledge of Allegiance,
but it would take a sophisticated fifth-grader to demonstrate that he or she
understands the complex nature of the Pledge of Allegiance.

• The third level, application, assumes that the learner knows and understands
something before using this knowledge and understanding in a unique event without
being prompted to do so. To expand on our multiplication example, a student who
knows that 7 x 5 = 35 and understands the principles associated with multiplication
might realize that she spends thirty-five hours a week in school if she has a seven-
hour day and attends five days a week. As you can see by these examples at the
lower end of the hierarchy, one level serves as the basis of what happens above it.

The top three levels of the taxonomy require that learners know, understand, and use
what they know before thinking in the higher domain. For example, at the fourth level,
analysis, learners might be asked to break down the Pledge of Allegiance into its
component parts and discuss each element such as “allegiance” or “indivisibility.” At
the fifth level, they might be asked to create a new phrase or shorter “pledge” if they
were to synthesize the original Pledge of Allegiance. And Bloom’s highest form of
thinking, evaluation, requires learners to make judgments about something using
selected criteria. In our “pledge” example, students might be asked to evaluate the
synthesized pledges created by their peers using a set of criteria they either
developed or borrowed.

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As you will notice, each level in Educational Objectives is more sophisticated than
the previous level and requires more cognitive skill to complete. Theoretically a
student must be able to know, understand, apply, break down into component parts,
and synthesize in order to properly use the intellectual skill of evaluation.

Before the 1950s, one of the major problems with educational literature was a lack of
consensus regarding the meaning of some important words. For example, the verb
“to know” was used by different educators to mean vastly different things. One
person might use “know” to mean remembering some facts (a low cognitive skill);
another educator might mean that a person must really “know” an entire discipline in
all its complexity, modes of inquiry, scope, and sequence (a highly sophisticated set
of awarenesses).

Not long before, Ralph Tyler (1949) had already discussed the importance of
objectives as tools teachers should use to promote and evaluate student learning. He
emphasized the value of having teachers think about the behaviors that learners
would be able to perform after a learning event as opposed to thinking about the
content to be taught. Others had already discussed the covert nature of learning—
that we could not look into a student’s brain and that we needed ways to know that a
student had learned. Tyler argued that if we created clear objectives we could “see or
hear” what the student had learned. At this juncture in our educational history
educators now needed a vehicle to identify different levels of learning and their
related behaviors. Bloom and his colleagues set out to solve these problems, among
others, and created a working and valuable tool for educators to think about
objectives, talk to each other, and create curriculum.

As small as these points may seem, they are revolutionary, because the newly
created taxonomy now provides a framework for educators to include the latest
theory and research in the field of human cognition. Another important
recommendation the authors have made is in changing the term of the former
“synthesis” level to the new term create. This level of the original taxonomy has
always been the most difficult for me to teach. Whenever I had my students create a
synthesis, my learners products tended to reflect Anderson and Krathwohl’s new
recommendations rather than Bloom’s original formulation. Anderson and Krathwohl
demonstrate in this work that the real nature of a synthesis necessitates creating a
new product, and consequently they have retitled the level create and have modified
its definition and level.

For a quick review of the new levels consider the following: the new first category (or
lowest level), remember, is better stated than the former term,“knowledge,” because
it is still used in general to mean many different ideas. The new term also better
reflects Ralph Tyler’s recommendation that educators focus on a student’s learning at
the end of an instructional sequence rather than thinking about the content of the
lesson. Remembering through processes like recalling or recognizing is a behavior
that a student can demonstrate at the end of a lesson. Knowledge brings us to
content.
The new word for the second level, understand, better reflects what is meant by the
vague term “comprehension,” which often needed explaining. The next two
categories of Bloom’s great classic, apply and analyze, remain basically the same

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and retain much of the same meaning. But the last two levels of the hierarchy switch
places: evaluate is now in fifth place and the new term create (the former “synthesis”)
becomes the highest form of thinking and behaving. The authors recommend making
the change in part because creating involves inductive thinking, a more complex
cognitive task than deduction, which is typically what we use when we evaluate.

Thus the new list looks like this: Remember; Understand; Apply; Analyze; Evaluate;
Create. With the inclusion of metacognition, procedural, conceptual and factual
knowledge, the new model looks something like this:

The Cognitive Process Dimensions

The Level 1 Level 2 Level 3 Level 4 Level 5 Level 6
Knowledge Remember Understan Apply Analyz Evaluate Create
Dimensions d e
Factual
Dimensions
Conceptual
Knowledge
Procedural
Knowledge
Metacognitiv
e Knowledge

Structural changes seem dramatic at first, yet are quite logical when closely
examined. Bloom's original cognitive taxonomy was a one-dimensional form. With the
addition of products, the Revised Bloom's Taxonomy takes the form of a two-
dimensional table. One of the dimensions identifies The Knowledge Dimension (or
the kind of knowledge to be learned) while the second identifies The Cognitive
Process Dimension (or the process used to learn).

