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Methods for Food Analysis and Quality Control

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 CHAPTER 10
Apple Academic Press
METHODS FOR FOOD ANALYSIS
AND QUALITY CONTROL
HRADESH RAJPUT1,*, JAGBIR REHAL2, DEEPIKA GOSWAMI3, AND
HARSHAD M. MANDGE4

Author Copy
1
Sam Higginbottom Institute of Agriculture, Technology & Sciences
(Formerly Allahabad Agricultural Institute) Deemed-To-Be University,
Allahabad 211007, U.P., India, Tel.:+91-9454183802
2
Food Science and Technology Division, Punjab Agricultural
University, Ludhiana 141004, Punjab, India, Tel.: +91-9417751567,
E-mail: [email protected]
3
ICAR—Central Institute of Post-Harvest Engineering and Technology
(ICAR-CIPHET), Ludhiana 141004, Punjab, India
E-mail: [email protected]
4
College of Horticulture, Banda University of Agriculture and
Technology, Banda 210001, Uttar Pradesh, India
E-mail:[email protected]
*Corresponding author. E-mail: [email protected]

CONTENTS

10.1 Introduction................................................................................... 300

10.2 Food Quality................................................................................. 301
10.3 Quality Control............................................................................. 308
For Non-Commercial Use
10.4 Conclusion.................................................................................... 317
10.5 Summary....................................................................................... 318
 300 State-of-the-Art Technologies in Food Science

Keywords............................................................................................... 318
References.............................................................................................. 318
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10.1 INTRODUCTION

Food is a more basic need of human than that of shelter and clothing.
It provides adequately for the body’s growth, maintenance, repair, and
reproduction. Plant and animal origin are the sources of foods that contain
the essential nutrients such as carbohydrates, fats, proteins, vitamins, and

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minerals. Usually after consumption, food undergoes different metabolic
processes that eventually lead to production of energy, maintenance of
life, and/or stimulation of growth.[3]
Food analysis is the process for both fresh and processed products by
the standardized form and are those most commonly used in the labora-
tory. These analytical procedures are used to provide information about a
wide variety of different characteristics of foods, including their composi-
tion, structure, physicochemical properties, phytochemical properties, and
sensory attributes. This information is critical to our rational understanding
of the factors that determine the properties of foods, as well as to our ability
to economically produce foods that are consistently safe, nutritious, and
desirable and for consumers to make informed choices about their diet.
Quality control is the standards which maintain the quality of the food
products according to the customer’s acceptability. Physical, chemical,
microbiological, nutritional, and sensory parameters are used for the
maintenance of nutritious food. These quality factors depend on specific
attributes such as sensory properties, based on flavor, color, aroma, taste,
texture and quantitative properties, namely, percentage of sugar, protein,
fiber and so on as well as hidden attributes such as peroxides, free fatty
acids, enzyme.[1,2,13,18] Although quality attributes are many, yet not all need
to be considered at every point in time for every particular product. It is
important to always determine how far relatively a factor is related to the
total quality of the product. The quality attribute of a particular product is
based on the composition of the product, expected deteriorative reactions,
packaging used, shelf-life required, and the type of consumers.
For Non-Commercial Use
The most important element and ultimate goal in food quality control
is protecting the consumer. To ensure standardization of these procedures,
 Methods for Food Analysis and Quality Control301

food laws and regulations cover the related acts affecting the marketing,
production, labeling, food additive used, dietary supplements, enforce-
ment of good manufacturing practice (GMP), hazard analysis and critical
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control point (HACCP), federal laws and regulations, factory inspections,
and import/export inspections.[2,8,19]
This chapter discusses attributes and parameters that are essential in
food analysis and quality control.

10.2  FOOD QUALITY

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10.2.1  QUALITY PARAMETERS

In order to ensure the right quality of various food products, several param-
eters are evaluated by different methods:

• Physicochemical and rheological parameters (Table 10.1).

• Phytochemical parameters (Table 10.2).
• Packaging materials (Table 10.3).

