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Australian Scene 2018

Math problems from Australian Mathematical Olympiad

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Australian Scene 2018

Math problems from Australian Mathematical Olympiad

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Vicente Torres

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Mathematics Contests

The Australian Scene 2018

Combined MCYA and AMOC

A DI PASQUALE, N DO, KL MCAVANEY AND T SHAW

Published by

AM T PU BLISHIN G

Australian Maths Trust

170 Haydon Drive
Bruce ACT 2617
AUSTRALIA
Telephone: +61 2 6201 5136
www.amt.edu.au

Copyright © 2019 Australian Mathematics Trust

AMTT Limited ACN 083 950 341

National Library of Australia Card Number

and ISSN 1323-6490
SUPPORT FOR THE AUSTRALIAN MATHEMATICAL
OLYMPIAD COMMITTEE TRAINING PROGRAM
The Australian Mathematical Olympiad Committee Training Program is an activity of the Australian
Mathematical Olympiad Committee, a department of the Australian Maths Trust.

Mathematics Contests The Australian Scene 2018 | Acknowledgements | ii

FROM THE AMT CHIEF EXECUTIVE OFFICER
In 2018, the Australian team continued our strong performance at the IMO, ranking 11th in the
competition, with 2 Gold medals, 3 Silvers and a Bronze. Australia has placed 15th or higher at the IMO
4 times in the last six years.
Our inaugural European Girls’ Mathematical Olympiad team also performed well, placing 20th out of
52 countries with a Silver medal, two Bronze medals and an Honourable Mention. This was a wonderful
result for our first attempt, and we are looking forward to continuing our participation in this great
competition.
These results are a testament to the incredible work of our Australian Mathematical Olympiad
Committee (AMOC), our Director of Training, our Team Leaders and Deputies, our AMOC State
Directors, the Senior Problems Committee and the dozens of other volunteers and staff who work to
support our training program.
On behalf of the Australian Maths Trust, I would like to thank in particular:
Emeritus Professor Cheryl Praeger AM, AMOC, Chair

Dr Angelo Di Pasquale, AMOC Director of Training and International Mathematical Olympiad (IMO),
Team Leader

Mr Andrew Elvey Price, IMO Deputy Team Leader

Miss Thanom Shaw, EGMO Team Leader

Miss Michelle Chen, EGMO Deputy Team Leader

Mr Mike Clapper, AMT Chief Mathematician

Dr Norman Do, Chair, AMOC Senior Problems Committee

Dr Kevin McAvaney, Chair, MCYA Challenge Committee

Members of the AMT Board and AMOC Committee

AMOC tutors, mentors, volunteers and ex-Olympians

Nathan Ford
April 2019

Mathematics Contests The Australian Scene 2018 | From the AMT Chief Executive Officer | iii
CONTENTS

Support for the Australian Mathematical Olympiad Committee Training Program� � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � �� i
Acknowledgements � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � �� ii
From the AMT Chief Executive Officer � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � �� iii
Background Notes on the EGMO, IMO and AMOC� � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � �� 1
Summary of Australia’s achievements at EGMO� � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � �� 2
Summary of Australia’s achievements at previous IMOs� � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � �� 2
Mathematics Challenge for Young Australians� � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � �� 4
Membership of MCYA Committees � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � �� 6
Membership of AMOC� � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � �� 8
AMOC Timetable for Selection of the Teams to the 2018 EGMO and 2018 IMO� � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � �� 9
Activities of AMOC Senior Problems Committee � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � �� 10
Challenge Problems – Middle Primary � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � �� 11
Challenge Problems – Upper Primary � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � �� 14
Challenge Problems – Junior � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � �� 17
Challenge Problems – Intermediate � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � �� 22
Challenge Solutions – Middle Primary � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � �� 26
Challenge Solutions – Upper Primary � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � �� 30
Challenge Solutions – Junior � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � �� 34
Challenge Solutions – Intermediate � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � �� 42
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Challenge Statistics – Upper Primary� � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � �� 54
Challenge Statistics – Junior� � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � �� 55
Challenge Statistics – Intermediate� � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � �� 56
Australian Intermediate Mathematics Olympiad� � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � �� 57
Australian Intermediate Mathematics Olympiad Solutions� � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � �� 58
Australian Intermediate Mathematics Olympiad Statistics� � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � �� 69
AMOC Senior Contest � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � �� 70
AMOC Senior Contest Solutions � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � �� 71
AMOC Senior Contest Results� � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � �� 78
AMOC Senior Contest Statistics � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � �� 80
AMOC School of Excellence � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � �� 81
Participants at the 2017 AMOC School of Excellence� � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � �� 82
Australian Mathematical Olympiad � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � �� 83
Australian Mathematical Olympiad Solutions � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � �� 85
Australian Mathematical Olympiad Results� � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � �� 109
Australian Mathematical Olympiad Statistics� � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � �� 112

Mathematics Contests The Australian Scene 2018 | Contents | iv

30th Asian Pacific Mathematics Olympiad� � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � �� 113
30th Asian Pacific Mathematics Olympiad Solutions� � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � �� 115
30th Asian Pacific Mathematics Olympiad Results� � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � �� 124
AMOC Selection School� � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � �� 126
2018 Australian EGMO team� � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � �� 127
2018 Australian IMO team� � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � �� 127
Participants at the 2018 AMOC Selection School� � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � �� 128
EGMO Team Leader’s Report � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � �� 129
European Girls’ Mathematical Olympiad� � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � �� 134
European Girls’ Mathematical Olympiad Solutions� � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � �� 136
IMO Team Preparation School � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � �� 151
The Mathematics Ashes � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � �� 152
The Mathematics Ashes Results � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � �� 153
IMO Team Leader’s Report � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � �� 154
International Mathematical Olympiad� � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � �� 161
International Mathematical Olympiad Solutions� � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � �� 163
Origin of Some Questions � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � �� 181
AMOC Honour Roll 1979–2018 � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � �� 182
Interim Committee 1979–1980� � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � �� 182
Australian Mathematical Olympiad Committee � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � �� 182
Mathematics Challenge for Young Australians� � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � �� 185
Mathematics Enrichment development � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � �� 187
Australian Intermediate Mathematics Olympiad Committee� � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � �� 188
AMOC Senior Problems Committee� � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � �� 189
Mathematics School of Excellence � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � �� 189
International Mathematical Olympiad Selection School� � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � �� 189

Mathematics Contests The Australian Scene 2018 | Contents | v

BACKGROUND NOTES ON THE EGMO, IMO AND AMOC

Australian Mathematical Olympiad Committee

In 1980, a group of distinguished mathematicians formed the Australian Mathematical Olympiad
Committee (AMOC) to coordinate an Australian entry in the International Mathematical Olympiad (IMO).
Since then, AMOC has developed a comprehensive program to enable all students (not only the few
who aspire to national selection) to enrich and extend their knowledge of mathematics. The activities
in this program are not designed to accelerate students. Rather, the aim is to enable students to
broaden their mathematical experience and knowledge.
The largest of these activities is the Mathematics Challenge for Young Australians (MCYA)
program. The Maths Challenge is a problem-solving event held in the first or second term, in which
approximately 15,000 young Australians explore carefully developed mathematical problems. Students
who wish to continue to extend their mathematical experience can then participate in the Maths
Enrichment and after that, they may attempt the Australian Intermediate Mathematics Olympiad
(AIMO), which is the third stage of this program.
Originally AMOC was a subcommittee of the Australian Academy of Science. In 1992 it collaborated
with the Australian Mathematics Foundation (which organises the Australian Mathematics
Competition) to form the Australian Mathematics Trust. The Trust is based in Canberra with
representatives on our board from a range of mathematical organisations. We are supported by a vast
network of passionate volunteers from Australia and around the world, including academics, members
of professional mathematics societies, educators and working mathematicians.
The AMOC has responsibility for the MCYA program, and many open and invitational mathematics
competitions, culminating in the selection of a team of students who represent Australia internationally
each year.

The AMOC schedule from August until July for potential IMO and EGMO team members
Each year many hundreds of gifted young Australian school students are identified using the results
from the Australian Mathematics Competition, the Mathematics Challenge for Young Australians
program and other smaller mathematics competitions. A network of thirty or so dedicated
mathematicians and teachers has been organised to give these students support during the year,
either by correspondence programs or by special teaching sessions run in each state. These programs
are known to the respective AMOC State Directors.
These students are among others who sit the AIMO paper in September, or who are invited to sit
the AMOC Senior Contest each August. The outstanding students in these contests, programs and
other mathematical competitions are then identified. Forty-five of these are then invited to attend the
residential AMOC School of Excellence, which is held each November.
In February, approximately 130 students are invited to attempt the Australian Mathematical
Olympiad, after which the Australian team of four female students is selected for the European Girls’
Mathematical Olympiad (EGMO), held in April each year. The best 20 or so of these students are
then invited to represent Australia in the correspondence Asian Pacific Mathematics Olympiad in
March. About 45 students are chosen for the AMOC Selection School, including younger students
who are also invited to this residential school. Six students plus one reserve are then selected for the
International Mathematical Olympiad, held in July annually. A personalised support system for the
Australian teams operates prior to EGMO and the IMO.
The AMOC program is not meant to develop only future mathematicians. Overseas experience has
shown that many choose to work in the fields of engineering, computing, the physical and life sciences
while others will study law or go into the business world. We hope that the AMOC Mathematics
Problem-Solving Program will help the students to think logically, creatively, deeply and with dedication
and perseverance; that is, it will prepare these talented students to be future leaders of Australia.

Mathematics Contests The Australian Scene 2018 | Background Notes on the EGMO, IMO and AMOC | 1
International Mathematical Olympiads (IMO and EGMO)
The IMO is the pinnacle of excellence and achievement for school students of mathematics throughout
the world. The concept of national mathematics competitions started with the Eötvos Competition
in Hungary during 1894. This idea was later extended to an international mathematics competition in
1959 when the first IMO was held in Romania.
The aims of the IMO include:
1. discovering, encouraging and challenging mathematically gifted school students
2. fostering friendly international relations between students and their teachers
3. sharing information on educational syllabi and practice throughout the world.
It was not until the mid-1960s that countries from the Western world competed at the IMO. The United
States of America first entered in 1975. Australia has entered teams since 1981, and has achieved
varying successes including a spectacular perfect score in 2014 by Alexander Gunning.
Australia has participated in the European Girls’ Mathematical Olympiad since 2018.
In 2019 the IMO will be held in Bath, United Kingdom, while EGMO will be held in Kyiv, Ukraine.
Students must be enrolled full time in primary or secondary education and be under 20 years of age at
the time of the EGMO or IMO. The Olympiad contest consists of two four-and-a-half hour papers, each
with three questions.

Summary of Australia’s achievements at EGMO

Year City Gold Silver Bronze HM Rank

2018 Florence 1 2 1 20 out of 52 teams

Summary of Australia’s achievements at previous IMOs

Year City Gold Silver Bronze HM Rank

1981 Washington 1 23 out of 27 teams
1982 Budapest 1 21 out of 30 teams
1983 Paris 1 2 19 out of 32 teams
1984 Prague 1 2 15 out of 34 teams
1985 Helsinki 1 1 2 11 out of 38 teams
1986 Warsaw 5 15 out of 37 teams
1987 Havana 3 15 out of 42 teams
1988 Canberra 1 1 1 17 out of 49 teams
1989 Braunschweig 2 2 22 out of 50 teams
1990 Beijing 2 4 15 out of 54 teams
1991 Sigtuna 3 2 20 out of 56 teams
1992 Moscow 1 1 2 1 19 out of 56 teams
1993 Istanbul 1 2 3 13 out of 73 teams
1994 Hong Kong 2 3 3 12 out of 69 teams
1995 Toronto 1 4 1 21 out of 73 teams
1996 Mumbai 2 3 23 out of 75 teams
1997 Mar del Plata 2 3 1 9 out of 82 teams
1998 Taipei 4 2 13 out of 76 teams
1999 Bucharest 1 1 3 1 15 out of 81 teams
2000 Taejon 1 3 1 16 out of 82 teams
2001 Washington D.C. 1 4 25 out of 83 teams
2002 Glasgow 1 2 1 1 26 out of 84 teams

Mathematics Contests The Australian Scene 2018 | Background Notes on the EGMO, IMO and AMOC | 2
Year City Gold Silver Bronze HM Rank
2003 Tokyo 2 2 2 26 out of 82 teams
2004 Athens 1 1 2 1 27 out of 85 teams
2005 Merida 6 25 out of 91 teams
2006 Ljubljana 3 2 1 26 out of 90 teams
2007 Hanoi 1 4 1 22 out of 93 teams
2008 Madrid 5 1 19 out of 97 teams
2009 Bremen 2 1 2 1 23 out of 104 teams
2010 Astana 1 3 1 1 15 out of 96 teams
2011 Amsterdam 3 3 25 out of 101 teams
2012 Mar del Plata 2 4 27 out of 100 teams
2013 Santa Marta 1 2 3 15 out of 97 teams
2014 Cape Town 1* 3 2 11 out of 101 teams
2015 Chiang Mai 2 4 6 out of 104 teams
2016 Hong Kong 2 4 25 out of 109 teams
2017 Rio de Janeiro 3 2 1 34 out of 111 teams
2018 Cluj–Napoca 2 3 1 11 out of 109 teams
* Perfect Score by Alexander Gunning

Mathematics Contests The Australian Scene 2018 | Background Notes on the EGMO, IMO and AMOC | 3
MATHEMATICS CHALLENGE FOR YOUNG AUSTRALIANS
The Mathematics Challenge for Young Australians (MCYA) started on a national scale in 1992. It was
set up to cater for the needs of the top 10 percent of secondary students in years 7–10, especially
in country schools and schools where the number of students may be quite small. Teachers with a
handful of talented students spread over a number of classes and working in isolation can find it
very difficult to cater for the needs of these students. The MCYA provides materials and an organised
structure designed to enable teachers to help talented students reach their potential. At the same
time, teachers in larger schools, where there are more of these students, are able to use the materials
to better assist the students in their care.
The aims of the Mathematics Challenge for Young Australians include:
• encouraging and fostering
-- a greater interest in and awareness of the power of mathematics
-- a desire to succeed in solving interesting mathematical problems
-- the discovery of the joy of solving problems in mathematics
• identifying talented young Australians, recognising their achievements nationally and providing
support that will enable them to reach their own levels of excellence
• providing teachers with
-- interesting and accessible problems and solutions as well as detailed and motivating teaching
discussion and extension materials
-- comprehensive Australia-wide statistics of students’ achievements in the Maths Challenge.
There are three independent stages in the Mathematics Challenge for Young Australians:
• Challenge (three to four weeks during the period March–June)
• Enrichment (12–16 weeks between April–September)
• Australian Intermediate Mathematics Olympiad (September).

Challenge
The Challenge consists of four levels. Middle Primary (years 3–4) and Upper Primary (years 5–6)
present students with four problems each to be attempted over three to four weeks, students are
allowed to work on the problems in groups of up to three participants, but each must write their
solutions individually. The Junior (years 7–8) and Intermediate (Years 9–10) levels present students
with six problems to be attempted over three to four weeks, students are allowed to work on the
problems with a partner but each must write their solutions individually.
There were 12,345 submissions (1538 Middle Primary, 3255 Upper Primary, 5288 Junior, 2264
Intermediate) for the Challenge in 2018. The 2018 problems and solutions, together with some
statistics, appear later in this book.

Enrichment
This is a six-month program running from April to September, which consists of seven different parallel
stages of comprehensive student and teacher support notes. Each student participates in only one of
these stages.
The materials for all stages are designed to be a systematic structured course over a flexible 12–16
week period between April and September. This enables schools to timetable the program at
convenient times during their school year.
Enrichment is completely independent of the earlier Challenge; however, they have the common
feature of providing challenging mathematics problems for students, as well as accessible support
materials for teachers.
Ramanujan (years 4–5) includes estimation, special numbers, counting techniques, fractions, clock
arithmetic, ratio, colouring problems, and some problem-solving techniques. There were 279 entries in
2018.
Newton (years 5–6) includes polyominoes, fast arithmetic, polyhedra, pre-algebra concepts, patterns,
divisibility and specific problem-solving techniques. There were 606 entries in 2018.