The Knowledge Dimension on the left side is composed of four levels that are
defined as Factual (The basic elements students must know to be acquainted with a
discipline or solve problems in it) Conceptual (The interrelationships among the
basic elements within a larger structure that enable them to function together),
Procedural (How to do something, methods of inquiry, and criteria for using skills,
algorithms, techniques, and methods), and Meta-Cognitive (Knowledge of cognition
in general as well as awareness and knowledge of one's own cognition or one's own
knowledge level)

The Cognitive Process Dimension across the top of the grid consists of six levels that
are defined as Remember, Understand, Apply, Analyze, Evaluate, and Create. Each
level of both dimensions of the table is subdivided.

Each of the four Knowledge Dimension levels is subdivided into either three or four
categories (e.g. Factual is divided into Factual, Knowledge of Terminology, and
Knowledge of Specific Details and Elements). The Cognitive Process Dimension
levels are also subdivided with the number of sectors in each level ranging from a
low of three to a high of eight categories. For example, Remember is subdivided into
the three categories of Remember, Recognizing, and Recalling while the
Understanding level is divided into eight separate categories. The resulting grid,

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containing 19 subcategories is most helpful to teachers in both writing objectives and
aligning standards with curricular.

Remember (Knowledge)

Information Gathering (knowing) Identify, recognize and recall data or

information It refers to a memoristic process, specific data, principles,
generalizations, methods and processes. It retrieves relevant knowledge
from long-term memory RECOGNIZING (identifying) RECALLING
(retrieving)

Useful Verbs

define identify memorizing reproduce

describe know name repeating
drawing label obtaining reviewing
express list outline select
extracting locate recall states.
find match recognize stating
relate tell
write

Sample Question Ítems

What happened after...? Can you tell why...?

How many...? Find the meaning of...?
Who was it that...? What is...?
Can you name the...? Which is true or false...?
Who spoke to...? Describe what happened at...?

Potential activities and products

Make a list of the main events. Make a chart showing...

Make a timeline of events. Make an acrostic.
Make a facts chart. Recite a poem.
List all the .... in the story Write a list of any pieces of information
you can remember.

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 Understand (Comprehension)
Confirming / Understanding

It involves the ability of the students to get the meaning of a

communication and explain new information. It is expected they
understand what it is given and they can use the ideas it has. State a
problem in one's own words. Construct meaning from instructional
messages, including oral, written, and graphic communication
.

Interpreting (clarifying, paraphrasing, representing, translating)

Exemplifying (illustrating, instantiating)
Classifying (categorizing, subsuming)
Summarizing (abstracting, generalizing)
Inferring (concluding, extrapolating, interpolating, predicting)
Comparing (contrasting, mapping, matching)
Explaining (constructing models)

Useful Verbs

compare distinguish interpret

comprehend estimate outline
convert explain paraphrase
defend extend predict
describe generalize restate
discuss give rewrites
Infer summarize

Sample Question Stems

Can you write in your own words...? Who was the ________?
Can you write a brief ________? Can you distinguish between...?
What do you think could of happened What differences exist between...?
next...? Can you provide an example of what you
Who do you think...? mean...?
What was the main idea...? Can you provide a definition for...?
Retell __________ in your own words. What is the main idea of __________ ?

Potential activities and products

Retell the story in your words. Write and perform a play based on the
Write a summary report of an event. story.
Paint a picture of some aspect you like. Cut out or draw pictures to show a
Illustrate what you think the main idea particular event.
was. Make a cartoon strip showing the
sequence of events.
Prepare a flow chart to illustrate the
sequence of events.

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 Making use of knowledge

The capacity of applying what it has been learned in new and concrete
situations. Application needs to be related to the method, theory,
principles or abstraction that it has to be used. It uses a concept in a new
situation or unprompted use of an abstraction. Applies what was learned
in the classroom into novel situations in the work place. Carry out or use
a procedure in a given situation
Application

Useful Verbs
Applying Demonstrating Performing
Classifying discovers Predicts
changes Examining produces
Choosing Illustrating Recording
Completing Making relates
Computing manipulates Reporting
Constructing Modeling Showing
modifies Solving
Operating Translating
Using

Sample Question Stems

Could this have happened in...? Can you group by characteristics such
What questions would you ask of...? as...?
What factors would you change if...? Would this information be useful if you
Do you know another instance where...? had a ...?
Why is __________significant ? Can you apply the method used to some
How is ______ related to ______ ? experience of your own...?
How is ______ an example of ______ ? From the information given, can you
develop a set of instructions about...?

Potential activities and products

Dress a doll in national costume. Make something model of an item in the
Paint a mural using the same materials. material.
Write a textbook about.______ for Make up a puzzle game suing the ideas
others. from the study area.
Make a scrapbook about the areas of Take a collection of photographs to
study. demonstrate a particular point.
Make a diorama to illustrate an important Make a paper-mache map to include
event relevant information about an event.
Construct a model to demonstrate how it Design a market strategy for your
will work.. product using a known strategy as a
model.
Paper-Mache: To create objects using paper stuck together or onto other objects using a wet
paste (e.g. glue, starch, or wallpaper adhesive).