TABLE 10.1  Physicochemical and Rheological Parameters for Quality of Selected Food
Products.
Parameter name Instruments and chemicals used Products
Admixture Visual observation Cereals, pulses
Bellier turbidity Visual Oils
temperature
Bulk density Calibrated graduated cylinder Cereal, fruits, and
vegetables and other
products
Color on Lovibond Lovibond Tintometer Oil, fat
scale
Crude fiber Chemical Most of the fruits and
vegetables and cereal
products
Fat or oil Chemical and soxhlet method Most of the food prod-
ucts, animal feeds

For Non-Commercial
Insect infestation Visual observation
Use
Cereals, pulses
 302 State-of-the-Art Technologies in Food Science

TABLE 10.1  (Continued)

Parameter name Instruments and chemicals used Products
Moisture Hot-air oven Most of the food prod-
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Vacuum oven ucts, animal feeds

Karl Fischer titer

Dean and Stark
Oil-holding Centrifuge Cereal products, other
powder products
Optical rotation Polarimeter Sugar, syrup, oil and fat

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Protein Chemical and Kjeldahl method Most of the food prod-
ucts, animal feeds
Refraction Sieve test Flour
Starch Chemical Starch containing
products
Swelling Centrifuge Cereal products, other
powder products
True density Gas Pycnometer–volumetric Cereal products, other
analyzer powder products
Water-retention Centrifuge Cereal products, other
powder products
Water-solubility index Centrifuge Cereal products, other
powder products

TABLE 10.2  Phytochemical Parameters for Quality of Selected Food Products.

Parameter name Instruments and Products
chemicals used
Anthocyanins Chemical and Red color-rich fruits and
spectrophotometer vegetables and other food
products
Antioxidant activity Chemical and Most of the fruits and
spectrophotometer vegetable products
Ascorbic acid Chemical and titration Most of the fruits and
method vegetable products
Lycopene Chemical and Colored fruits and vegeta-
spectrophotometer bles and other products

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Total carotenoids and Chemical and Yellow color rich food
β-carotene spectrophotometer products
Total phenols Chemical and Most of the fruits and
spectrophotometer vegetable products
 Methods for Food Analysis and Quality Control303

TABLE 10.3  Packaging Materials for Quality of Selected Food Products.

Parameter name Instruments and Products
chemicals used
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Heavy metals: Pb, As, Cd, Se, Ba AAS Colored plastics
Laquer Physical Chemical Tin cans
Migration tests Chemical Food grade plastics
Sulfide stain Chemical Food cans
Tin, chromium AAS Tin plate
Water vapor permeability Humidity chamber Plastics

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10.2.2  BENEFITS OF FOOD ANALYSIS

Food analyses are used for the removal of toxic substances from the food
products. It increases the shelf-life of the foods during storage and dete-
riorates the quality of the food products. Foods are safe to spoilage and
microorganisms by the analyses. It improves the quality of life for people
with allergies, diabetics, and other people, who cannot consume some
common food elements. It adds extra nutrients such as vitamins.

10.2.3  INSTRUMENTAL TECHNIQUES FOR FOOD QUALITY

These techniques are used for the evaluation of organoleptic quality of

food products. Different types of instruments are used for the analysis of
food products, that is, gas chromatography, spectrophotometer, electronic
nose, and so on.

10.2.3.1  GAS CHROMATOGRAPHY-OLFACTOMETRY (GC-O)

The gas chromatography method is based on sensory evaluation of the

eluate (Figs. 10.1 and 10.2). Identification of aroma active compounds is
possible on the basis of simultaneous use of the second detector. Mostly,
second detector function performs mass spectrometer (MS) or flame-
ionization detector (FID).
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 304 State-of-the-Art Technologies in Food Science
Apple Academic Press

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FIGURE 10.1  Gas chromatograph coupled with olfactometric detector.

FIGURE 10.2  Flow diagram for methods for GC-O.