Mathematics Contests The Australian Scene 2018 | Mathematics Challenge for Young Australians | 4
Dirichlet (years 6–7) includes mathematics concerned with tessellations, arithmetic in other bases,
time/distance/speed, patterns, recurring decimals and specific problem-solving techniques. There
were 912 entries in 2018.
Euler (years 7–8) includes primes and composites, least common multiples, highest common factors,
arithmetic sequences, figurate numbers, congruence, properties of angles and pigeonhole principle.
There were 1338 entries in 2018.
Gauss (years 8–9) includes parallels, similarity, Pythagoras’ Theorem, using spreadsheets, Diophantine
equations, counting techniques and congruence. Gauss builds on the Euler program. There were 753
entries in 2018.
Noether (top 10% years 9–10) includes expansion and factorisation, inequalities, sequences and series,
number bases, methods of proof, congruence, circles and tangents. There were 434 entries in 2018.
Pólya (top 10% year 10) includes angle chasing, combinatorics, number theory, graph theory and
symmetric polynomials. There were 210 entries in 2018.

Australian Intermediate Mathematics Olympiad

This four-hour competition for students up to year 10 offers a range of challenging and interesting
questions. It is suitable for students who have performed well in the AMC (Distinction and above), and
is designed as an endpoint for students who have completed the Gauss or Noether stage. There were
2077 entries for 2018 and 15 perfect scores.

Mathematics Contests The Australian Scene 2018 | Mathematics Challenge for Young Australians | 5
MEMBERSHIP OF MCYA COMMITTEES

2018 Mathematics Challenge for Young Australians Committee

Director
Dr K McAvaney, Victoria

Challenge Committee
Mr M Clapper, Chief Mathematician, Australian Maths Trust, Australian Capital Territory
Mrs B Denney, New South Wales
Mr A Edwards, Queensland Studies Authority
Mr B Henry, Victoria
Ms J McIntosh, AMSI, Victoria
Mrs L Mottershead, New South Wales
Ms A Nakos, Temple Christian College, South Australia
Prof M Newman, Australian National University, Australian Capital Territory
Dr I Roberts, Northern Territory
Miss T Shaw, SCEGGS, New South Wales
Ms K Sims, New South Wales
Dr S Thornton, Australian Capital Territory
Ms G Vardaro, Wesley College, Victoria
Dr C Wetherell, Australian Capital Territory

Moderators
Mr W Akhurst, New South Wales
Mr L Bao, Victoria
Mr R Blackman, Victoria
Mr A Canning, Queensland
Dr E Casling, Australian Capital Territory
Mr B Darcy, Rose Park Primary School, South Australia
Mr J Dowsey, University of Melbourne, Victoria
Mr S Ewington, Sydney Grammar School
Mr S Gardiner, University of Sydney
Ms J Hartnett, Queensland
Dr N Hoffman, Edith Cowan University, Western Australia
Dr T Kalinowski, University of Newcastle
Mr J Lawson, St Pius X School, New South Wales
Ms K McAsey, Penleigh and Essendon Grammar School, Victoria
Ms T McNamara, Victoria
Mr G Meiklejohn, Department of Education, Queensland
Mr M O’Connor, AMSI, Victoria
Mr J Oliver, Northern Territory
Mr A Peck, Tasmania
Mr G Pointer, Marryatville High School, South Australia
Dr H Sims, Victoria
Ms C Smith, Queensland
Ms D Smith, New South Wales
Ms C Stanley, Queensland Studies Authority
Ms R Stone, South Australia
Dr M Sun, New South Wales
Mr P Swain, Victoria

Mathematics Contests The Australian Scene 2018 | Membership of MCYA Committees | 6

Dr P Swedosh, The King David School, Victoria
Ms K Trudgian, Queensland
Dr D Wells, USA

2018 Australian Intermediate Mathematics Olympiad Problems Committee

Dr K McAvaney, Victoria (Chair)
Mr M Clapper, Chief Mathematician, Australian Maths Trust, Australian Capital Territory
Dr M Evans, International Centre of Excellence for Education in Mathematics, Victoria
Mr B Henry, Victoria
Dr D Mathews, Monash University, Victoria

Enrichment
Editors
Mr G R Ball, University of Sydney, New South Wales
Mr M Clapper, Chief Mathematician, Australian Maths Trust, Australian Capital Territory
Dr M Evans, International Centre of Excellence for Education in Mathematics, Victoria
Mr K Hamann, South Australia
Mr B Henry, Victoria
Dr K McAvaney, Victoria
Dr A M Storozhev, Attorney General’s Department, Australian Capital Territory
Prof P Taylor, Australian Capital Territory
Dr O Yevdokimov, University of Southern Queensland

Mathematics Contests The Australian Scene 2018 | Membership of MCYA Committees | 7

MEMBERSHIP OF AMOC

2018 Australian Mathematical Olympiad Committee

Chair
Prof C Praeger, University of Western Australia

Deputy Chair
Prof A Hassall, Australian National University, ACT

Chief Executive Officer

Mr N Ford, Australian Maths Trust, ACT

Chief Mathematician
Mr M Clapper, Australian Maths Trust, ACT

Treasurer
Dr P Swedosh, The King David School, VIC

Chair, Senior Problems Committee

Dr N Do, Monash University, VIC

Chair, Challenge
Dr K McAvaney, VIC

Director of Training and IMO Team Leader

Dr A Di Pasquale, University of Melbourne, VIC

IMO Deputy Team Leader

Mr A Elvey Price, University of Melbourne, VIC

EGMO Team Leader

Ms T Shaw, SCEGGS Darlinghurst, NSW

State Directors
Dr K Dharmadasa, University of Tasmania
Dr G Gamble, University of Western Australia
Mr Nhat Anh Hoang, WA Deputy
Dr I Roberts, Northern Territory
Dr D Badziahin, University of Sydney, NSW
Mr D Martin, South Australia
Dr A Offer, Queensland
Dr P Swedosh, The King David School, VIC
Dr C Wetherell, St Francis Xavier College, ACT

Editorial Consultant
Dr O Yevdokimov, Queensland

Representatives
Ms J McIntosh, Challenge Committee
Ms A Nakos, Challenge Committee
Prof M Newman, Challenge Committee

Mathematics Contests The Australian Scene 2018 | Membership of AMOC | 8

AMOC TIMETABLE FOR SELECTION OF THE TEAMS TO
THE 2018 EGMO AND 2018 IMO

August 2017—July 2018

Hundreds of students are involved in the AMOC programs which begin on a state basis. The students
are given problem-solving experience and notes on various IMO topics not normally taught in schools.
The students proceed through various programs with the top 45 students, including potential team
members and other identified students, participating in a 10-day residential school in November/
December.
Students are selected for EGMO after the AMO in February, while the IMO team is chosen at the
conclusion of the Selection School in March.
Team members then receive individual coaching by mentors prior to the EGMO or the IMO.

Month Activity
August • Outstanding students are identified from AMC results, MCYA, other
competitions and recommendations; and eligible students from previous
training programs
• AMOC state organisers invite students to participate in AMOC programs
• Various state-based programs
• AMOC Senior Contest
September • Australian Intermediate Mathematics Olympiad

November/December • AMOC School of Excellence

January • Summer Correspondence Program for those who attended the School
of Excellence
February • Australian Mathematical Olympiad

March • Asian Pacific Mathematics Olympiad

• AMOC Selection School
March
• Team preparation for 2018 EGMO in Florence, Italy
May–June • Personal Tutor Scheme for IMO team members
July • Short mathematics school for IMO team members 2018 IMO in Cluj–
Napoca, Romania

Mathematics Contests The Australian Scene 2018 | AMOC Timetable for Selection of the Teams to the 2018 EGMO and IMO | 9
ACTIVITIES OF AMOC SENIOR PROBLEMS COMMITTEE
This committee has been in existence for many years and carries out a number of roles. A central role
is the collection and moderation of problems for senior and exceptionally gifted intermediate and
junior secondary school students. Each year the Problems Committee provides examination papers
for the AMOC Senior Contest and the Australian Mathematical Olympiad. In addition, problems
are submitted for consideration to the Problem Selection Committees of the annual Asian Pacific
Mathematics Olympiad and the International Mathematical Olympiad.

AMOC Senior Problems Committee October 2017–September 2018

Mr M Clapper, Chief Mathematician, Australian Maths Trust, ACT
Dr A Devillers, University of Western Australia, WA
Dr A Di Pasquale, University of Melbourne, VIC
Dr N Do, Monash University, VIC (Chair)
Dr I Guo, University of Sydney, NSW
Dr J Kupka, Monash University, VIC
Dr K McAvaney, Deakin University, VIC
Dr D Mathews, Monash University, VIC
Dr A Offer, Queensland
Dr C Rao, NEC Australia, VIC
Dr B Saad, Monash University, VIC
Assoc Prof J Simpson, Curtin University of Technology, WA
Dr I Wanless, Monash University, VIC

2018 Australian Mathematical Olympiad

The Australian Mathematical Olympiad (AMO) consists of two papers of four questions each and was
sat on 6 and 7 February. There were 121 participants including 13 from New Zealand. Eleven students,
James Bang, Jack Gibney, William Han, Grace He, Charles Li, Haobin Liu, Jerry Mao, William Steinberg,
Ethan Tan, Fengshuo Ye, and Guowen Zhang, achieved perfect scores and four other students were
awarded Gold certificates, 16 students were awarded Silver certificates and 30 students were awarded
Bronze certificates.

30th Asian Pacific Mathematics Olympiad

On 13–14 March students from nations around the Asia-Pacific region were invited to write the Asian
Pacific Mathematics Olympiad (APMO). Of the top ten Australian students who participated, there
were 3 Silver, 4 Bronze and 3 Honourable Mention certificates awarded. Australia finished in 12th place
overall.

2018 European Girls’ Mathematical Olympiad, Florence, Italy

The first Australian team attended the 7th EGMO in Florence, Italy. The EGMO consists of two papers
of three questions worth seven points each. They were attempted by teams of four students from
52 countries on 11 and 12 April. Australia placed 20th in the final ranking, gaining one Silver and two
Bronze medals and an Honourable Mention.

2018 International Mathematical Olympiad, Cluj–Napoca, Romania

The IMO consists of two papers of three questions worth seven points each. They were attempted
by teams of six students from 108 countries on 9 and 10 July in Cluj–Napoca, Romania, with Australia
placing 11th. The results for Australia were two Gold, three Silver and one Bronze medals.

2018 AMOC Senior Contest

Held on Tuesday 21 August, the Senior Contest was sat by 96 students (compared to 99 in 2017). There
were nine students who obtained Gold certificates with Perfect Scores and two other students who
also obtained Gold certificates. Thirteen students obtained Silver certificates and 24 students obtained
Bronze certificates.

Mathematics Contests The Australian Scene 2018 | Activities of AMOC Senior Problems Committee | 10
CHALLENGE PROBLEMS
2018 Challenge Problems–- MIDDLE PRIMARY
Middle Primary
Students may work on each of these four problems in groups of up to three, but must write their solutions individually.

MP1 Training

Ms Fitz sets up five cones 10 metres apart in a straight line for her class’s daily exercise drill. A student starts at any
cone, runs to another cone, touches it, reverses direction, runs to another cone, touches it, reverses direction, and so
on until each cone is touched exactly once including the starting and finishing cones.

•1 10 m
•2 10 m
•3 10 m
•4 10 m
•5

a If a student touches the cones in the order 1, 4, 3, 5, 2, how far does that student run?
b List all the exercise drills that start at cone 2 and finish at cone 4.
c List all the exercise drills that start at cone 1 and give their running distances.
d Find the shortest and longest running distances among all exercise drills.

MP2 Bitripents

Tia has a square grid and several of each of the tiles A, B, and C as shown below. The tiles consist of 2, 3, and 5 grid
squares as shown by the dotted lines. For this reason she refers to these tiles collectively as bitripents.

A B C

Tia places her tiles to cover different shapes on the grid with no gaps and no overlaps. She sometimes rotates or flips
the tiles. For example, here is one way Tia could cover a 6 × 3 rectangle using two A tiles, three B tiles, and one C
tile.

a Tia covered a 5 × 5 square on the grid using 10 tiles that included at least one A tile, at least one B tile, and at
least one C tile. Draw a diagram to show how she might have done this.
b Tia covered a 6 × 6 square on the grid using exactly three C tiles and eight other tiles. Draw a diagram to show
how she might have done this.
c Tia covered two rectangles of different shapes, each with three A tiles, three B tiles, and three C tiles. Draw two
diagrams to show how she might have done this.

Mathematics Contests The Australian Scene 2018 | Challenge Problems

1 – Middle Primary | 11
MP3 Coloured Buckets
There are a number of buckets of different colours. There are also counters with different whole numbers written on
them. We want to put the numbered counters into the buckets according to the following rules:

• the lowest number must be in the red bucket

• no bucket has three numbers where one is the sum of the other two

• no bucket has two numbers where one is double the other.

For example, if counters numbered 1 to 7 were placed in a red and a blue bucket as shown below, then the blue bucket
obeys the rules but the red bucket doesn’t (2 × 1 = 2, 1 + 2 = 3, 2 + 3 = 5).

2 7
1 5 3 4 6

Red Blue

We start with two empty buckets, one red and the other blue.

a Show how the numbers 1 to 4 can be placed in the two buckets following the rules.
b Explain why it is not possible to place the numbers 1 to 5 in the two buckets following the rules.
c Show that the numbers 2 to 9 can be placed in the two buckets following the rules.
d You now have three buckets available: red, blue, green. Find an arrangement for placing the numbers 1 to 12 in
these buckets with exactly four numbers in each bucket.

MP4 Hand-Sum
When the time is 10 past 9, the minute hand of an analog clock is pointing straight at the 2 and the hour hand has
moved a bit past the 9. The sum of the numbers closest to which the hands are pointing gives what is called the
hand-sum. At 10 past 9, the hand-sum is 2+9 = 11.

11 12 1
10 2
9 3
8 4
7 6 5

Mathematics Contests The Australian Scene 2018 | Challenge Problems

2 – Middle Primary | 12
When either hand is exactly halfway between two numbers the later number is used. For example, at 12:30 the minute
hand is at 6 and the hour hand is exactly halfway between 12 and 1, so the hand-sum is 6 + 1 = 7.

11 12 1
10 2
9 3
8 4
7 6 5

At 12:22:30, the minute hand is exactly halfway between 4 and 5, and the hour hand is between 12 and 1 but closer
to 12, so the hand-sum is 5 + 12 = 17.

11 12 1
10 2
9 3
8 4
7 6 5

a What is the hand-sum for a quarter to 10?

b What is the hand-sum at 29 minutes past 2? What is the hand-sum 4 minutes later?
c Give four different times when the hand-sum is 5. Each pair of these times must differ by more than 30 minutes.

Two times that are close together often have the same hand-sum. For example, the hand-sums at 1:46 and 1:47 are
both 2 + 9 = 11. But a minute later at 1:48, the hand-sum becomes 12 because the minute hand has moved past the
halfway mark between 9 and 10.

d Consider the hour starting at 3:00 and finishing at 4:00. At what times during this hour is the hand-sum 7?

Mathematics Contests The Australian Scene 2018 | Challenge Problems

3 – Middle Primary | 13
CHALLENGE PROBLEMS
2018 Challenge Problems –- UPPER PRIMARY
Upper Primary
Students may work on each of these four problems in groups of up to three, but must write their solutions individually.

UP1 Bitripents

A B C

Tia places her tiles to cover different shapes on the grid with no gaps and no overlaps. She sometimes rotates or flips
the tiles. For example, here is one way Tia could cover a 5 × 4 rectangle using two A tiles, two B tiles, and two C
tiles.

a Draw a diagram to show how Tia could cover the smallest square possible using only B tiles.
b Tia uses at least one each of the A, B, C tiles to cover a rectangle whose area is 18 grid squares. Draw a diagram
to show how she could do this.
c Tia covers two rectangles that both have perimeter 16 but have different dimensions. She uses at least one each
of the A, B, C tiles for each rectangle. Draw a diagram to show how she could do this. Explain why no other
rectangle of perimeter 16 is possible.