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 Analysis
Taking Apart

It refers to the process that breaks in to parts a whole thing taking into
account characteristics, functions, uses, and or structures. Separates
material or concepts into component parts so that its organizational
structure may be understood. Distinguishes between facts and
inferences.

Differentiating (discriminating, distinguishing, focusing, selecting)

Organizing (finding coherence, integrating, outlining, parsing, structuring)
Attributing (deconstructing)

Useful Verbs
advertise Contrasting identify
analyze Categorizing Inferring
Breaking down comparing Investigating
Breaking in to parts Diagramming Ordering
Clarifying discriminates Outlining
Classifying Distinguishing Relating
Comparing examine Separating
explain Summarizing

Sample Question Ítems

How is_____ similar to _____? Which events could have happened...?

How was this similar to...? What was the turning point in the game?
Why did _____ changes occur? What were some of the motives
What was the problem with...? behind._____?
Can you distinguish between...? What do you see as other possible
What are some of the problems of...? outcomes?
What was the underlying theme of...? I ... happened, what might the ending
What are the parts or feature of _____ ? have been?
Classify _____ according to _____? Can you compare your _____ with that
Outline / diagram / web ______ presented in...?
What evidence can you list for ____ ? Can you explain what must have
How does __ compare / contrast with ? happened when...?

Potential activities and products

Make a jigsaw puzzle. Construct a graph to illustrate selected

Put on a play about the study area. information.
Write a biography of the study person. Review a work of art in terms of form,
Prepare a report about the area of study. colour and texture.
Make a family tree showing Conduct an investigation to produce
relationships. information to support a view.
Write a commercial to sell a new product. Arrange a party. Make all the
Design a questionnaire to gather arrangements and record the steps
information. needed.
Make a flow chart to show the critical
stages.

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 Evaluation
Judging the Outcome

The value of something has to be judged, Make judgments about the value
of ideas or materials for specific purposes .using definite criteria. Make
judgments based on criteria and standards

Checking (coordinating, detecting, monitoring, testing

Critiquing (judging)

Useful Verbs

appraising deciding how and support making a choice

assessing defends verifying
choosing determining rating
concluding and supporting discussing Recommending
a conclusion Evaluating relates
Compares explains selecting
, contrasts grading selecting the best way
criticizing judging supports
deciding justifying verifying

Sample Question Stems

Do you believe? Is there a better solution to...

Judge the value of... Can you defend your position about...?
How effective are...? Do you think ... is a good or a bad thing?
Are you a ... person? How would you have handled...?
How would you feel if...? What changes to ... would you
What do you think about...? recommend?

Potential activities and products

Write a half yearly report. Form a panel to discuss views, eg

Prepare a case to present your view "Learning at School."
about... Make a booklet about 5 rules you see as
Write a letter to ... advising on changes important. Convince others.
needed at... Prepare a list of criteria to judge a ...
Conduct a debate about an issue of show. Indicate priority and ratings.
special interest.

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 Create (Synthesis)
Creativity

The ability to put together all the parts to make a whole thing. A student
has to demonstrate the ability to write, short stories, conversations,
letters, poems, and or newspaper articles. Builds a structure or pattern
from diverse elements. Put parts together to form a whole, with emphasis
on creating a new meaning or structure.Put elements together to form a
coherent or functional whole; reorganize elements into a new pattern or
structure.

Generating (hypothesizing)
Planning (designing)
Producing (constructing)

Useful Verbs

categorizes explains proposing

creating Formulating organizing
combining generates Rearranging
compiles Inventing a new way reconstructs
composing Linking rewriting the story to
constructing , modifies selecting
designing making up structuring
developing planning writes
Editing predicting

Sample Question Ítems

What would happen if...? Can you write a new recipe for a tasty
Can you design a ... to ...? dish?
How many ways can you...? Can you create new and unusual uses
Why not compose a song about...? for...?
Can you see a possible solution to...? Why don't you devise your own way to
Can you develop a proposal which deal with...?
would... If you had access to all resources how
would you deal with...?

Potential activities and products

Sell an idea. Compose a rhythm or put new words to a

Devise a way to... known melody.
Invent a machine to do a specific task. Make up a new language code and write
Design a building to house your study. material suing it.
Write about your feelings in relation to... Create a new product. Give it a name
Design a record, book, or magazine and plan a marketing campaign.
cover for...? Write a TV show, play, puppet show, role
play, song or pantomime about...?

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References

Bloom, B. S. (ed.), M. D. Engelhart, E. J. Furst,W. H. Hill, and D. R. Krathwohl.1956.

Taxonomy of Educational Objectives: Handbook I: Cognitive Domain. New
York:David McKay.
Gagné, R. M. 1967. The Conditions of Learning. New York: Holt, Rinehart, and
Winston.
Kauchak,D., and P. Eggen. 2005. Introduction to Teaching: Becoming a
Professional, 2nd ed. Upper Saddle River,N. J.: Pearson Prentice Hall.
Marzano, R. J., and D. J. Pickering. 1997. Dimensions of Learning:Teacher’s
Manual, 2nd ed. Alexandria,Va.:ASCD.
Tyler, R. W. 1949. Basic Principles of Curriculum and Instruction. Chicago:
University of Chicago Press.

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