For Non-Commercial Use

 Methods for Food Analysis and Quality Control305

10.2.3.1.1 Spectrophotometer

Spectrophotometric techniques are used to measure the concentration of

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solutes in solution by measuring the amount of light that is absorbed by
the solution in a cuvette placed in the spectrophotometer. Spectropho-
tometry takes advantage of the dual nature of light. Namely, light has:

• A particle nature which gives rise to the photoelectric effect.

• A wave nature which gives rise to the visible spectrum of light.

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10.2.3.1.2  Electronic Nose

Electronic nose consists of electrochemical sensors (Fig. 10.3). It is selec-

tive for certain volatile compounds. The system is capable for the identifi-
cation of simple and complex odors. It is used mainly in the food industry
for the detection of different aromatic compounds (Fig 10.4).

10.2.4  DRAWBACKS OF FOOD QUALITY

• To affect its nutritional density, the amount of nutrients lost

depending on the food and method of processing.
• By the heat treatment, vitamin C is destroyed. Fresh fruit juices
have high content of vitamin C than processed fruit juice.
• Large mixing, grinding, chopping and emulsifying equipment,
inherently introduce a number of contamination risks.
• Large food processors will utilize many metal within the processing
stream, metals may be dangerous for our health.

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 306 State-of-the-Art Technologies in Food Science

sample
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SAMPLE COLLECTING SYSTEM

SAMPLE CHAMBER
(establishing interfacial equilibrium)

SENSING SYSTEM

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(sensor array or MS detector)

DATA AQUISITION SYSTEM

(signal processing)

PATTERN RECOGNITION SYSTEM

(results comparison to database)

RESULTS RECORDER

Array
Sampled Gas
of
or Vapor/Odor
Signals
Result

Computer with
Pattern Classifier or
Sample Array of
Sensors Pattern Recognition
FIGURE 10.3  Electronic sensory machine (electronic nose).

For Non-Commercial Use

 Methods for Food Analysis and Quality Control307
Apple Academic Press

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FIGURE 10.4  Food products for use in electronic sensory machine.

10.2.5  REASONS FOR ANALYZING FOODS

Foods are analyzed by scientists working in all of the major sectors of the
food industry including food manufacturers, ingredient suppliers, analyt-
ical service laboratories, government laboratories, and university research
laboratories.

10.2.6  GOVERNMENT REGULATIONS AND

RECOMMENDATIONS

The government has designed and recommended regulations to maintain

the quality of food products, ensure food companies to supply safe and
wholesome food to the consumers, inform consumers about the nutritional
composition of foods, enable fair competition among food companies, and
to eliminate economic fraud. There are various government departments
responsible for regulating the composition and quality of foods, such as
the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA), the United States Depart-
ment of Agriculture (USDA), the National Marine Fisheries Service
For Non-Commercial Use
(NMFS), and the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). Each of these
agencies regulates a particular sector of food industry and also publishes
 308 State-of-the-Art Technologies in Food Science

the documents that contain detailed information about the regulations and
recommendations. These documents can be purchased from the govern-
ment or can be obtained online website.
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10.2.7  FOOD SAFETY

It is harmful for the consumers to consume unsafe foods. A food may be

considered unsafe when it contains harmful microorganisms (e.g., Listeria,
Salmonella), toxic chemicals (e.g., pesticides, herbicides) or extraneous

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matter (e.g., glass, wood, metal, insect matter). Therefore, food manufac-
turers should take all the preventive measures to eliminate these harmful
substances from food. Government laboratories use analytical techniques
to analyze food and detect toxic substances and also to ensure that the food
is safe for consumers.

10.3  QUALITY CONTROL

To make high profit and market share, food manufacturers are continu-
ously trying to have products of higher quality, and less expensive than
the other competitive products. Analytical techniques to analyze food
are required to meet these standards during and after manufacturing of
food products. In a food factory, one starts with a number of different raw
materials, processes them in a certain manner (e.g., heat, cool, mix, dry),
packages them for consumption and then stores them. The food is then
transported to a warehouse or retailer where it is sold for consumption. The
important concern of the food manufacturers is to produce a final product
that has all acceptable properties such as appearance, texture, flavor and
shelf-life. When we purchase a product, we expect it to have same proper-
ties whenever we buy it. However, the raw materials for manufacturing
of product vary from time to time, which can cause the properties of the
final product to vary, often in an unpredictable way. First, they have to
understand that different food ingredients and processing operations are
important in determining the final properties of food so that they can be
controlled during the manufacturing process of final product. This type of
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information can be established through research and development work.
Second, they can monitor the properties of foods during production to
 Methods for Food Analysis and Quality Control309