UP2 Insect Barriers

A caravan park is made up of square sites joined along their edges. For example, here is a caravan park with five
square sites:

Mathematics Contests The Australian Scene 2018 | Challenge Problems

4 – Upper Primary | 14
Electronic transmitters provide protection from fire ants by sending signals along the edges of caravan sites. An edge
is protected by having a transmitter on at least one of its ends (called vertices), as shown below. Dots are transmitters,
solid lines are protected edges, and dashed lines are unprotected edges.

• •
•
a Copy the diagram above and include enough extra transmitters to protect all edges.
b The caravan park owner thinks that if she relocates the transmitters, she can protect all edges with just 5 trans-
mitters. Show how to do this.
c There are 8 caravan sites in an arrangement like this:

Show where to place just 8 transmitters so that all 24 edges are protected.
d There are 4 caravan sites in a 2 × 2 arrangement like this:

Explain why 3 transmitters are not enough to protect all 12 edges in this arrangement.

UP3 Coloured Buckets

There are a number of buckets of different colours. There are also counters with different whole numbers written on
them. We want to put the numbered counters into the buckets according to the following rules:

• the lowest number must be in the red bucket

• no bucket has three numbers where one is the sum of the other two
• no bucket has two numbers where one is double the other.

Mathematics Contests The Australian Scene 2018 | Challenge Problems

5 – Upper Primary | 15
For example, if counters numbered 1 to 7 were placed in a red and a blue bucket as shown below, then the blue bucket
obeys the rules but the red bucket doesn’t (2 × 1 = 2, 1 + 2 = 3, 2 + 3 = 5).

2 7
1 5 3 4 6

Red Blue

We start with two empty buckets, one red and the other blue.

a Show how the numbers 1 to 4 can be placed in the two buckets following the rules.
b Explain why it is not possible to place the numbers 1 to 5 in the two buckets following the rules.
c Show that the numbers 2 to 9 can be placed in the two buckets in only one way.
d You now have three buckets available: red, blue, green. Find an arrangement for placing the numbers 1 to 13 in
these buckets.

UP4 Isopentagons

An isopentagon is a pentagon with the following properties:

• the internal angle at one vertex is 60◦

• the internal angle at each of the other four vertices is 120◦

• the length of each side is a whole number of centimetres

• the two sides that meet at the 60◦ vertex have the same length.

An isopentagon can be drawn on 1 cm isometric grid paper so that each side at the 60◦ vertex passes through a grid
point that is distance 1 cm from the vertex. We assume that all isopentagons are so drawn. Here is an example.

• • • • •
• • • • • •
• • • • •
• • • • • •
• • • • •
• • • • • •

a Draw all isopentagons for which the longest side length is 5 cm.

An isopentagon can be specified by listing its side lengths clockwise from the 60◦ vertex. For example, (3, 2, 1, 2, 3)
specifies the isopentagon above.
The number of equilateral grid triangles of side length 1 cm that lie inside an isopentagon is called its t-number. For
example, the t-number of the (3, 2, 1, 2, 3) isopentagon is 17.

b Find the t-number of the (5, 3, 2, 3, 5) isopentagon.

c Find all isopentagons that have a t-number less than 20 and explain why there are no others.

Mathematics Contests The Australian Scene 2018 | Challenge Problems

6 – Upper Primary | 16
CHALLENGE PROBLEMS
2018 Challenge Problems -–Junior
JUNIOR

Students may work on each of these six problems with a partner but each must write their solutions individually.

J1 Insect Barriers
A caravan park is made up of square sites joined along their edges. For example, here is a caravan park with five
square sites:

Electronic transmitters provide protection from fire ants by sending signals along the edges of caravan sites. An edge
is protected by having a transmitter on at least one of its ends (called vertices), as shown below. Dots are transmitters,
solid lines are protected edges, and dashed lines are unprotected edges.

• •
•
a The caravan park owner thinks that if she relocates some transmitters, she can protect all five caravan sites with
just 5 transmitters. Show how to do this.
b There are 9 caravan sites in a 3 × 3 arrangement like this:

Show how to protect all 12 outer boundary edges with 6 transmitters and explain why 5 transmitters are not enough
to do this.
c Find the smallest number of transmitters needed to protect all edges of the park in Part b and explain your answer.

Mathematics Contests The Australian Scene 2018 | Challenge Problems

7 – Junior | 17
d There are 12 caravan sites in a 3 × 4 arrangement like this:

A caravan site is protected if all four of its edges are protected. The owner has only 8 transmitters. Find the
maximum number of sites that can be protected and explain your answer.

J2 Cubic Coprimes

Two integers are coprimes if their only common divisor is 1. For example, 10 and 21 are coprime but 15 and 20 are
not. Liam labels the vertices of a cube with eight different positive integers so that the labels on each pair of adjacent
vertices are coprime. This is called a Liam labelling. To make the edges of the cube easier to see, Liam uses this
two-dimensional projection of the cube.

• •

a Find a Liam labelling using the integers 1 to 8.

b Find a Liam labelling using integers in the range 2 to 10.
c Explain why there is no Liam labelling using the integers 2 to 9.
d Find a Liam labelling in which only composite numbers are used, and the largest label is as small as possible.
Justify your answer.

J3 Isopentagons

An isopentagon is a pentagon with the following properties:

• the internal angle at one vertex is 60◦

• the internal angle at each of the other four vertices is 120◦

• the length of each side is a whole number of centimetres

• the two sides that meet at the 60◦ vertex have the same length.

Mathematics Contests The Australian Scene 2018 | Challenge Problems

8 – Junior | 18
An isopentagon can be drawn on 1 cm isometric grid paper so that each side at the 60◦ vertex passes through a grid
point that is distance 1 cm from the vertex. We assume that all isopentagons are so drawn. Here is an example.

• • • • •
• • • • • •
• • • • •
• • • • • •
• • • • •
• • • • • •

a Draw all isopentagons for which the longest side length is 5 cm.

b Find the t-number of the (5, 3, 2, 3, 5) isopentagon.

c Find all isopentagons that have a t-number smaller than 20 and explain why there are no others.
d There are two different isopentagons with t-number 119. Describe these isopentagons and find their perimeters.

J4 Ts and Rs
We define two numerical operations labelled T and R.
The effect of T is to add 1 to a number. For example, if we apply the operation T to the number 2 three times in a
row, we obtain 3, then 4, then 5.
The effect of R is to find the negative reciprocal of a number. For example, if we apply the operation R to 2 we obtain
− 12 , and if we apply the operation R to − 32 we obtain 23 . Note that R can never be applied to the number 0.
2
The operations T and R can be combined. For example, we can turn 0 into 5 by successively applying the operations
T, T, T, R, T, T, R, T:

T T T R 1 T 2 T 5 R 3 T 2
0 −→ 1 −→ 2 −→ 3 −→ − −→ −→ −→ − −→ .
3 3 3 5 5

a Starting with 2, list the numbers produced by successively applying the operations T, R, R, T, R, T, R, T, R.
3
b Find a sequence of operations which turns 4 into 23 .
c Find a sequence of operations which turns 3 into 0.
d Find a sequence of 20 operations that turns 7 into 0.

J5 Rhombus Rings

Bruce draws rings of rhombuses about a common centre point. All rhombuses have the same side length.
Rhombuses in the first, or inner, ring are all identical. Each rhombus has a vertex at the centre and each of its sides
that meet at the centre is shared with another rhombus. They all have the same size angle at the centre. Figure 1
shows a first ring with 7 rhombuses.
Each rhombus in the second ring has two adjacent sides each of which is shared with a rhombus in the first ring.
Figure 2 shows the second ring when the first ring contains 7 rhombuses.
Bruce continues adding rings of rhombuses in the same way for as long as possible. Figure 3 shows the third ring
when the first ring contains 7 rhombuses. In this example, since it is not possible to draw any new rhombuses that
share edges with two rhombuses in the third ring, there are only three rings in this rhombus ring pattern.

Mathematics Contests The Australian Scene 2018 | Challenge Problems

9 – Junior | 19
Figure 1
Figure 2

Figure 3

a This diagram shows a rhombus ring pattern with 5 rhombuses in each ring. Find the size of the angles a and b.

b In a rhombus ring pattern there are 8 rhombuses in the first ring. What are the angles in a rhombus in the last
ring?
c In a rhombus ring pattern, each rhombus in the last ring has an angle of 20◦ and each rhombus in the second last
ring has an angle of 60◦ .
What are the angles in each rhombus in the third last ring?
How many rhombuses are there in the first ring, and how many rings are there in total?

Mathematics Contests The Australian Scene 2018 | Challenge Problems

10 – Junior | 20
J6 Parsecking

In the sport of parsecking, a player performs a routine and is judged by a scoring panel of 3 judges. A set of 12
scorecards numbered 1 to 12 is distributed amongst the judges so that each judge has 4 cards. Some judges are more
important than others so some get some higher scorecards than others. After a routine, each judge holds up one
scorecard. The player’s score is the sum of numbers on these three cards.

a In one competition:
Judge A had scorecards 1, 2, 3, 4
Judge B had scorecards 5, 6, 7, 8
Judge C had scorecards 9, 10, 11, 12.
List all possible player scores.
b In another competition, amongst other scores, each score from 6 to 9 was possible. How were the scorecards 1 to 6
distributed amongst the judges?
c Show one way the scorecards could be distributed among the judges if all player scores from 6 to 29, except 10,
were possible.
d Show all ways the scorecards could be distributed among the judges if all player scores from 6 to 29, except 10, were
possible. Explain why there is no other way of distributing the scorecards except for swapping sets of 4 scorecards
between judges.

Mathematics Contests The Australian Scene 2018 | Challenge Problems

11 – Junior | 21
CHALLENGE PROBLEMS
2018 Challenge Problems–- INTERMEDIATE
Intermediate
Students may work on each of these six problems with a partner but each must write their solutions individually.

I1 Isopentagons

An isopentagon is a pentagon with the following properties:

• the internal angle at one vertex is 60◦

• the internal angle at each of the other four vertices is 120◦

• the length of each side is a whole number of centimetres

• the two sides that meet at the 60◦ vertex have the same length.

• • • • •
• • • • • •
• • • • •
• • • • • •
• • • • •
• • • • • •

a Draw all isopentagons for which the longest side length is 5 cm and find their t-numbers.
b Find all isopentagons that have a t-number smaller than 20 and explain why there are no others.
c There are two different isopentagons with t-number 119. Describe these isopentagons and find their perimeters.
d Find the smallest perimeter that is the same for three different isopentagons and the t-numbers for such isopentagons.

I2 Ts and Rs
We define two numerical operations labelled T and R.
The effect of T is to add 1 to a number. For example, if we apply the operation T to the number 2 three times in a
row, we obtain 3, then 4, then 5.
The effect of R is to find the negative reciprocal of a number. For example, if we apply the operation R to 2 we obtain
− 12 , and if we apply the operation R to − 32 we obtain 23 . Note that R can never be applied to the number 0.
2
The operations T and R can be combined. For example, we can turn 0 into 5 by successively applying the operations
T, T, T, R, T, T, R, T:

T T T R 1 T 2 T 5 R 3 T 2
0 −→ 1 −→ 2 −→ 3 −→ − −→ −→ −→ − −→ .
3 3 3 5 5

a Starting with 2, list the numbers produced by successively applying the operations T, R, R, T, R, T, R, T, R.
b Find a sequence of operations which turns 3 into 0.
c Notice that 0 can be turned into any positive integer n by applying n successive Ts. Explain how any positive
integer n can be turned back into 0 by applying 3n − 1 operations.
d Explain how 0 can be turned into any negative integer.

Mathematics Contests The Australian Scene 2018 | Challenge Problems

12 – Intermediate | 22
I3 Rail Cams
Two horizontal rails have been fixed near the ceiling of a rectangular stadium so that cameras running along them
can film the action below. The stadium floor is 100 m by 70 m.
One rail runs the length of the stadium. It is parallel to, and halfway between, the east and west walls and 20 m above
the floor. The other rail runs the width of the stadium. It is parallel to, and 15 m from, the south wall and 25 m above
the floor. The long rail carries camera A and the short rail carries camera B. Both cameras start at one end of their
rails, as shown.

20m

25m
5m

A B
20m
85m
35m 25m
W N

35m
15m S E

For the following questions, give your answer in exact surd form or to the nearest centimetre.

a Find the direct distance between cameras A and B at their starting positions.

The cameras start moving simultaneously along their rails at 5 metres per second.

b How much closer are the cameras after 2 seconds?

c Within the first 14 seconds, what is the minimum distance between the cameras as they move along their rails and
at what time does this occur?

I4 Curvy Tiles

Tamara has several square tiles of the same size and all have the pattern below. Each of the two curves on the tile is
a quadrant of a circle which has its centre at a tile corner and its radius equal to half a tile edge.

She creates various patterns by joining these tiles edge-to-edge, after rotating some of them if necessary.
Since each of the four tiles has two orientations, there are 24 = 16 ways of placing four of her tiles to form a 2 × 2
square. However, Tamara notices that some of the 2 × 2 patterns are just rotations of each other. She regards these
as the same and finds that there are only six different 2 × 2 patterns.

Mathematics Contests The Australian Scene 2018 | Challenge Problems

13 – Intermediate | 23
a Draw the six different 2 × 2 patterns.
b For each 2 × 2 pattern in Part a, calculate the probability it will appear if Tamara places the four tiles at random.
c This shape is called a peanut.

What is the probability that a random 3 × 3 placement of tiles will contain a peanut?

I5 Rhombus Rings

Bruce draws rings of rhombuses about a common centre point. All rhombuses have the same side length.
Rhombuses in the first, or inner, ring are all identical. Each rhombus has a vertex at the centre and each of its sides
that meet at the centre is shared with another rhombus. They all have the same size angle at the centre. Figure 1
shows a first ring with 7 rhombuses.
Each rhombus in the second ring has two adjacent sides each of which is shared with a rhombus in the first ring.
Figure 2 shows the second ring when the first ring contains 7 rhombuses.
Bruce continues adding rings of rhombuses in the same way for as long as possible. Figure 3 shows the third ring
when the first ring contains 7 rhombuses. In this example, since it is not possible to draw any new rhombuses that
share an edge with two rhombuses in the third ring, there are only three rings in this rhombus ring pattern.

Figure 1
Figure 2

Figure 3

a If a rhombus ring pattern has 8 rhombuses in the first ring, what are the angles in a rhombus in the last ring?
b In another rhombus ring pattern, each rhombus in the last ring has an angle of 20◦ and each rhombus in the second
last ring has an angle of 60◦ .
How many rhombuses are in each ring, and how many rings are there in this rhombus ring pattern?
c A rhombus ring pattern has r rings and the rhombuses in its first ring have central angle a. What are the angles
in a rhombus in the rth ring?
d A rhombus ring pattern has 7 rings in total. How many rhombuses could there be in each ring?

Mathematics Contests The Australian Scene 2018 | Challenge Problems

14 – Intermediate | 24
I6 Higher or Lower

Two contestants are playing a game called Higher or Lower. A prize is hidden inside one of several boxes placed in a
row. The boxes are numbered from left to right 1, 2, 3, . . . . All boxes are equally likely to contain the prize.
The players take turns to guess where the prize is hidden. If a guess is correct, then the host says ‘correct’ and that
player wins. If a guess is incorrect, the host, who knows where the prize is hidden, then says ‘higher’ or ‘lower’ to
faithfully indicate in which direction the prize box is located. Both players always follow the host’s directions. For
example, when there are 10 boxes numbered 1 to 10, with the prize in box 7, the game could progress like this:

Player 1: 3
Host: Higher
Player 2: 5
Host: Higher
Player 1: 8
Host: Lower
Player 2: 7
Host: Correct. Player 2 wins.

a A game has three boxes numbered 1, 2, 3. Show that if Player 1 chooses box 2 on the first turn, her chance of
winning is 31 , whereas if she chooses box 1 her chance of winning is 23 .
b A game has boxes numbered 1 to 4. Show that no matter which box Player 1 chooses on the first turn, Player 2
has a strategy for ensuring his chance of winning is 12 .
c A game has boxes numbered 1 to 9. Show that no matter which boxes Player 2 chooses, Player 1 has a strategy
which involves choosing box 5 at the first turn and ensures her chance of winning is more than 12 .