ensure that they are meeting the specified requirements, and if a problem
is detected during the production process, appropriate actions can be taken
to maintain final product quality.
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10.3.1  METHODS OF FOOD QUALITY CONTROL

In addition to ensuring safe and healthy food for the consumer, product
manufacturers and service industries have realized that competition in
a global market requires a continual and committed effort towards the

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improvement of product and service quality. Therefore, they follow the
process improvement cycle comprising:

• PLAN (plan improvement)

• DO (implement plan for improvement)
• CHECK (analyze the collected data)
• ACT (take action)

Quality control process consists of raw materials, in-process, product

and service. The major factors in process that cause variability in quality
of finished product are people, equipment, and methods or technologies
employed in the process. The use of proper statistical process control
methods is also vital for assurance of the product quality. Usually, the value
of quality characteristics is used to provide feedback on how processes
may be improved. Statistical quality control consists of the following
procedures:

• Finished product is measured.

• Sampling occurs for days or weeks.
• Lot is either accepted or rejected based on the information from
sample.

Contrary to statistical quality control, statistical process control methods

focus on identifying factors in process that cause variability in finished
product, eliminating the effect of these factors before worse product is
manufactured, and control charts give online feedback of information
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about process.[11,18] Food quality control measures have continuously been
improved since the 20th century, owing largely to the implementation of
 310 State-of-the-Art Technologies in Food Science

good practices, quality systems, and increased traceability in food produc-

tion. Ever since microorganisms were discovered in our environment and
linked to typhoid fever and other diseases that have plagued humanity,
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public health, authorities have been concerned with the accumulation of
filth and foul odors in urban areas.[18] The first early inspection systems
based on sensory evaluations were legally enforced at the beginning of
the 20th century. Initial bacteriological techniques to detect pathogenic
bacteria in foods, such as shellfish, appeared soon after.[18] From that point
on, the food and beverage industry has applied stricter product inspection
procedures and more and more effective production methods to conserve

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the freshness of natural raw materials.
Today, the establishment of GMP and good hygienic practices (GHP)
in many countries has significantly reduced the risk of spoilage and patho-
genic microorganisms in modern food products. In addition to comply
with national and international food regulations, food manufacturers are
required to follow international quality standards, such as ISO as well as
the HACCP system. In recent years, there has been an increasing focus
on traceability in food production.[18] This has followed public concerns
arising from cases of food contaminations and the development of foods
containing ingredients derived from genetically modified (GM) crops. In
light of increasing need for food more rapid food testing, it became clear
that the traditional microbiological detection and identification methods
for foodborne pathogens were no longer effective. Because, it was time-
consuming and laborious to perform, and was increasingly unable to meet
the demands for rapid quality control. A rapid method is generally charac-
terized as a test giving quicker results than the standard accepted method
of isolation and biochemical and/or serological identification.[18]

10.3.1.1  ION MOBILITY SPECTROMETRY OR DIFFERENTIAL

MOBILITY SPECTROMETRY

Ion mobility spectrometry (IMS) and differential mobility spectrometry

(DMS) are the methods used in the identification and quantification of
analysts with high sensitivity. The selectivity can even be increased as
necessary for the analyses of complex mixtures-using pre-separation tech-
For Non-Commercial Use
niques such as gas chromatography or multi-capillary columns (MCC).
The method is suitable for application in the field of food quality and
 Methods for Food Analysis and Quality Control311

safety including storage, process and quality control as well as the charac-
terization of foodstuffs.[23]
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10.3.1.2  IMMUNOCHEMICAL METHODS

This method is based on antigen–antibody interaction. The antibodies are

highly specific for the antigen, and secondly, the antigen, the antibody,
or an anti-globulin may be conjugated to an enzyme that produces an
intensely colored or fluorescent product in the presence of the enzyme
substrate to enhance the detectability of analyze in an amplification step.