Mathematics Contests The Australian Scene 2018 | Challenge Problems

15 – Intermediate | 25
CHALLENGE SOLUTIONS
2018 Challenge Solutions –- Middle
MIDDLE PRIMARY
Primary

MP1 Training
a The following diagram shows the student’s path:

•1 10 m
•2 10 m
•3 10 m
•4 10 m
•5

The total distance is 30 + 10 + 20 + 30 = 90 m.

b A run that starts at cone 2 and finishes at cone 4 must be one of the following: 21354, 21534, 23154, 23514, 25134,
25314. Of these, the only legitimate runs are: 21534, 23154. In all other cases, the student does not turn at cone 3.
c A run that starts at cone 1 has its first turn at cone 3, 4, or 5.
If the first turn is at cone 3, then the second turn must be at cone 2 and the third turn at cone 5.
If the first turn is at cone 4, then the second turn must be at cone 2 or 3 and the third turn at cone 5.
If the first turn is at cone 5, then the second turn must be at cone 2 or 3 and the third turn at cone 4.
So the only runs that start at cone 1 are:
13254, 14253, 14352, 15243, 15342.
Their total distances are respectively:
70 m, 100 m, 90 m, 100 m, 90 m.
d Alternative i
An exercise drill must start at one of the five cones. Part c gives all drills that start at cone 1 together with their
running distances.
Using the method in Part c, the only runs starting at cone 2 are:
21435, 21534, 23154, 24153, 24351, 25143, 25341.
Their total distances are respectively:
70 m, 80 m, 80 m, 110 m, 90 m, 110 m, 90 m.
Similarly, the only runs starting at cone 3 are:
31425, 31524, 32415, 32514, 34152, 34251, 35142, 35241.
Their total distances are respectively:
100 m, 110 m, 100 m, 110 m, 110 m, 100 m, 110 m, 100 m.
The runs starting at cone 4 are the reflections about cone 3 of the runs that start at cone 2. For example, 45231 is
the reflection of 21435.
The runs starting at cone 5 are the reflections about cone 3 of the runs that start at cone 1. For example, 53412 is
the reflection of 13254.
Hence the shortest run is 70 m and the longest run is 110 m.
Alternative ii
Label the line segments between the cones A, B, C, D.

•1 A
•2 B
•3 C
•4 D
•5
Each exercise drill can be represented not only by a sequence of cones but also a sequence of these line segments.
We can combine these sequences to make this clearer. For example, the run which has the cone sequence 23154 also
has the segment sequence BBAABCDD, and the combined sequence is 2B3BA1ABCD5D4.
For each segment we keep a tally of the number of times the student runs along it. There is one line segment in the
run immediately before each cone except for the starting cone. So the total tally of segment runs is at least 4 for
each run.
The student turns at three of the cones. At each such cone, the segment immediately before the cone in the run is
repeated immediately after the turn. So, for each run, the total tally of segment runs is at least 4 + 3 = 7. This
means the total distance for each exercise drill is at least 70 m. Since, for example, the run 21435 has total distance
70 m, the shortest running distance is 70 m.

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16 – Middle Primary | 26
We now find the longest running distance. Consider any one of the cones 2, 3, 4. In any run, the student must
either start, stop, or turn at the cone. In addition the student may pass the cone as well. In the next diagram, the
cone is drawn a number of times. Each time, one or both of its attached line segments are also drawn to indicate
each time the student runs on them.

.. ..
• •
• •
• •
start or stop turn

We can see from the diagram that the tally of runs on the segments either side of the cone will differ by either 1 or
2. The tally for each of segments A and D is at most 2. So the tally for each of the segments B and C is at most
4. The tallies for B and C must differ by 1 or 2. So the total tally of segment runs is at most 2 + 2 + 4 + 3 = 11.
This means the total distance for each exercise drill is at most 110 m. Since, for example, the run 25143 has total
distance 110 m, the longest running distance is 110 m.

MP2 Bitripents
a A total of 25 grid squares need to be covered. The number of grid squares covered by one A, one B, and one C tile
is 2 + 3 + 5 = 10. So the remaining 15 grid squares must be covered by seven tiles. This could be done with six A
tiles and one B tile, as shown. There are other ways.

b A total of 36 grid squares need to be covered. The number of grid squares covered by three C tiles is 3 × 5 = 15.
So the remaining 21 grid squares must be covered by eight tiles, none of which is a C tile. This could be done with
three A tiles and five B tiles, as shown. There are other ways.

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17 – Middle Primary | 27
c The number of grid squares covered by three A tiles, three B tiles, and three C tiles is 3 × (2 + 3 + 5) = 30. A
rectangle consisting of 30 grid squares must be 1 × 30, 2 × 15, 3 × 10, or 5 × 6. Since 1 × 30 and 2 × 15 rectangles
cannot accommodate a C tile, the two rectangles we require are 3 × 10 and 5 × 6. Here is one way to cover each of
these rectangles. There are other ways.

MP3 Coloured Buckets

a Red bucket: 1, 4
Blue bucket: 2, 3
(This is the only arrangement.)
b As stipulated, 1 must go in the red bucket. Then 2 must go in the blue bucket since 2 is the double of 1. Then 4
must go in the red bucket since 4 is the double of 2. Then 3 must go in the blue bucket since 1 + 3 = 4. However,
5 = 1 + 4 and 5 = 2 + 3, so 5 cannot be placed in either bucket.
c Red bucket: 2, 3, 8, 9
Blue bucket: 4, 5, 6, 7
(This is the only arrangement.)
d Here is one arrangement. There are many others.
Red bucket: 1, 5, 8, 12
Blue bucket: 2, 6, 7, 11
Green bucket: 3, 4, 9, 10

MP4 Hand-Sum
a At quarter to 10, the minute hand points directly at 9 and the hour hand is between 9 and 10 but closer to 10. So
the hand-sum at quarter to 10 is 9 + 10 = 19.
b At 29 minutes past 2, the minute hand is between 5 and 6 but closer to 6, while the hour hand is between 2 and 3
but closer to 2. So the hand-sum at 29 minutes past 2 is 6 + 2 = 8.
At 33 minutes past 2, the minute hand is between 6 and 7 but closer to 7, while the hour hand is between 2 and 3
but closer to 3. So the hand-sum at 33 minutes past 2 is 7 + 3 = 10.
c We first note that 5 = 1 + 4 = 2 + 3 = 3 + 2 = 4 + 1. This gives us a clue as to which times to look for.
The sum 1 + 4 suggests 4:05 (or any time from 4:02:30 and before 4:07:30).
The sum 2 + 3 suggests 3:10 (or any time from 3:07:30 and before 3:12:30).
The sum 3 + 2 suggests 2:15 (or any time from 2:12:30 and before 2:17:30).
The sum 4 + 1 suggests 1:20 (or any time from 1:17:30 and before 1:22:30).
Each pair of these times differ by more than 30 minutes.

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18 – Middle Primary | 28
d Alternative i
From 3:00 and before 3:02:30 the hand-sum is 12 + 3 = 15.
From 3:02:30 and before 3:07:30 the hand-sum is 1 + 3 = 4.
From 3:07:30 and before 3:12:30 the hand-sum is 2 + 3 = 5.
From 3:12:30 and before 3:17:30 the hand-sum is 3 + 3 = 6.
From 3:17:30 and before 3:22:30 the hand-sum is 4 + 3 = 7.
From 3:22:30 up to 4:00 the hand-sum is greater than 7.
So between 3:00 and 4:00 the hand-sum is 7 only at the times from 3:17:30 and before 3:22:30.
Alternative ii
We first note that 7 = 1 + 6 = 2 + 5 = 3 + 4 = 4 + 3 = 5 + 2 = 6 + 1. Since the hour hand is at 3 or 4 or between
them, the number allocated to the hour hand is either 3 or 4. If the number allocated to the hour hand is 4, then
the minute hand is anywhere from 6 to 12 and the hand-sum is therefore greater than 7. If the number allocated
to the hour hand is 3, then the number allocated to the minute hand is 4. So between 3:00 and 4:00 the hand-sum
is 7 only at the times from 3:17:30 and before 3:22:30.

Mathematics Contests The Australian Scene 2018 | Challenge Solutions

19 – Middle Primary | 29
CHALLENGE SOLUTIONS
2018 Challenge Solutions – UPPER
- Upper PRIMARY
Primary

UP1 Bitripents
a The smallest square that can be covered using only B tiles is 6 × 6. Here is one such square.

Comment
No square smaller than 6 × 6 is possible. Each B tile has 3 grid squares. So the number of grid squares in a square
covered by only B tiles is a multiple of 3. Hence the covered square must be one of 3 × 3, 6 × 6, 9 × 9 etc.
If the covered square is 3 × 3, then there are essentially only two ways to cover its centre grid square.

In both cases, the top-left grid square cannot be covered by a B tile. So the covered square must be at least 6 × 6.
b Since the rectangle covering includes a C tile, it must have all side lengths at least 3. So, to have area 18, the
required rectangle must be 3 × 6. Here is such a rectangle with a required covering.

c If a rectangle covering includes a C tile, then it must have all side lengths at least 3. So, to have perimeter 16, the
rectangles that we require could only be 3 × 5 or 4 × 4.
Here are two such rectangles with a required covering.

Mathematics Contests The Australian Scene 2018 | Challenge Solutions

20 – Upper Primary | 30
UP2 Insect Barriers
a Four extra transmitters are required. Here is one way to place them.

• •
• •
• • •
b
•
• •
• •
c
• •
• •
• •
• •
d Alternative i
One vertex has 4 edges attached to it. All other vertices have fewer edges attached. So the number of edges that
could be protected with 3 transmitters is at most 4 + 3 + 3 = 10. But there are 12 edges to be protected. Hence 3
transmitters are not enough.
Alternative ii
Each row of horizontal edges requires at least one transmitter to protect its two edges. If a row has only one
transmitter, then the transmitter must be at the middle vertex. Since there are three rows of horizontal edges, if
there are only three transmitters, then they are all at the row centres. Then none of the side edges are protected.
Hence 3 transmitters are not enough.
Alternative iii
Each boundary edge must have a transmitter on at least one of its vertices. There are 8 boundary edges, so at least
4 transmitters are needed to protect all 8 edges. Hence 3 transmitters are not enough.

Mathematics Contests The Australian Scene 2018 | Challenge Solutions

21 – Upper Primary | 31
UP3 Coloured Buckets
a Red bucket: 1, 4
Blue bucket: 2, 3
(This is the only arrangement.)
b As stipulated, 1 must go in the red bucket. Then 2 must go in the blue bucket since 2 is the double of 1. Then 4
must go in the red bucket since 4 is the double of 2. Then 3 must go in the blue bucket since 1 + 3 = 4. However,
5 = 1 + 4 and 5 = 2 + 3, so 5 cannot be placed in either bucket.
c As stipulated, 2 must go in the red bucket. Then 4 (= 2 × 2) must be in the blue bucket, 8 (= 2 × 4) must be in
the red bucket, and 6 must be in the blue bucket (8 = 2 + 6).
Red bucket: 2, 8
Blue bucket: 4, 6
Then 3 must be in the red bucket (6 = 2 × 3), 5 must be in the blue bucket (5 = 2 + 3), 9 must be in the red bucket
(9 = 4 + 5), and 7 must be in the blue bucket (9 = 2 + 7).
Red bucket: 2, 3, 8, 9
Blue bucket: 4, 5, 6, 7
d A useful strategy is to start with a run of consecutive integers as long as possible in one bucket. For example:
Red bucket:
Blue bucket:
Green bucket: 5, 6, 7, 8, 9
Then 1 is in red, 2 in blue, 4 in red, 3 in blue:
Red bucket: 1, 4
Blue bucket: 2, 3
Green bucket: 5, 6, 7, 8, 9
If 10 is in blue, then 12 and 13 must both be in red, which is not allowed. So 10 must be in red, 11 in blue, 13 in
red, and 12 in blue.
Red bucket: 1, 4, 10, 13
Blue bucket: 2, 3, 11, 12
Green bucket: 5, 6, 7, 8, 9
There are only two other arrangements:
Red bucket: 1, 4, 7, 10, 13 1, 4, 10, 13
Blue bucket: 2, 3, 11, 12 2, 3, 7, 11, 12
Green bucket: 5, 6, 8, 9 5, 6, 8, 9
Any one of the three arrangements is acceptable.

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22 – Upper Primary | 32
UP4 Isopentagons
a The longest sides of an isopentagon are those meeting at the 60◦ vertex. There are 4 isopentagons with longest side
5 cm.
• • • • • • • • • • • • • •
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
• • • • • • • • • • • • • •
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
• • • • • • • • • • • • • •
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
• • • • • • • • • • • • • •
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
• • • • • • • • • • • • • •
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
• • • • • • • • • • • • • •
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
• • • • • • • • • • • • • •
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
• • • • • • • • • • • • • •
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
• • • • • • • • • • • • • •
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

b The (5, 3, 2, 3, 5) isopentagon is the bottom-left pentagon in the solution of Part a. By carefully counting the
internal triangles, we see that its t-number is 46.
c There are no isopentagons with longest side 1 cm.
There is only one isopentagon with longest side 2 cm, (2, 1, 1, 1, 2), which has t-number 7.
There are two isopentagons with longest side 3 cm, (3, 1, 2, 1, 3) and (3, 2, 1, 2, 3), which have t-numbers 14 and
17.
If the longest side of an isopentagon is 4 cm or more, then it contains an equilateral triangle of side length 4 cm,
which in turn contains 16 grid triangles. The isopentagon also contains a trapezium which has at least another 7
grid triangles, a total of at least 23.
So the only isopentagons with t-number less than 20 are:
(2, 1, 1, 1, 2) with t-number 7,
(3, 1, 2, 1, 3) with t-number 14,
(3, 2, 1, 2, 3) with t-number 17.

Mathematics Contests The Australian Scene 2018 | Challenge Solutions

23 – Upper Primary | 33
CHALLENGE SOLUTIONS
2018 Challenge Solutions - –Junior
JUNIOR

J1 Insect Barriers
a
•
• •
• •
b A single transmitter can protect at most two edges on the boundary. So at least 6 transmitters are needed to
protect all 12 edges on the boundary. Here is one way to do that.

• •
•
•
• •
c Here is one way to protect all edges with 8 transmitters.

• •
• •
• •
• •
We now show that at least 8 transmitters are always needed.
Alternative i
From Part b, six transmitters are needed to protect all boundary edges. They must all be on the boundary since
no transmitter on an internal vertex can protect a boundary edge. So none of these can protect any of the edges
on the central square. At least two more transmitters are needed to do that. So at least 8 transmitters are needed
to protect all edges.
Alternative ii
There are 4 rows of horizontal edges. Each row requires at least two transmitters to protect all three of its edges,
and none of these transmitters protect an edge in any other row. So at least 8 transmitters are needed to protect
all edges.
Alternative iii
Each of the corner squares requires at least 2 transmitters to protect its 4 edges, and none of these transmitters
protect an edge in any other corner square. So at least 8 transmitters are needed to protect all edges.
So the smallest number of transmitters needed to protect all edges is 8.

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24 – Junior | 34
d If we had 10 transmitters, then all sites could be protected if we placed them this way.

• • •
• •
• • •
• •
If we removed the two transmitters in the top corners, 10 sites would still be protected.

•
• •
• • •
• •
Could we relocate the eight transmitters so that more than 10 sites are protected? We show that this is impossible.
Alternative i
Suppose 11 or more sites are protected. Then at least one of the central sites is protected.
Suppose just one of the central sites is protected. This requires at least 2 transmitters, none of which can protect
any boundary edge. All boundary sites and therefore the 14 boundary edges must be protected. This requires at
least 7 transmitters, a total of at least 9 transmitters.
So both central sites must be protected. This requires at least 3 transmitters, none of which can protect any
boundary edge. Then there are at most 5 transmitters remaining to protect the boundary edges. Since 5 transmitters
can protect at most 10 boundary edges, at least 4 boundary edges must be unprotected. Therefore at least two
boundary sites are unprotected and we are left with at most 10 protected sites.
So the maximum number of sites that can be protected by 8 transmitters is 10.
Alternative ii
Suppose 11 or more sites are protected, that is, at most one site is unprotected. Then all unprotected edges must
belong to one site and are therefore on the boundary. Since there are at most two boundary edges in a site, the
number of protected edges is at least 31 − 2 = 29.
A single transmitter can protect at most 4 edges. So to protect 29 or more edges with 8 transmitters, we need at
least 5 transmitters each protecting 4 distinct edges. The only vertices at which a transmitter can protect 4 edges
are the interior (non-boundary) vertices. Since no such transmitter can protect a boundary edge, we have at most
3 transmitters to protect at least 12 boundary edges. This is impossible, since a single transmitter can protect at
most 2 edges on the boundary.
So the maximum number of sites that can be protected by 8 transmitters is 10.

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25 – Junior | 35
J2 Cubic Coprimes
a Notice in particular that no two even numbers can be adjacent. Here is one possible labelling. There are others.

8 7
• •

• •
3 2

4 5
• •

• •
1 6

b Here is one possible labelling. There are others.

10 7
• •

• •
3 2

4 5
• •

• •
9 8

c There are only 8 integers from 2 to 9, so all of them must be used. The only labels that can be adjacent to 6 are
5 and 7. Since each vertex has three other vertices adjacent to it, there are not enough integers to label all the
vertices adjacent to 6. So there is no Liam labelling with labels 2 to 9.
d At most 4 vertices have an even label otherwise there would be at least 3 even labels on the left face of the cube or
3 on the right face. Either way, this would mean a pair of adjacent vertices both have even vertices, breaking the
coprime rule. So a Liam labelling with composites requires at least 4 composite odd integers. The 4 smallest odd
composites are 9, 15, 21, 25. Hence the largest label is at least 25.
Here is a Liam labelling with all labels composite and the largest label 25.

9 22
• •

• •
14 25

15 8
• •

• •
4 21

So 25 is indeed the least largest label for a Liam labelling with all labels composite.
There are other possible labellings. For example, replacing any even number with 16.

Mathematics Contests The Australian Scene 2018 | Challenge Solutions

26 – Junior | 36
J3 Isopentagons
a The longest sides of an isopentagon are those meeting at the 60◦ vertex. There are 4 isopentagons with longest side
5 cm.

• • • • • • • • • • • • • •
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
• • • • • • • • • • • • • •
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
• • • • • • • • • • • • • •
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
• • • • • • • • • • • • • •
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
• • • • • • • • • • • • • •
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
• • • • • • • • • • • • • •
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
• • • • • • • • • • • • • •
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
• • • • • • • • • • • • • •
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
• • • • • • • • • • • • • •
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

= a

Mathematics Contests The Australian Scene 2018 | Challenge Solutions

27 – Junior | 37
By direct counting we get the following table for the number of grid triangles inside an equilateral triangle with
side length s.

s 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
t 1 4 9 16 25 36 49 64 81 100 121

Notice that t = s × s for each value of s.

The t-number of an isopentagon is more than a × a and less than 2 × a × a. If an isopentagon has t-number 119,
then a is at most 10 and at least 8.
We are looking for values of a and b so that

2 × a × a − b × b = 119.

Since 2 × a × a is even and 119 is odd, b must be odd.

The next table shows t-numbers of all isopentagons with odd b for a = 8, 9, 10.

a b t a b t
8 1 64 + 64 − 1 = 127 10 1 100 + 100 − 1 = 199
8 3 64 + 64 − 9 = 119 10 3 100 + 100 − 9 = 191
8 5 64 + 64 − 25 = 103 10 5 100 + 100 − 25 = 175
8 7 64 + 64 − 49 = 79 10 7 100 + 100 − 49 = 151
9 1 81 + 81 − 1 = 161 10 9 100 + 100 − 81 = 119
9 3 81 + 81 − 9 = 153
9 5 81 + 81 − 25 = 137
9 7 81 + 81 − 49 = 113

So the only isopentagons with t-number 119 are:

(8, 5, 3, 5, 8) which has perimeter 29,
(10, 1, 9, 1, 10) which has perimeter 31.

J4 Ts and Rs
a
T R 1 R T R 1 T 3 R 4 T 1 R
2 −→ 3 −→ − −→ 3 −→ 4 −→ − −→ −→ − −→ − −→ 3
3 4 4 3 3
b
3 R 4 T 1 T 2
−→ − −→ − −→
4 3 3 3
There are longer, less efficient, sequences.
c
R 1 T 2 R 3 T 1 T 1 R T T
3 −→ − −→ −→ − −→ − −→ −→ −2 −→ −1 −→ 0
3 3 2 2 2
There are longer, less efficient, sequences.
d Firstly we operate on smaller positive integers to see if there is a pattern. We stop each sequence when we reach a
number that has occurred in the previous sequence.

R T
1 −→ −1 −→ 0
R 1 T 1 R T
2 −→ − −→ −→ −2 −→ −1
2 2
R 1 T 2 R 3 T 1
3 −→ − −→ −→ − −→ −
3 3 2 2
R 1 T 3 R 4 T 1
4 −→ − −→ −→ − −→ −
4 4 3 3
Note that, from the second sequence, the last number in each of these sequences is the second number in the previous
sequence. This suggests the following sequence of operations for changing 7 into 0.

Mathematics Contests The Australian Scene 2018 | Challenge Solutions

28 – Junior | 38
R 1 T 6 R 7 T 1
7 −→ − −→ −→ − −→ −
7 7 6 6
T 5 R 6 T 1
−→ −→ − −→ −
6 5 5
T 4 R 5 T 1
−→ −→ − −→ −
5 4 4
T 3 R 4 T 1
−→ −→ − −→ −
4 3 3
T 2 R 3 T 1
−→ −→ − −→ −
3 2 2
T 1 R T
−→ −→ −2 −→ −1
2
T
−→ 0
There are 20 operations in this sequence, as required.

J5 Rhombus Rings
a Since opposite angles in a rhombus are equal and the rhombuses in the first ring are identical and have the same
angle at the centre, we have these angles.

c
c c
c c

a a
b
b

Since the sum of angles at a point is 360◦ , c = 360/5 = 72◦ .

Since the sum of adjacent angles in a rhombus is 180◦ , a = 180 − c = 108◦ .
Since the sum of angles at a point is 360◦ , b = 360 − 2 × a = 360 − 216 = 144◦ .
b Each central angle is 360/8 = 45◦ . Starting with those, we calculate the remaining angles in degrees as we move
outwards.

C
90 135
45
90
45
45 135
45 135
90 90 B
45
90
45
90 135
A

Since ABC is a straight line, the third ring is the last (outer) ring. Thus the angles in a rhombus in the outer ring
are 45◦ and 135◦ .

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29 – Junior | 39
c We have these angles (all in degrees).

160
20 20
160
60 x 60

Thus x = 360 − 160 − 60 − 60 = 80◦ . Hence the angles in each rhombus of the third last ring are 80◦ and
180◦ − 80◦ = 100◦ .
Extending the diagram above and inserting a few more angles, we get:

160
20 20
160
60 60
80

120
100
100
y

Thus y = 360 − 120 − 100 − 100 = 40◦ . Hence there is a fourth last ring of rhombuses. Extending the diagram and
adding a few more angles gives:

160
20 20
160
60 60
80

120
100
100
40

80
140 140

Since 140 + 140 + 80 = 360, no more rings are possible. So there are 4 rings in total and the number of rhombuses
in the inner ring is 360/40 = 9.

J6 Parsecking
a The minimum score is 1 + 5 + 9 = 15 and the maximum score is 4 + 8 + 12 = 24. All scores between are also
possible. For example:

1 + 5 + 9 = 15 1 + 6 + 12 = 19 2 + 8 + 12 = 22
1 + 5 + 10 = 16 1 + 7 + 12 = 20 3 + 8 + 12 = 23
1 + 5 + 11 = 17 1 + 8 + 12 = 21 4 + 8 + 12 = 24
1 + 5 + 12 = 18

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30 – Junior | 40
b The only way to express 6 as the sum of three different numbers is 6 = 3 + 2 + 1.
So scorecards 1, 2, 3 are with separate judges. (1)
The only way to express 7 as the sum of three different numbers is 7 = 4 + 2 + 1.
So scorecards 1, 2, 4 are with separate judges. (2)
The only ways to express 8 as the sum of three different numbers are 8 = 5 + 2 + 1 = 4 + 3 + 1.
From (1) and (2), 4 + 3 + 1 is impossible.
So scorecards 1, 2, 5 are with separate judges. (3)
The only ways to express 9 as the sum of three different numbers are 9 = 6 + 2 + 1 = 5 + 3 + 1 = 4 + 3 + 2.
From (1) and (3), 5 + 3 + 1 is impossible.
From (1) and (2), 4 + 3 + 2 is impossible.
So scorecards 1, 2, 6 are with separate judges. (4)
From (1), (2), (3), (4), scorecards 3, 4, 5, 6 are with the same judge and scorecards 1 and 2 are held separately by
the other two judges.
c Any one of the following six distributions.

A 1 9 10 11 1 8 10 11 1 8 9 11
B 2 7 8 12 2 7 9 12 2 7 10 12
C 3 4 5 6 3 4 5 6 3 4 5 6
A 1 9 10 12 1 8 10 12 1 8 9 12
B 2 7 8 11 2 7 9 11 2 7 10 11
C 3 4 5 6 3 4 5 6 3 4 5 6

d As in Part b, there is only one distribution of scorecards that gives scores 6 to 9:

A 1
B 2
C 3 4 5 6

If Judge A has scorecard 7, then score 11 is impossible. So Judge B has scorecard 7.

To achieve score 29, we must place scorecards 11 and 12 with Judges A and B separately. So we have two
distributions.
A 1 11 1 12
B 2 7 12 2 7 11
C 3 4 5 6 3 4 5 6

In each case, one of the scorecards 8, 9, 10 must be placed with Judge B. So we have six distributions.

A 1 9 10 11 1 8 10 11 1 8 9 11
B 2 7 8 12 2 7 9 12 2 7 10 12
C 3 4 5 6 3 4 5 6 3 4 5 6

A 1 9 10 12 1 8 10 12 1 8 9 12
B 2 7 8 11 2 7 9 11 2 7 10 11
C 3 4 5 6 3 4 5 6 3 4 5 6

In each case every score from 6 to 29, except 10, is possible.

Mathematics Contests The Australian Scene 2018 | Challenge Solutions

31 – Junior | 41
CHALLENGE SOLUTIONS
2018 Challenge Solutions –- Intermediate
INTERMEDIATE

I1 Isopentagons
a The longest sides of an isopentagon are those meeting at the 60◦ vertex. There are 4 isopentagons with longest side
5 cm.

• • • • • • • • • • • • • •
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
• • • • • • • • • • • • • •
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
• • • • • • • • • • • • • •
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
• • • • • • • • • • • • • •
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
t = 34 t = 41

• • • • • • • • • • • • • •
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
• • • • • • • • • • • • • •
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
• • • • • • • • • • • • • •
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
• • • • • • • • • • • • • •
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
• • • • • • • • • • • • • •
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
t = 46 t = 49

b There are no isopentagons with longest side 1 cm.

There is only one isopentagon with longest side 2 cm, (2, 1, 1, 1, 2), which has t-number 7.
There are two isopentagons with longest side 3 cm, (3, 1, 2, 1, 3) and (3, 2, 1, 2, 3), which have t-numbers 14 and
17.
If the longest side of an isopentagon is 4 cm or more, then it contains an equilateral triangle of side length 4 cm,
which in turn contains 16 grid triangles. The isopentagon also contains a trapezium which has at least another 7
grid triangles, a total of at least 23.
So the only isopentagons with t-number less than 20 are:
(2, 1, 1, 1, 2) with t-number 7,
(3, 1, 2, 1, 3) with t-number 14,
(3, 2, 1, 2, 3) with t-number 17.
c One way to look at an isopentagon is to see it as two identical large equilateral triangles with side lengths a minus
a smaller equilateral triangle with side length b, as shown. The smallest value of a is 2, and the largest value of b
is a − 1.

Mathematics Contests The Australian Scene 2018 | Challenge Solutions

32 – Intermediate | 42
= a

By direct counting we get the following table for the number of grid triangles inside an equilateral triangle with
side length s.

s 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
t 1 4 9 16 25 36 49 64 81 100 121

Notice that t = s × s for each value of s.

The t-number of an isopentagon is more than a × a and less than 2 × a × a. If an isopentagon has t-number 119,
then a is at most 10 and at least 8.
We are looking for values of a and b so that

2 × a × a − b × b = 119.

Since 2 × a × a is even and 119 is odd, b must be odd.

The next table shows t-numbers of all isopentagons with odd b for a = 8, 9, 10.

So the only isopentagons with t-number 119 are:

(8, 5, 3, 5, 8) which has perimeter 29,
(10, 1, 9, 1, 10) which has perimeter 31.
d Let a and b be the side lengths of an isopentagon as shown in the solution to Part c. Then the perimeter of the
isopentagon is 4 × a − b.
The following table gives values of 4 × a − b for small values of a and b.

b\a 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
1 7 11 15 19 23 27 31 35 39
2 10 14 18 22 26 30 34 38
3 13 17 21 25 29 33 37
4 16 20 24 28 32 36
5 19 23 27 31 35
6 22 26 30 34
7 25 29 33
8 28 32
9 31

From the table, the smallest common perimeter for three isopentagons is 31.
The isopentagons are (8, 7, 1, 7, 8), (9, 4, 5, 4, 9), (10, 1, 9, 1, 10).
Their t-numbers are 127, 137, 119.

Mathematics Contests The Australian Scene 2018 | Challenge Solutions

33 – Intermediate | 43
I2 Ts and Rs
a
T R 1 R T R 1 T 3 R 4 T 1 R
2 −→ 3 −→ − −→ 3 −→ 4 −→ − −→ −→ − −→ − −→ 3
3 4 4 3 3
b
R 1 T 2 R 3 T 1 T 1 R T T
3 −→ − −→ −→ − −→ − −→ −→ −2 −→ −1 −→ 0
3 3 2 2 2
There are longer, less efficient, sequences.
c Firstly we operate on small positive integers to see if there is a pattern. We stop each sequence when we reach a
number that has occurred in the previous sequence.

R T
1 −→ −1 −→ 0
R 1 T 1 R T
2 −→ − −→ −→ −2 −→ −1
2 2
R 1 T 2 R 3 T 1
3 −→ − −→ −→ − −→ −
3 3 2 2
R 1 T 3 R 4 T 1
4 −→ − −→ −→ − −→ −
4 4 3 3
For any integer n > 1 we have:

R 1 T n−1 R n T 1
n −→ − −→ −→ − −→ −
n n n−1 n−1

Note that, from the second sequence, the last number in each of these sequences is the second number in the previous
sequence. This suggests the following sequence of operations for changing n into 0.

R 1 T n−1 R n T 1
n −→ − −→ −→ − −→ −
n n n−1 n−1
T n−2 R n−1 T 1
−→ −→ − −→ −
n−1 n−2 n−2
T n−3 R n−2 T 1
−→ −→ − −→ −
n−2 n−3 n−3
and so on down to
T 2 R 3 T 1
−→ −→ − −→ −
3 2 2
T 1 R T
−→ −→ −2 −→ −1
2
T
−→ 0
The number of operations used is
1 + 3(n − 1) + 1 = 3n − 1.

d We use a similar approach to that in Part c, this time using the last number in a sequence to start the next sequence.

T R
0 −→ 1 −→ −1
R T R 1 T 1 R
−1 −→ 1 −→ 2 −→ − −→ −→ −2
2 2
R1 T 3 R 2 T 1 R
−2 −→ −→ −→ − −→ −→ −3
2 2 3 3
R 1 T 4 R 3 T 1 R
−3 −→ −→ −→ − −→ −→ −4
3 3 4 4
For any integer n > 0 we have:

R 1 T n+1 R n T 1 R
−n −→ −→ −→ − −→ −→ −(n + 1)
n n n+1 n+1
Thus the sequence continues until any desired negative integer is obtained.

Mathematics Contests The Australian Scene 2018 | Challenge Solutions

34 – Intermediate | 44
I3 Rail Cams
a Camera A is 15 m south and 35 m west of camera B . Let the horizontal distance between the two cameras be x
metres.

35
•B

15 x
•
A

By Pythagoras’ theorem, x2 = 152 + 352 .