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10.3.1.3  ENZYME IMMUNO ASSAY (EIA)

In recent years, the EIA using monoclonal antibodies have made available
rapid and consistent microbiological detection systems. The most widely
used systems employ a sandwich technique using antibody attached to
a polystyrene matrix to which the sample is added. Post incubation, a
second antibody, which is specific for the organism and has been tagged
with an enzyme, is added. The addition of enzyme substrate to the mixture
completes the EIA. The presence of the specific organism results in a colo-
rimetric change in the enzyme substrate, which may be observed visually
or with a spectrophotometer. Most EIA are very specific but lack sensi-
tivity. Normal sensitivity has been reported to be approximately 106 org/
ml.[9]

10.3.1.4 BIOSENSORS

Biosensor is usually a device or instrument comprising a biological sensing

element coupled to a transducer for signal processing.[22] Biological sensing
elements include enzymes, organelles, antibodies, whole cells, DNA, and
tissues. There are different types, conductance bioluminescence enzyme
sensors utilizing potentiometric, amperometric, electrochemical, optoelec-
tric, calorimetric, or piezoelectric principles. Basically, all enzyme sensors
work by immobilization of the enzyme system onto a transducer.[22] This
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technique provides sensitive and miniaturized systems that can be used to
detect unwanted microbial activity or the presence of a biologically active
 312 State-of-the-Art Technologies in Food Science

compound, such as glucose or a pesticide in food. Immunodiagnostics and

enzyme biosensors are two of the leading technologies that have had the
greatest impact on the food industry.[9]
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10.3.1.5  FLOW CYTOMETRY (FCM)

Specific detection of pathogenic strains can be accomplished by flow

cytometry using immunofluorescence techniques, which allow microor-
ganism detection at the single-cell level. Although this technology can be
used for food samples, it requires prior isolation of the target organism to

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generate antibodies.[6] FCM finds wide application in milk and brewing
quality control. The advantage of FCM is that it can also differentiate viable
nonculturable (VBNC) form of bacteria from healthy cultivable cells.[6]
This technology has the ability to detect microorganisms at relatively low
concentrations in a short time, whereas multiple labeling allows the detec-
tion of different organisms or different stages in the same sample. [6]

10.3.1.6  STEPS IN POLYMERASE CHAIN REACTION

The steps involved in polymerase chain reaction (PCR) are as follows:

• Isolation of DNA from the food

• Amplification of the target sequences
• Separation of the amplification products by agarose gel
electrophoresis
• Estimation of their fragment size by comparison with a DNA
molecular mass marker after staining with ethidium bromide
• Finally, a verification of the PCR results by specific cleavage of the
amplification products and by restriction endonuclease or southern
blot. Alternatively amplification products may be verified by direct
sequencing or a second PCR.[9]

10.3.1.7  PULSED-FIELD GEL ELECTROPHORESIS (PFGE)

For Non-Commercial Use

PFGE is a restriction-based typing method that is considered by many
to be the “gold standard” molecular typing method for bacteria.[9] In this
electrophoretic approach, DNA fragments are separated under conditions
 Methods for Food Analysis and Quality Control313

where there is incremental switch of the polarity of the electric field in

the running apparatus. This technique allows for the resolution of DNA
fragments up to 800 kb in size. When DNA is restricted with a restric-
Apple Academic Press
tion enzyme, PFGE provides a DNA “fingerprint” that reflects the DNA
sequence of the entire bacterial genome. PFGE is a widely accepted
method for comparing the genetic identity of bacteria.[9] PFGE typing has
demonstrated a high level of reproducibility for foodborne pathogens. A
major advantage of this method is its universal nature making it useful in
bacteria subtyping; however, its limitation is that it is time-consuming.