The vertical distance between the two cameras is 25 − 20 = 5 metres. Let y be the direct distance in metres between
the two cameras. Then we have this right-angled triangle.

y •B
5
A• x

By Pythagoras’ theorem,

y 2 = x 2 + 52
= 152 + 352 + 52
= 52 32 + 52 72 + 52
= 25(9 + 49 + 1)
= 25(59)
√
So y = 5 59 m or 3841 cm to the nearest centimetre.
b After two seconds, camera A has moved 10 m north and camera B has moved 10 m west. Let the horizontal distance
between the two cameras then be x metres.

25 B 10
•
5 x
A•

By Pythagoras’ theorem, x2 = 52 + 252 .

The vertical distance between the two cameras is still 5 metres. Let the direct distance in metres between the two
cameras now be y. Then we have this right-angled triangle.

y •B
5
A• x

By Pythagoras’ theorem,
y 2 = x 2 + 52
= 52 + 252 + 52
= 25(1 + 25 + 1)
= 25(27)
√ √ √
So y = 15 3 m. Therefore, after two seconds, the cameras are 5 59 − 15 3 metres closer. This is 1242 cm to the
nearest centimetre.

Mathematics Contests The Australian Scene 2018 | Challenge Solutions

35 – Intermediate | 45
c Alternative i
Since the cameras remain 5 m apart vertically, their direct distance apart is minimised when their horizontal distance
d apart is minimised. At time t seconds, both cameras are 5t metres from their start positions. So we have these
right-angled triangles.

35 − 5t B 5t
•
15 − 5t
A• d
0≤t≤3
5t

A
• d
5t − 15
•
3≤t≤7 35 − 5t B 5t

A•

d 5t − 15

7 ≤ t ≤ 14
B
•
5t − 35 35

In each case, by Pythagoras’ theorem,

d2 = (35 − 5t)2 + (15 − 5t)2

= 25(7 − t)2 + 25(3 − t)2
= 25(2t2 − 20t + 58)
= 50(t2 − 10t + 29)
= 50((t − 5)2 + 4)

So minimum d2 = 50 × 4 = 200 √ when t = 5 seconds.

√ Since the cameras remain 5 m apart vertically, the minimum
direct distance between them is 200 + 52 = 225 = 15 m and this occurs at 5 seconds.
Alternative ii
Since the cameras remain 5 m apart vertically, their direct distance apart is minimised when their horizontal distance
d apart is minimised. At time t seconds, both cameras are 5t metres from their start positions. The next diagram
shows the horizontal positions of cameras A and B at times t = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 seconds. In each one-second
time interval, both cameras travel 5 m.

Mathematics Contests The Australian Scene 2018 | Challenge Solutions

36 – Intermediate | 46
•9

•8

•7

6•

5•

4•
3 2 1 0
• • 3• • • • • • • •B
9 8 7 6 5 4
2•

1•

0•
A

So, if 0 ≤ t ≤ 3 or 7 ≤ t ≤ 14, then d ≥ 5(7 − 3) = 20. If t = 5, then, by Pythagoras’ theorem, d2 = 102 + 102 =
200 < 400 = 202 . So minimum d occurs in the time interval 3 ≤ t ≤ 7.
The next diagram shows the horizontal positions of cameras A and B for any value of t between 3 and 7. The
bottom-left dot is the origin of a cartesian system with axes along the ‘B’ dots and ‘A’ dots respectively. The gap
between successive dots on the axes is 5 m. The point C is at (10,10). Triangles CY A and CXB are congruent
right-angled triangles and angle XCY is 90◦ . Hence ACB is a right-angled isosceles triangle.

7•

6•
A

Y 5• •C

d
4•

3• • • • •
7 6 B 5 4 3
X

By Pythagoras’ theorem, d2 = CA2 + CB 2 = 2CA2 . So minimum d occurs when A is at Y , that is, when t = 5
seconds. Then d2√= 2 × 102 =√200. Since the cameras remain 5 m apart vertically, the minimum direct distance
between them is 200 + 52 = 225 = 15 m and this occurs at 5 seconds.

Mathematics Contests The Australian Scene 2018 | Challenge Solutions

37 – Intermediate | 47
I4 Curvy Tiles
a The six different 2 × 2 tiling patterns are:

1 2 3

4 5 6

Rotations of these patterns are acceptable.

b Each random placement of four tiles has probability 1/16 of occurring.

There is only one random placement that gives pattern 1, so the probability of pattern 1 occurring is 1/16. Similarly,
the probability of pattern 6 occurring is 1/16.
There are exactly 4 random placements that give pattern 2: the one shown and its rotations through 90◦ , 180◦ ,
and 270◦ .

So the probability of pattern 2 occurring is 4/16 = 1/4. Similarly, the probability of each of patterns 4 and 5
occurring is 1/4.
There are exactly two random placements that give pattern 3: the one shown and its 90◦ rotation.

So the probability of pattern 3 occurring is 2/16 = 1/8.

c Since each tile has two orientations, the number of ways of placing nine tiles to form a 3 × 3 square is 29 = 512.
Each end of a peanut is an arc of a circle that is greater than a semicircle. So three tiles that share a vertex are
required to form each end. Hence there are only two ways in which a peanut can occur in a 3 × 3 placement of tiles.

In each case, the orientations of the 7 tiles that form the peanut are fixed but the 2 remaining tiles (shown blank)
have 2 possible orientations. Hence the number of placements that contain a peanut is 2 × (2 × 2) = 8. So the
probability that a random 3 × 3 placement contains a peanut is 8/512 = 1/64.

Mathematics Contests The Australian Scene 2018 | Challenge Solutions

38 – Intermediate | 48
I5 Rhombus Rings
a Each central angle is 360/8 = 45◦ . Starting with those, we calculate the remaining angles in degrees as we move
outwards.

C
90 135
45
90
45
45 135
45 135
90 90 B
45
90
45
90 135
A

Since ABC is a straight line, the third ring is the last (outer) ring. Thus the angles in a rhombus in the outer ring
are 45◦ and 135◦
b We have these angles (all in degrees).

160
20 20
160
60 x 60

160
20 20
160
60 60
80

120
100
100
y

Thus y = 360 − 120 − 100 − 100 = 40◦ . Hence there is a fourth last ring of rhombuses. Extending the diagram and
adding a few more angles gives:

Mathematics Contests The Australian Scene 2018 | Challenge Solutions

39 – Intermediate | 49
160
20 20
160
60 60
80

120
100
100
40

80
140 140

Since 140 + 140 + 80 = 360, no more rings are possible. So there are 4 rings in total and the number of rhombuses
in the inner ring is 360/40 = 9.
c We start with the first ring. Each of its rhombuses has central angle a. For a rhombus in each subsequent ring we
calculate as follows the angle that is closest to the pattern centre.
Second ring: angle = 360 − 2(180 − a) = 2a.
Third ring: angle = 360 − 2(180 − 2a) − a = 3a.
Fourth ring: angle = 360 − 2(180 − 3a) − 2a = 4a.
rth ring: angle = 360 − 2(180 − (r − 1)a) − (r − 2)a = ra.

5a 5a
180 − 4a
4a
180 − 3a
4a 4a

3a 3a
180 − 2a

2a
2a 2a

a a
180 − a

Hence the angles in a rhombus in the rth ring are ra and 180 − ra.
d Let n be the number of rhombuses in each ring. Then the central angles for the first ring are a = 360/n.
From Part c, the angle in each rhombus in the 7th ring that is closest to the pattern centre is 7a = 7 × 360/n.
Similarly, if there was an 8th ring, the angle in each rhombus closest to the pattern centre would be 8 × 360/n.
Since there are 7 rings, 7 × 360/n < 180. Hence n > 14. Since there is no 8th ring, 8 × 360/n ≥ 180. Hence n ≤ 16.
If n = 15, the central angles are 360/15 = 24◦ . So the angles closest to the pattern centre for each ring, from the
first to the 7th ring are: 24◦ , 48◦ , 72◦ , 96◦ , 120◦ , 144◦ , 168◦ . Since 8 × 360/15 = 192 > 180, there is indeed no 8th
ring. This confirms there are exactly 7 rings.
If n = 16, the central angles are 360/16 = 22.5◦ . So the angles closest to the pattern centre for each ring, from the
first to the 7th ring are: 22.5◦ , 45◦ , 67.5◦ , 90◦ , 112.5◦ , 135◦ , 157.5◦ . Since 8 × 360/16 = 180, there is indeed no 8th
ring. This confirms there are exactly 7 rings.

Mathematics Contests The Australian Scene 2018 | Challenge Solutions

40 – Intermediate | 50
I6 Higher or Lower

a If Player 1 chooses box 2 on the first turn, her chance of choosing correctly is 13 . If she doesn’t win on the first turn,
then Player 2 will win on the second turn because of the host’s directions. So the chance of Player 1 winning if she
chooses box 2 on the first turn is 13 .

P1 chooses box 2

1 1 1
3 3 3

‘Lower’ ‘Correct’ ‘Higher’

(P2 wins) (P1 wins) (P2 wins)

If Player 1 chooses box 1 on the first turn, her chance of choosing correctly is 13 . The game will continue with
probability 23 . If it does continue, then the probability of Player 2 winning on the second turn is 12 . If he doesn’t
win, then Player 1 will win on the third turn. So the chance of Player 1 winning if she chooses box 1 on the first
turn is 13 + 23 × 12 = 23 .
P1 chooses box 1

1 2
3 3

‘Correct’ ‘Higher’
(P1 wins) (continues)

1 1
2 2

‘Correct’ ‘Higher/Lower’
(P2 wins) (P1 wins)

b If Player 1 chooses box 1 on the first turn, her chance of choosing correctly is 14 . The game will continue with
probability 34 . If it does continue then, from Part a, Player 2 should choose either box 2 or 4 to ensure his chance
of winning from that stage is 23 . Hence Player 2’s overall chance of winning with this strategy is 34 × 23 = 12 .

P1 chooses box 1

1 3
4 4

‘Correct’ ‘Higher’
(P1 wins) (continues)

2
3

(P2 wins, using a)

Similarly, if Player 1 chooses box 4 on the first turn and the game continues, then Player 2 can choose box 1 or 3
to ensure his overall chance of winning the game is 12 .
If Player 1 chooses box 2 on the first turn, her chance of choosing correctly is 14 . If she does not choose correctly,
there are two possibilities: either the prize is in box 1, with probability 14 , and Player 2 immediately wins; or the
prize is in box 3 or 4, with probability 12 , and Player 2’s chance of choosing correctly at that stage is 12 . Hence, if
Player 1 chooses box 2 on the first turn, then Player 2’s chance of winning is 14 + 12 × 12 = 12 .

Mathematics Contests The Australian Scene 2018 | Challenge Solutions

41 – Intermediate | 51
P1 chooses box 2

1 1 1
4 4 2

‘Lower’ ‘Correct’ ‘Higher’

(P2 wins) (P1 wins) (continues)

1 1
2 2

‘Correct’ ‘Higher/Lower’
(P2 wins) (P1 wins)

Similarly, if Player 1 chooses box 3 on the first turn, then Player 2’s chance of winning is 12 .
So, no matter which box Player 1 chooses on the first turn, Player 2 has a strategy for ensuring his chance of
winning is 12 .
c If Player 1 chooses box 5 on the first turn, her chance of choosing correctly is 19 . The game will continue with
probability 89 . If it does continue, then there are 4 boxes left to choose from and Player 2 has the next turn. From
Part b, Player 1 now has a strategy for ensuring her chance of winning the 4-box game is 12 . Hence, if Player 1
chooses box 5 on the first turn, she has a strategy to ensure her chance of winning the game is 19 + 89 × 12 = 59 > 12 .

P1 chooses box 5

1 8
9 9

‘Correct’ ‘Higher/Lower’
(P1 wins) (continues)

1
2

(P1 wins, using b)

Mathematics Contests The Australian Scene 2018 | Challenge Solutions

42 – Intermediate | 52
CHALLENGE STATISTICS – MIDDLE PRIMARY
Mean Score/School Year/Problem

Challenge Problem
Number of Overall
School Year
Students Mean
1 2 3 4

3 599 9.1 2.2 2.5 2.6 2.2

4 917 10.4 2.5 2.9 2.8 2.5
*ALL YEARS 1538 9.9 2.4 2.8 2.7 2.4
Please note:
* This total includes students who did not provide their school year.

Score Distribution %/Problem

Challenge Problem
Score
1 2 3 4
Training Bitripents Coloured Buckets Hand-Sum

Did not attempt 1% 1% 3% 5%

0 5% 6% 6% 10%

1 22% 12% 10% 15%

2 27% 20% 21% 24%

3 24% 20% 31% 23%

4 21% 40% 30% 23%

Mean 2.4 2.8 2.7 2.4

Discrimination
0.5 0.6 0.6 0.7
Factor
Please note:
The discrimination factor for a particular problem is calculated as follows:
1. The students are ranked in regard to their overall scores.
2. The mean score for the top 25% of these overall ranked students is calculated for that particular
problem including no attempts. Call this mean score the ‘mean top score’.
3. The mean score for the bottom 25% of these overall ranked students is calculated for that
particular problem including no attempts. Call this mean score the ‘mean bottom score’.
4. The discrimination factor = mean top score – mean bottom score
4
Thus the discrimination factor ranges from 1 to –1. A problem with a discrimination factor of 0.4 or
higher is considered to be a good discriminator.

Mathematics Contests The Australian Scene 2018 | Challenge Statistics – Middle Primary | 53
CHALLENGE STATISTICS – UPPER PRIMARY
Mean Score/School Year/Problem

Challenge Problem
Number of Overall
School Year
Students Mean
1 2 3 4

5 1426 11.3 3.1 3.1 2.7 2.5

6 1727 12.4 3.3 3.4 2.9 2.9
7 77 12.7 3.5 3.4 3.0 3.1
*ALL YEARS 3255 11.9 3.2 3.3 2.8 2.7
Please note:
* This total includes students who did not provide their school year.

Score Distribution %/Problem

Challenge Problem
Score
1 2 3 4
Bitripents Insect Barriers Coloured Buckets Isopentagons

Did not attempt 0% 1% 1% 4%

0 1% 3% 3% 10%

1 4% 4% 8% 11%

2 18% 9% 23% 14%

3 24% 29% 38% 23%

4 53% 54% 27% 39%

Mean 3.2 3.3 2.8 2.7

Discrimination
0.4 0.4 0.5 0.7
Factor
Please note:
The discrimination factor for a particular problem is calculated as follows:
1. The students are ranked in regard to their overall scores.
2. The mean score for the top 25% of these overall ranked students is calculated for that particular
problem including no attempts. Call this mean score the ‘mean top score’.
3. The mean score for the bottom 25% of these overall ranked students is calculated for that
particular problem including no attempts. Call this mean score the ‘mean bottom score’.
4. The discrimination factor = mean top score – mean bottom score
4
Thus the discrimination factor ranges from 1 to –1. A problem with a discrimination factor of 0.4 or
higher is considered to be a good discriminator.

Mathematics Contests The Australian Scene 2018 | Challenge Statistics – Upper Primary | 54
CHALLENGE STATISTICS – JUNIOR
Mean Score/School Year/Problem

Challenge Problem
Number of Overall
School Year
Students Mean
1 2 3 4 5 6

7 2737 13.1 2.8 2.6 2.4 2.6 1.7 1.9

8 2508 15.3 3.1 2.9 2.7 3.1 2.2 2.2
*ALL YEARS 5288 14.2 3.0 2.7 2.6 2.8 1.9 2.1
Please note:
* This total includes students who did not provide their school year.

Score Distribution %/Problem

Challenge Problem
Score 1 2 3 4 5 6
Insect Cubic Isopentagons Ts and Rs Rhombus Parsecking
Barriers Coprimes Rings
Did not attempt 1% 4% 8% 8% 13% 12%

0 2% 6% 10% 12% 22% 14%

1 7% 8% 10% 7% 15% 17%

2 21% 21% 17% 10% 17% 19%

3 33% 33% 26% 18% 13% 25%

4 36% 28% 29% 45% 21% 12%

Mean 3.0 2.7 2.6 2.8 1.9 2.1

Discrimination
0.4 0.5 0.7 0.8 0.8 0.7
Factor
Please note:
The discrimination factor for a particular problem is calculated as follows:
1. The students are ranked in regard to their overall scores.
2. The mean score for the top 25% of these overall ranked students is calculated for that particular
problem including no attempts. Call this mean score the ‘mean top score’.
3. The mean score for the bottom 25% of these overall ranked students is calculated for that
particular problem including no attempts. Call this mean score the ‘mean bottom score’.
4. The discrimination factor = mean top score – mean bottom score
4
Thus the discrimination factor ranges from 1 to –1. A problem with a discrimination factor of 0.4 or
higher is considered to be a good discriminator.