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10.3.1.8  MAGNETIC SEPARATION

Using this technique, investigators[15,20] separated salmonella from food and

fecal matter using myeloma protein and hybrid antibody (for O antigen),
conjugated to a polycarbonate-coated metal bead. It has also been reported
that food sample like milk, yogurt, meat, and vegetables can be tested.[10]
The challenge is in detecting Escherichia coli is in the isolation of patho-
genic strain from nonpathogenic strains. Immunomagnetic detection of
listeria monosytogens has also been investigated.[21]

10.3.1.9  NEAR-INFRARED SPECTROSCOPY

Near-infrared spectroscopy (NIR) has proven to be an effective analytical

tool in the area of food quality control. The key advantages of NIR spec-
troscopy are: (1) its relatively high speed of analysis, (2) the lack of a
need to carry out complex sample preparation or processing, (3) low cost,
and (4) suitability for online process monitoring and quality control. The
disadvantage of this method includes the requirement for large sample
sets for subsequent multivariate analysis. Recently researchers at Zhejiang
University in Hangzhou, China, used Vis/NIR spectroscopy together with
multivariate analyses to classify nontransgenic and transgenic tomato
leaves.[7,16,24]

10.3.1.10 X-RAY
For Non-Commercial Use
This is a relatively newer technology in food quality control. X-rays
started making inroads into the food industry in the early 1990s. The
 314 State-of-the-Art Technologies in Food Science

driving force behind this was the increasing number of foreign bodies
which could not be identified by metal detectors. Other than contaminants
such as glass, bone, rubber, stone or plastic, some specific applications are
Apple Academic Press
also more challenging for metal detectors, such as fresh meat and poultry,
or foil-wrapped products.[5] X-ray inspection has considerable advantages
in many foods and beverage-processing environments in that, it is easy
to install, safe and simple to use, even without previous experience. It
quickly and consistently identifies substandard products, reducing product
recall, customer returns and complaints, therefore protecting manufac-
turers’ brands and most importantly, preventing ill health.

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10.3.1.11  COMPUTER VISION

Computer vision system consists of four basic components: the illumina-

tion source, an image acquisition device, the processing hardware, and
suitable software modules.[3] The study was focused on analyzing the
relevance of computer vision techniques for the food industry, mainly in
Latin America. The authors described how the use of these techniques in
the food industry eliminates the subjectivity of human visual inspection,
adding accuracy, and consistency to the investigation. They also reported
that the technique can provide fast identification and measurement of
selected objects, classification into categories, and color analysis of food
surfaces with high flexibility. They mentioned that since the method was
noncontact and nondestructive, temporal changes in properties such as
color and image texture can also be monitored and quantified.

10.3.2  FOOD QUALITY CONTROL: CASE STUDIES

10.3.2.1 LIVESTOCK

The meat and milk characteristics are more related with human health
and with some factors affecting the quality.[4] The molecular biology tech-
niques was of great interest to the researchers as these give insight to new
product certification, namely, species, breed, animal category (age, sex,
For Non-Commercial Use
and so on.). Automatic milking systems (AMS) increases milk yield and
milking frequency from twice to three times or more per day requiring
a minimum extra amount of labor. However, contradictory results are
 Methods for Food Analysis and Quality Control315

reported about the effects of AMS on milk quality. Several authors found
that after the introduction of AMS milk quality decreased, particularly
fat, proteins percentage whereas total bacterial plate count, SCC, freezing
Apple Academic Press
point and the amount of free fatty acids were increased significantly.[4]
The system consists of a highly general hardware setting, able to support
different applications, and highly modular software, easily adapted to
the measurement needs of diverse food products. The main result of this
application was to classify rice grains and lentils.[3] Grain quality attri-
butes are very important for all users and especially the milling and
baking industries. Other study showed the usefulness of machine vision