Mathematics Contests The Australian Scene 2018 | Challenge Statistics – Junior | 55

CHALLENGE STATISTICS – INTERMEDIATE
Mean Score/School Year/Problem

Challenge Problem
Number of Overall
School Year
Students Mean
1 2 3 4 5 6

9 1490 13.8 2.8 2.5 2.4 2.7 2.0 2.0

10 757 14.8 3.0 2.8 2.6 2.9 2.2 2.3
*ALL YEARS 2264 14.2 2.9 2.6 2.5 2.8 2.1 2.1
Please note:
* This total includes students who did not provide their school year.

Score Distribution %/Problem

Challenge Problem
Score 1 2 3 4 5 6
Isopentagons Ts and Rs Rail Cams Curvy Tiles Rhombus Higher or
Rings Lower
Did not attempt 5% 4% 7% 7% 15% 11%

0 6% 6% 12% 7% 14% 16%

1 9% 8% 13% 7% 17% 17%

2 14% 30% 18% 20% 17% 18%

3 27% 23% 23% 23% 21% 20%

4 39% 29% 28% 36% 16% 19%

Mean 2.9 2.6 2.5 2.8 2.1 2.1

Discrimination
0.6 0.6 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7
Factor
Please note:
The discrimination factor for a particular problem is calculated as follows:
1. The students are ranked in regard to their overall scores.
2. The mean score for the top 25% of these overall ranked students is calculated for that particular
problem including no attempts. Call this mean score the ‘mean top score’.
3. The mean score for the bottom 25% of these overall ranked students is calculated for that
particular problem including no attempts. Call this mean score the ‘mean bottom score’.
4. The discrimination factor = mean top score – mean bottom score
4
Thus the discrimination factor ranges from 1 to –1. A problem with a discrimination factor of 0.4 or
higher is considered to be a good discriminator.

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AUSTRALIAN
2018 AustralianINTERMEDIATE MATHEMATICS
Intermediate Mathematics Olympiad OLYMPIAD
- Questions

Time allowed: 4 hours. NO calculators are to be used.

Questions 1 to 8 only require their numerical answers all of which are non-negative integers less than 1000.
Questions 9 and 10 require written solutions which may include proofs.
The bonus marks for the Investigation in Question 10 may be used to determine prize winners.

1. Let x denote a single digit. The tens digit in the product of 2x7 and 39 is 9. Find x. [2 marks]

2. If 234b+1 − 234b−1 = 7010 , what is 234b in base 10? [3 marks]

3. The circumcircle of a square ABCD has radius 10. A semicircle is drawn on AB outside the square. Find the area
of the region inside the semicircle but outside the circumcircle. [3 marks]

4. Find the last non-zero digit of 50! = 1 × 2 × 3 × · · · × 50. [3 marks]

5. Each edge of a cube is marked with its trisection points. Each vertex v of the cube is cut off by a plane that passes
through the three trisection points closest to v. The resulting polyhedron has 24 vertices. How many diagonals
joining pairs of these vertices lie entirely inside the polyhedron? [3 marks]

6. Let ABCD be a parallelogram. Point P is on AB produced such that DP bisects BC at N . Point Q is on BA

produced such that CQ bisects AD at M . Lines DP and CQ meet at O. If the area of parallelogram ABCD is
192, find the area of triangle P OQ. [4 marks]

7. Two different positive integers a and b satisfy the equation a2 − b2 = 2018 − 2a.
What is the value of a + b? [4 marks]

8. The area of triangle ABC is 300. In triangle ABC, Q is the midpoint of BC, P is a point on AC between C and
A such that CP = 3P A, R is a point on side AB such that the area of P QR is twice the area of RBQ. Find
the area of P QR. [4 marks]

9. Prove that 38 is the largest even integer that is not the sum of two positive odd composite numbers. [4 marks]

10. A pair of positive integers is called compatible if one of the numbers equals the sum of all digits in the pair and the
other number equals the product of all digits in the pair. Find all pairs of positive compatible numbers less than
100. [5 marks]

Investigation
Find all pairs of positive compatible numbers less than 1000 with at least one number greater than 99.
[3 bonus marks]

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AUSTRALIAN
2018 AustralianINTERMEDIATE MATHEMATICS
Intermediate Mathematics OlympiadOLYMPIAD
- Solutions
SOLUTIONS
1. Method 1
The table shows the product 2x7 × 39 for all values of x.

x 2x7 × 39 x 2x7 × 39
0 8073 5 10023
1 8463 6 10413
2 8853 7 10803
3 9243 8 11193
4 9633 9 11583
Thus x = 8.

Method 2
We have 2x7 × 39 = 2x7 × 30 + 2x7 × 9.
The units digit in 2x7 × 30 is 0, and its tens digit is 1.
The tens digit of 2x7 × 9 is the units digit of 6 + 9 × x.
Hence 1 + 6 + 9 × x ≡ 9 (mod 10), 9 × x ≡ 2 (mod 10), x = 8.

Method 3
We have 2x7 × 39 = 207 × 39 + 390 × x.
The units digit in 207 × 39 is 3, and its tens digit is 7.
The tens digit of 390 × x is the units digit of 9 × x.
Hence 7 + 9 × x ≡ 9 (mod 10), 9 × x ≡ 2 (mod 10), x = 8.

Method 4
We have 2x7 × 39 = 2x7 × 40 − 2x7.
The units digit in 2x7 × 40 is 0, and its tens digit is 8.
So the tens digit of 2x7 × 39 is the units digit of 8 − x − 1 or 18 − x − 1.
Since x is non-negative, 17 − x = 9 and x = 8.

2. Method 1
We have
7010 = 234b+1 − 234b−1
= 2(b + 1)2 + 3(b + 1) + 4 − 2(b − 1)2 − 3(b − 1) − 4
= 2(b2 + 2b + 1) + 3(b + 1) − 2(b2 − 2b + 1) − 3(b − 1)
= 8b + 6
b=8

So 234b = 2348 = 2 × 64 + 3 × 8 + 4 = 156.

Method 2
The largest digit on the left side of the given equation is 4. Hence b − 1 is at least 5. So b ≥ 6.
If b = 6, then the left side in base 10 is 2347 −2345 = (2×49+3×7+4)−(2×25+3×5+4) = (98+21)−(50+15) =
119 − 65 = 54 = 70.
If b = 7, then the left side in base 10 is 2348 −2346 = (2×64+3×8+4)−(2×36+3×6+4) = (128+24)−(72+18) =
152 − 90 = 62 = 70.
If b = 8, then the left side in base 10 is 2349 −2347 = (2×81+3×9+4)−(2×49+3×7+4) = (162+27)−(98+21) =
189 − 119 = 70.
Each time b increases by 1, 4b remains the same, 30b increases by 3, but 200b increases by 2(b + 1)2 − 2b2 = 4b + 2.
So the increase in 234b+1 is greater than the increase in 234b−1 . Hence 234b+1 − 234b−1 increases with increasing
b. This means 234b+1 − 234b−1 > 7010 for b > 8.
So 234b = 2348 = 2 × 64 + 3 × 8 + 4 = 156.

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3. Let O be the centre of the circumcircle.

A B

D C

Since OA = OB = OC = OD and AB = BC = CD = DA, triangles AOB, BOC, COD, DOA are isosceles and
congruent. So AOB = 360/4 = 90◦ . Hence the area of AOB is 12 × 10 × 10 = 50 and the area of the sector
AOB = 14 π100 = 25π.
By Pythagoras, AB 2 = AO2 +OB 2 = 200. Hence the area of the semicircle on AB is 12 π(AB/2)2 = AB 2 π/8 = 25π.
So the required area is 25π − (25π − 50) = 50.

4. Method 1
We first arrange the factors 1, 2, 3, . . . , 50 in a table:

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50

From this we see that in the prime factorisation of 50!, 5 occurs exactly 12 times. Then 50!/(212 512 ) is the product
of these factors:
1 1 3 4 1 6 7 1 9 1
11 12 13 14 3 16 17 18 19 1
21 22 23 24 1 26 27 28 29 3
31 32 33 34 7 36 37 38 39 1
41 42 43 44 9 46 47 48 49 1

So the last digit of 50!/(212 512 ) is the last digit in the product

113 .24 .37 .45 .65 .76 .84 .96 = (2.3.4.6.7.8.9)4 × (3.7.9)2 × (3.4.6)

The last digit of 2.3.4.6.7.8.9 is 6. So the last digit of (2.3.4.6.7.8.9)4 is 6.

The last digit of 3.7.9 is 9. So the last digit of (3.7.9)2 is 1.
The last digit of 3.4.6 is 2.
So the last non-zero digit of 50! is the last digit of 6 × 1 × 2, which is 2.

Comment
There are many other workable groupings of factors.

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Method 2
In the prime factorisation of 50!, 5 occurs exactly 12 times and 2 occurs more than 12 times. So the last non-zero
digit of 50! is the last digit of 50!/212 512 and it is even.
The remainders of 2, 4, 6, 8 when divided by 5 are respectively 2, 4, 1, 3. So the remainder of 50!/(212 512 ) when
divided by 5 will reveal its last digit.
Since the remainder of 212 is 1 when divided by 5, the remainder for 50!/212 512 is the same as the remainder for
50!/512 . So we want the remainder of the product of the following factors.

1 2 3 4 1 6 7 8 9 2
11 12 13 14 3 16 17 18 19 4
21 22 23 24 1 26 27 28 29 6
31 32 33 34 7 36 37 38 39 8
41 42 43 44 9 46 47 48 49 2

Before we multiply these factors we may subtract from each any multiple of 5. So we need only multiply these
numbers.
1 2 3 4 1 1 2 3 4 2
1 2 3 4 3 1 2 3 4 4
1 2 3 4 1 1 2 3 4 1
1 2 3 4 2 1 2 3 4 3
1 2 3 4 4 1 2 3 4 2

After multiplying any two of these numbers, we may subtract any multiple of 5. Since 2 × 3 and 4 × 4 have
remainder 1 when divided by 5, we need only multiply 3, 2, 4, 2, 4, 3, 2. Hence the required remainder is 2. So
the last non-zero digit of 50! is 2.

5. Method 1
Each vertex is on three faces: a triangular face and two octagonal faces. So each vertex shares a face with 7 other
vertices from one octagonal face, and 6 other vertices from the other octagonal face (the two octagons share an
edge and 2 vertices). The vertices from the triangular face have already been counted.
A vertex can be joined to 23 other vertices. Of these, 7 + 6 = 13 lie on the faces of the polyhedron. So each vertex
joins to 23 − 13 = 10 vertices by diagonals that are internal to the polyhedron.
Since each of these diagonals joins two vertices, multiplying 10 by 24 counts each diagonal exactly twice. So the
number of diagonals inside the polyhedron is 10 × 24/2 = 120.

Method 2
The diagram is a projection of the polyhedron.

• •

• •
•
• •

• •
v

As indicated by dots, there are exactly 10 vertices that are not on a face containing v. So there are exactly 10
internal diagonals joined to v.
By rotating the polyhedron about one or more of its axes of symmetry, v represents any of its 24 vertices. Since
each of these diagonals joins two vertices, multiplying 10 by 24 counts each diagonal exactly twice. So the number
of diagonals inside the polyhedron is 10 × 24/2 = 120.

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Method 3
The polyhedron has 8 triangular faces and 6 octagonal faces. Since each edge of the polyhedron is shared by two
faces, its total number of edges is (8 × 3 + 6 × 8)/2 = 36.
Each octagonal face has 20 diagonals. So the number of diagonals of the polyhedron on its faces is 6 × 20 = 120.

The number of pairs of vertices of the polyhedron is 242 = 276. So the number of internal diagonals of the
polyhedron is 276 − 36 − 120 = 120.

6. Draw M N .

D C

M O
N

Q A B P

Method 1
Since BP and CD are parallel and BN = N C, triangles BN P and CN D are congruent (ASA). Similarly, triangles
AM Q and DM C are congruent.
Since AM and BN are parallel and equal, M N and AB are parallel. So ABN M and M N CD are congruent
parallelograms and their areas are half the area of ABCD, that is, 192/2 = 96.
Since M N CD is a parallelogram, its area is twice the area of triangle CN D, twice the area of triangle DM C, and
4 times the area of triangle M N O.
So the area of triangle P OQ is 96 + 2(96/2) + (96/4) = 216.

Method 2
Since BP and CD are parallel and BN = N C, triangles BN P and CN D are congruent (ASA). Similarly, triangles
AM Q and DM C are congruent. So QP = 3 × DC.
Since AM and BN are parallel and equal, M N and AB are parallel. So ABN M and M N CD are congruent
parallelograms and their areas are half the area of ABCD, that is, 192/2 = 96.
Since M N CD is a parallelogram, the area of triangle COD is 96/4 = 24.
Since P Q and CD are parallel, triangles P OQ and DOC are similar. So the area of triangle P OQ is 9 × 24 = 216.

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Method 3
Parallelogram ABCD is unspecified so we may take it to be a rectangle with AD = 2AB.
D C

M N

Q A B P

Thus ABN M and M N CD are congruent squares, triangles N BP and N CD are congruent, and triangles M AQ
and M DC are congruent.
Let | | denote area. Then
1 192
|ABN M | = |M N CD| = |ABCD| = = 96
2 2
1
|N BP | = |N DC| = |M N CD| = 48
2
1
|M AQ| = |M DC| = |M N CD| = 48
2
1
|M N O| = |M N CD| = 24
4
So |P OQ| = 96 + 48 + 48 + 24 = 216.

7. Method 1
We have
2018 = a2 + 2a − b2
2019 = a2 + 2a + 1 − b2
= (a + 1)2 − b2
= (a + 1 − b)(a + 1 + b)

We know a and b are positive, so a + 1 + b is positive, hence a + 1 − b is positive.

Since a and b are integers, both factors are integers.
Since 2019 = 3 × 673 and 673 is prime, the only positive integer factor pairs are (1, 2019) and (3, 673).
Since b is positive, a + 1 + b > a + 1 − b. So a + 1 − b equals 1 or 3.
If a + 1 − b = 1, then a = b, which contradicts the requirement that a and b are different.
So a + 1 − b = 3 and a + 1 + b = 673. Hence a + b = 672.
Method 2
Solving a2 + 2a − b2 − 2018 = 0 using the quadratic formula yields

−2 ± 4 + 4(b2 + 2018)
a= = −1 ± b2 + 2019
2
√
Since a is positive, a = b2 + 2019 − 1.
Since a + 1 is an integer, we have b2 + 2019 = c2 for some positive integer c.
So a = c − 1 and (c + b)(c − b) = 2019.
The only positive factorisations of 2019 are 1 × 2019 and 3 × 673.
Since b is positive, we have c + b = 2019 and c − b = 1, or c + b = 673 and c − b = 3.
So 2b = 2018 or 670.
Hence, respectively, b = 1009 or 335, c = 1010 or 338, and a = 1009 or 337.
Since a and b are different, a + b = 337 + 335 = 672.

Mathematics Contests The Australian Scene 2018 | Australian Intermediate

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8. Method 1
Draw AQ, BP , and CR. Let | | denote area.