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to identify different varieties of wheat and to discriminate wheat from
nonwheat components. [25] Visible light photoluminescence (PL) peaking
at around λ = 460  nm is characteristic of cereals, such as rice, wheat,
barley, millet, flour, corn starch, peanut, under illumination of ultraviolet
light at λ = 365 nm.[12] Authors further reported that peak intensity of PL
and distribution of PL intensity varies with variety and source of the speci-
mens, which was found to be fitted with a Gaussian curve. Visible light
PL is suggested to be potentially useful technique for the nondestructive
and quick evaluation of the cereals and other starchy products. The use
of amperometric nanobiosensor for the determination of glyphosate and
glufosinate residues in corn and soybean samples has been mentioned.[22]
The biosensor has the features of high sensitivity, fast response time (10 to
20 s) and long-term stability at 40°C (> 1 month). Detection limits were in
the order of 10–10 to 10–11 M for standard solutions of herbicides and the
spiked samples. The author found that herbicide analyses can be spiked
on real samples of corn and soybean, corroborating that the biosensor is
sensitive enough to detect herbicides in these matrices.

10.3.2.2  FRUITS, VEGETABLES, AND NUTS

Narendra et al.[17] observed that computer vision has been widely used
for the quality inspection and grading of fruits and vegetables. It offers
the potential to automate manual grading practices and thus to stan-
dardize techniques and eliminate tedious inspection tasks. The capabili-
ties of digital image analysis technology to generate precise descriptive
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data on pictorial information have contributed to its more widespread and
increased use. Method of PCR-SSCP has been used for the genetic differ-
entiation of canned abalone and commercial gastropods in the Mexican
 316 State-of-the-Art Technologies in Food Science

retail market. The study was aimed at creating molecular tools that can
differentiate abalone (Haliotis spp.), from other commercial fresh, frozen
and canned gastropods based on 18S-rDNA and also identify specific
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abalone product at the species level using the lysine gene. It was found that
the methods were reliable and useful for rapid identification of Mexican
abalone products and could distinguish abalone at the species level. The
methods could genetically identify raw, frozen and canned products and
the approach could be used to certify authenticity of Mexican commercial
products or identify commercial fraud.
Qualitative analysis of pesticide residues in fruits and vegetables has

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been conducted using fast, low-pressure gas chromatography—time of
flight (ToF) mass spectrometry (LP-GC/MS).[14] It was demonstrated that,
to increase the speed of analysis for GC-amenable residues in various
foods and provide more advantages over the 40 traditional GC-MS
approach, LPGC/MS on a ToF instrument should be applied as it provides
high sample throughput with < 10 min analysis time. The method had
already been validated to be acceptable quantitatively for nearly 150 pesti-
cides, and in this study of qualitative performance, 90 samples in total
of strawberry, tomato, potato, orange, and lettuce extracts were analyzed.
The extracts were randomly spiked with different pesticides at different
levels, both unknown to the analyst, in the different matrices. Researchers
compared automated software evaluation with human assessments in
terms of false positive and negative results only to find that the result was
not significantly different. Other investigated methods are robust ten-plex
quantitative and sensitive ligation-dependent probe amplification method,
the allergen-multiplex, quantitative ligation-dependent probe amplifica-
tion (MLPA) method, for specific detection of eight allergens: sesame,
soy, hazelnut, peanut, lupine, gluten, mustard, and celery. Ligated probes
were amplified by PCR and amplicons were detected using capillary elec-
trophoresis. Quantitative results were obtained by comparing signals with
an internal positive control. The limit of detection varied from approxi-
mately 5–400 gene copies depending on the allergen. The method was
tested using different foods spiked with mustard, celery, soy or lupine
flour in the 1 to 0.001% range. Depending on the allergen, sensitivities
were similar or better than those obtained with PCR.
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 Methods for Food Analysis and Quality Control317

10.4 CONCLUSIONS

Foods are the substances which provide nutritional support for the body.
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It may be of plant or animal origin, containing the known five essential
nutrients, namely, carbohydrates, fats, proteins, vitamins, and minerals.
These analytical procedures are used to provide information about a wide
variety of different characteristics of foods, including their composition,
structure, physicochemical properties, phytochemical properties, and
sensory attributes.
Quality control is the maintenance of quality at levels and tolerance

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limits acceptable to the buyer while minimizing the cost for the vendor.
Scientifically, quality control of food refers to the utilization of techno-
logical, physical, chemical, microbiological, nutritional and sensory
parameters to achieve the wholesome food. These quality factors depend
on specific attributes such as sensory properties, based on flavor, color,
aroma, taste, texture and quantitative properties, namely, percentage of
sugar, protein, fiber and so on as well as hidden attributes likes peroxides,
free fatty acids.
The growth of diagnostic industry should result in increased rapid tests
in the nearest future and this should result in improved performance. It is
expected that, there will be significant economic benefits and the ability
to practice proactive and risk prevention food safety programs, by 2015,
the companies should be able to utilize automation technology to screen
incoming raw materials and in-process parameters with near real-time
information; physical, chemical or biological, while utilizing these newer
methods.
It is therefore safe to conclude that food analysis and quality control
is an indispensable tool in the food industry. As enumerated above, the
development of adequate, effective, rapid, and sensitive food quality
control systems however, faces serious challenges driven by its capital
intensive nature and sophisticated adulteration. While it may seem easier
for the developed nations to match quality control with adulteration tech-
niques, to make any meaningful progress in resource-limited nations of
the world, there is the need for collaborations between laboratories around
the globe, just as it is necessary for regulatory agencies around the world
to also collaborate both in sharing information and in technologies as well
For Non-Commercial Use
as capacity development.
 318 State-of-the-Art Technologies in Food Science

Although some of these automated newer technologies are extremely

rapid, there have been questions about their sensitivity. Some investigators
agree that the instruments can produce results in seconds, but they opine
Apple Academic Press
strongly that they are not sensitive enough. In the nearest future, the mass
spectrometry may be needed in food quality control. DNA-based assays,
instruments, and software, all are designed to work together including the
emerging area of bioinformatics; sequencing, assay design, and chemical
analysis are all capable of developing new ways for food quality control
in the future.

Author Copy
10.5 SUMMARY

Food analysis and quality control have many attributes and most of them
have been mentioned in this chapter. Different food analysis methods
are discussed, that is, physicochemical, phytochemical and packaging
methods. Instrumental methods are also discussed in this chapter. Different
types of quality control methods are also discussed to maintain the quality
of food products. Food analysis and quality control processes are compul-
sory for all types of food industry.

KEYWORDS

•• Antioxidant •• gas chromatography

•• ascorbic acid •• good manufacturing practices
•• biosensors •• nondestructive
•• fiber •• phenol
•• food analysis •• physicochemical
•• food quality •• phytochemical
•• food technology •• protein

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4. Alessandro, N. Evolution of Livestock Production and Quality of Animal Products.
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 CHAPTER 11
Apple Academic Press
INTERVENTIONS OF OHMIC
HEATING TECHNOLOGY IN FOODS
K. A. ATHMASELVI1,*, C. KUMAR2, AND P. POOJITHA3
1
Department of Food Process Engineering, School of Bioengineering,

Author Copy
SRM University, Kattankulathur, Chennai 603203, Tamil Nadu, India,
Tel.: +91-9600007823
2
Department of Physics, Government Arts and Science College for
Men, Nandanam, Chennai 600035, Tamil Nadu, India,
Tel.: +91-9600039748, E-mail: [email protected]
3
Department of Food Process Engineering, School of Bioengineering,
SRM University, Kattankulathur, Chennai 603203, Tamil Nadu, India,
Tel.: +91-7418956148, E-mail: [email protected]
*Corresponding author. E-mail: [email protected]

CONTENTS

11.1 Introduction................................................................................... 322

11.2 Electricity...................................................................................... 323
11.3 Electric Field................................................................................. 324
11.4 Heating Mechanism in Ohmic Heating........................................ 325
11.5 Electrical Conductivity................................................................. 327
11.6 Electrodes...................................................................................... 334
11.7 Applications of Ohmic Heating in Food Processing.................... 335
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11.8 Advantages of Ohmic Heating System......................................... 337
11.9 Disadvantages of Ohmic Heating System.................................... 337
11.10 Degradation of Ascorbic Acid During Ohmic Heating................. 338

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