B Q C

Let BR = 1 and RA = p. Noting that BQ = QC and CP = 3P A, we have:

1 1 1 1 300
|BQR| = |BCR| = × × |ABC| = ×
2 2 1+p 2 1+p
1 1 p 1 300p
|AP R| = |ACR| = × × |ABC| = ×
4 4 1+p 4 1+p
1 1 3 3
|CP Q| = |BCP | = × × |ABC| = × 300
2 2 4 8
300
|P QR| = 2|BQR| =
1+p

Adding these areas gives

4 300 2 300p 3 300(p + 1) 8 300
300 = + + +
8 1+p 8 1+p 8 p+1 8 1+p

1 300
= (4 + 2p + 3(p + 1) + 8)
8 p+1
8(p + 1) = 15 + 5p
3p = 7

300 300 × 3 900

Finally |P QR| = = = = 90.
1+p 3 + 3p 10

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Method 2

B Q C

Let | | denote area. Noting that BQ = QC and CP = 3P A, we have:

300 = |AP R| + |P QR| + |BQR| + |CQP |

1 1 3
= |ACR| + |P QR| + |P QR| + |AQC|
4 2 4
1200 = |ACR| + 6|P QR| + 3|AQC|
3
= (300 − |BCR|) + 6|P QR| + |ABC|
2
= 300 − 2|BQR| + 6|P QR| + 450
= 750 − |P QR| + 6|P QR|
= 750 + 5|P QR|
1 1
|P QR| = (1200 − 750) = (450) = 90.
5 5

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Method 3
First consider the following diagram and let | | denote area.

V
Z

X Y M N U

|XY Z| M Z × XY XZ XY XY × XZ
= = × = (1)
|XU V | N V × XU XV XU XU × XV

Next consider the given diagram with distances as shown.

b
P
d

R 3b

B a Q a C

From (1) we have

|BQR| ac c
= =
300 2a(c + d) 2(c + d)
|AP R| bd d
= =
300 4b(c + d) 4(c + d)
|CP Q| 3ab 3
= =
300 (4b)(2a) 8
Combining these gives

300 = |BQR| + |AP R| + |CP Q| + |P QR|

= 3|BQR| + |AP R| + |CP Q|
3c d 3
1= + +
2(c + d) 4(c + d) 8
8(c + d) = 12c + 2d + 3(c + d) = 15c + 5d
d = 7c/3

300c 300c 90
So |BQR| = = = = 45. Hence |P QR| = 2|BQR| = 90.
2(c + d) 20c/3 2

Mathematics Contests The Australian Scene 2018 | Australian Intermediate

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9. The odd composites less than 38 are 9, 15, 21, 25, 27, 33, 35. No two of these have their sum equal to 38.

Method 1
Now 40 = 15 + 25, 42 = 9 + 33, 44 = 9 + 35, where each summand is an odd composite and at least one summand
is a multiple of 3.
Adding 6 to an odd multiple of 3 gives an odd number that is also a multiple of 3. So we can express the next three
even integers as the sum of two odd composites at least one of which is a multiple of 3: 46 = 21 + 25, 48 = 15 + 33,
50 = 15 + 35.
We can therefore add 6 to express the next three even integers after these as the sum of two odd composites at
least one of which is a multiple of 3, and repeat indefinitely.
So every even integer greater than 38 is the sum of two odd composites.

Method 2
Now 40 = 15 + 25, 42 = 15 + 27, 44 = 9 + 35, 46 = 21 + 25, 48 = 15 + 33, where each summand is an odd composite
and at least one summand is a multiple of 5.
Adding 10 to an odd multiple of 5 gives an odd number that is also a multiple of 5. So we can express the next five
even integers as the sum of two odd composites at least one of which is a multiple of 5: 50 = 25 + 25, 52 = 25 + 33,
54 = 9 + 45, 56 = 21 + 35, 58 = 25 + 33.
We can therefore add 10 to express the next five even integers after these as the sum of two odd composites at
least one of which is a multiple of 5, and repeat indefinitely.
So every even integer greater than 38 is the sum of two odd composites.

Comment
There are similar arguments adding 12, 18, 20, 24, 30, etc. at a time.

10. Let s and p be compatible numbers, where s is the sum of their digits and p is the product of their digits. Note
that all of the digits are non-zero since p = 0. We consider three cases.

Case 1. s has a single digit.

Since p has a positive digit, s ≥ s + 1, a contradiction. So s has two digits.

Case 2. s has two digits and p has a single digit.

We have s = 10a + b, where a and b are positive digits. Then

10a + b = a + b + p and p = abp.

The second equation gives a = b = 1. Hence p = 9 from the first equation. So the only pair of compatible numbers
in this case are s = 11 and p = 9.

Case 3. s and p both have two digits.

Method 1
Let s = 10a + b and p = 10c + d, where a, b, c, and d are positive digits. Then

10a + b = a + b + c + d and 10c + d = abcd.

The first equation gives 9a = c + d. So a = 1 or 2.

If a = 2, then c + d = 18, c = d = 9, and the second equation gives 99 = 162b, which is impossible.
If a = 1, then c + d = 9 and the second equation gives

9c + 9 = bc(9 − c) and 9 = c(b(9 − c) − 9).

So c = 1, 3, or 9. If c = 1, then 18 = 8b, which is impossible. If c = 9, then 1 = 0 − 9, which is a contradiction. If

c = 3, then 3 = 6b − 9, b = 2, d = 6 and we have the compatible numbers s = 12 and p = 36.
Hence there are only 2 pairs of compatible numbers less than 100, namely {9, 11} and {12, 36}.

Mathematics Contests The Australian Scene 2018 | Australian Intermediate

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Method 2
Let s = 10a + b and p = 10c + d, where a, b, c, and d are positive digits. Then
10a + b = a + b + c + d and 10c + d = abcd.
The second equation gives d = c(abd − 10). Since d is a positive digit, 10 < abd < 20. Since a, b, d are digits and
11, 13, 17, 19 are primes, abd = 12, 14, 15, 16, or 18.
If abd = 18, then 18c = 10c + d, d = 8c, and 4abc = 9, which is impossible.
If abd = 16, then 16c = 10c + d, d = 6c, and 3abc = 8, which is impossible.
If abd = 15, then 15c = 10c + d, d = 5c. So c = 1, d = 5, and 9a = 6, which is impossible.
If abd = 14, then 14c = 10c + d, d = 4c, and 2abc = 7, which is impossible.
If abd = 12, then 12c = 10c + d, and d = 2c. So d is even and divides 12. Hence d = 2, 4, or 6, and correspondingly
c = 1, 2, or 3. Since 10a + b = a + b + c + d, we have 9a = c + d. So 9 divides c + d. Hence d = 6, c = 3, a = 1,
b = 2, and we have the compatible numbers s = 12 and p = 36.
Hence there are only 2 pairs of compatible numbers less than 100, namely {9, 11} and {12, 36}.

Investigation
Let s and p be compatible numbers, where s is the sum of their digits and p is the product of their digits. Note
that all of the digits are non-zero since p = 0.
As in the solution above, s has at least 2 digits. Since the sum of six digits is at most 54, s has exactly 2 digits.
So p has exactly 3 digits. Let s = 10a + b and p = 100c + 10d + e, where a, b, c, d, e are positive digits. Then
10a + b = a + b + c + d + e and p = abcde.
The first of these equations gives 9a = c + d + e, so 9 divides c + d + e. Hence c + d + e = 9, 18, or 27.
If c + d + e = 27, then a = 3, c = d = e = 9, p = 999 = 3b × 9 × 9 × 9 = 2187b, which is impossible.

Method 1
If c + d + e = 18, then a = 2 and p = 2bcde. The table shows for each combination of digits for c, d, e, the product
2cde, the last 1, 2, or 3 digits of 2bcde for b = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 and 2bcde < 1000, then a check whether any
2bcde could be p = 100c + 10d + e.

{c, d, e} 2cde last few digits of 2bcde any p?

1, 8, 9 144 4, 88, 2, 6, 0, 4 none
2, 7, 9 252 52, 4, 6 none
2, 8, 8 256 6, 12, 68 none
3, 6, 9 324 4, 8, 2 none
3, 7, 8 336 6, 2 none
4, 5, 9 360 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0 none
4, 6, 8 384 384, 768 none
4, 7, 7 392 2, 84 none
5, 5, 8 400 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0 none
5, 6, 7 420 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0 none
6, 6, 6 432 2, 4 none

If c + d + e = 9, then a = 1 and p = bcde. The table shows for each combination of digits for c, d, e, the
product cde, the last 1, 2, or 3 digits of bcde for b = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, then a check whether any bcde could be
p = 100c + 10d + e.

{c, d, e} cde last few digits of bcde any p?

1, 1, 7 7 07, 4, 21, 8, 5, 2, 9, 6, 3 none
1, 2, 6 12 012, 4, 36, 8, 0, 72, 4, 96, 8 none
1, 3, 5 15 015, 0, 45, 0, 75, 0, 05, 0, 135 135
1, 4, 4 16 6, 2, 8, 64, 0, 6, 2, 8, 144 144
2, 2, 5 20 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0 none
2, 3, 4 24 024, 8, 72, 6, 0, 44, 8, 92, 6 none
3, 3, 3 27 7, 4, 1, 8, 5, 2, 9, 6, 43 none

Hence the only compatible pairs are {135, 19} and {144, 19}.

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Method 2
Since 9 divides c + d + e and c, d, e are the digits of p, 9 divides p.
If c + d + e = 18, then a = 2 and p = 2bcde. So p is even, hence its last digit e is even. Therefore 4 divides p,
hence p = 36n. Since 100 ≤ p ≤ 999, 3 ≤ n ≤ 27. Since p is a product of digits, all prime factors of n are digits.
So n = 11, 13, 17, 19, 22, 23, 26. Of the remainder, only n = 8, 16, 18, 21, 24, 27 give 18 for the sum of the digits
of 36n. None of these give an integer value for b = p/2cde.
If c + d + e = 9, then a = 1 and p = bcde. By inspection, the maximum value for cde is 27. So p = 9n with
12 ≤ n ≤ 27. Again n = 13, 17, 19, 22, 23, 26. Of the remainder, only n = 15, and n = 16 give a digit value for
b = p/cde. If n = 15, then p = 135 and b = 9. If n = 16, then p = 144 and b = 9.
Hence the only compatible pairs are {135, 19} and {144, 19}.

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AUSTRALIAN INTERMEDIATE MATHEMATICS OLYMPIAD
STATISTICS
Distribution of Awards/School Year

Number of Awards
Number of
Year
Students High
Prize Distinction Credit Participation
Distinction

8 532 4 35 49 163 281

9 618 20 70 92 211 225

10 584 29 79 93 198 185

Other 343 4 19 16 56 248

All Years 2077 57 203 250 628 939

The award distribution is based on approximately the top 10% for High Distinction, next 15% for
Distinction and the following 25% for Credit.

Number of Correct Answers Questions 1–8

Number Correct/Question
Year
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

8 399 257 202 105 50 84 85 29

9 519 366 357 122 94 183 148 78

10 515 355 382 138 101 195 159 85

Other 231 121 67 49 20 31 36 22

All Years 1664 1099 1008 414 265 493 428 214

Mean Score/Question/School Year

Question
Number of
School Year Overall Mean
Students
1–8 9 10

8 532 7.9 0.6 0.6 8.4

9 618 10.5 0.8 1.1 11.5

10 584 11.7 0.8 1.1 12.7

Other 343 5.5 0.4 0.6 6.3

All Years 2077 9.4 0.7 0.9 10.2

Mathematics Contests The Australian Scene 2018 | Australian Intermediate Mathematics Olympiad Statistics | 69
AMOC SENIOR CONTEST

2018 AMOC SENIOR CONTEST

Tuesday, 21 August 2018

Time allowed: 4 hours
No calculators are to be used.
Each question is worth seven points.

1. Determine the maximum possible value of a + b, where a and b are two different
non-negative real numbers that satisfy
√ √
a + b = b + a.

2. Prove that, among any ten consecutive positive integers, there are five numbers such
that no two of them have a common factor larger than 1.

3. Fourteen people meet one day to play three matches of netball. For each match, they
divide themselves into two teams of seven players. In each match, one team wins
while the other team loses. After all three matches, no person has been on a losing
team three times.
Prove that there are at least three players who were on the same team as each other
for all three matches.

4. Let K1 and K2 be circles that intersect at two points A and B. The tangents to
K1 at A and B intersect at a point P inside K2 , and the line BP intersects K2
again at C. The tangents to K2 at A and C intersect at a point Q, and the line QA
intersects K1 again at D.
Prove that QP is perpendicular to P D if and only if the centre of K2 lies on K1 .

5. Determine all functions f defined for positive real numbers and taking positive real
numbers as values such that

xf (xf (2y)) = y + xyf (x)

for all positive real numbers x and y.

c 2018 Australian Mathematics Trust

Mathematics Contests The Australian Scene 2018 | AMOC Senior Contest | 70

2018 AMOC SENIOR CONTEST
Solutions
AMOC
c 2018 Australian
SENIOR
Mathematics Trust CONTEST SOLUTIONS

1. Determine the maximum possible value of a + b, where a and b are two different non-
negative real numbers that satisfy
√ √
a+ b = b + a.

Solution (Angelo Di Pasquale)

The equation may be rewritten as
√ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √
a− b=a−b ⇔ a − b = ( a − b)( a + b) ⇔ a + b = 1,

since a = b.
Squaring the last equation and rearranging yields
√
a + b = 1 − 2 ab ⇒ a + b ≤ 1.

Since a = 0 and b = 1 satisfy the original equation and satisfy a + b = 1, it follows that
the maximum possible value of a + b is 1.

Mathematics Contests The Australian Scene 2018 | AMOC Senior Contest Solutions | 71
2. Prove that, among any ten consecutive positive integers, there are five numbers such that
no two of them have a common factor larger than 1.

Solution 1 (Norman Do)

Among any ten consecutive positive integers, five of them are odd and the remaining five
are even.

The five odd integers contain either one or two multiples of 3. We remove one multiple
of 3 and select the remaining four integers.
The five even integers contain at most two multiples of 3, at most one multiple of 5,
and at most one multiple of 7. Therefore, there is at least one of them that is not a
multiple of 3, 5 or 7. We select this integer.

We now prove that, among the five integers selected, no two of them have a common factor
larger than 1. Since the largest possible difference between two of the numbers is 9, the
largest possible common factor that two of the numbers can have is 9. So it suffices to
show that we have not selected a pair of numbers with a common factor of 2, 3, 5 or 7.

By construction, we have chosen exactly one number that is divisible by 2.

By construction, we have chosen at most one number that is divisible by 3.
At most one of the odd integers selected is divisible by 5 and, by construction, the
even integer selected is not divisible by 5.
At most one of the odd integers selected is divisible by 7 and, by construction, the
even integer selected is not divisible by 7.

Therefore, we have selected five numbers such that no two of them have a common factor
larger than 1.

Solution 2 (Alice Devillers, Angelo Di Pasquale and Daniel Mathews)

Among the ten consecutive positive integers, let n be the smallest number that is not
divisible by 2 or 3. Either the smallest or the second smallest odd number among the
ten numbers satisfies this condition. So n is one of the four smallest integers and the five
numbers n, n + 2, n + 3, n + 4, n + 6 are all among the ten consecutive integers.
We proceed to calculate all possible greatest common divisors between two of these five
numbers. We begin with the observation that for any integer n, we have

gcd(n + 2, n + 3) = gcd(n + 3, n + 4) = 1.

Since n is not divisible by 2, we have

gcd(n, n + 2) = gcd(n, n + 4) = gcd(n + 2, n + 4) = gcd(n + 2, n + 6) = gcd(n + 4, n + 6) = 1.

Since n is not divisible by 3, we have

gcd(n, n + 3) = gcd(n + 3, n + 6) = 1.

Mathematics Contests The Australian Scene 2018 | AMOC Senior Contest Solutions | 72
Since n is not divisible by 2 or 3, we have

gcd(n, n + 6) = 1.

This exhausts all possibilities, so no two of the five numbers n, n + 2, n + 3, n + 4, n + 6

have a common factor larger than 1.

Solution 3 (Kevin McAvaney)

Any common factor of two integers must divide their difference. So any common factor
of two of the ten integers is at most 9. Therefore, for such a common factor to be greater
than 1, it must have 2, 3, 5 or 7 as a prime factor.
The sequence of remainders of the ten consecutive integers after division by 2 must be one
of
0101010101 or 1010101010.

The sequence of remainders of the ten consecutive integers after division by 3 must be one
of
0120120120 or 1201201201 or 2012012012.

For the resulting six cases, we choose the five numbers from among the ten original integers
corresponding to the underlined remainders shown below.

0101010101 0101010101 0101010101

0120120120 1201201201 2012012012

1010101010 1010101010 1010101010

0120120120 1201201201 2012012012

One can check that in each of the six cases, none of the primes 2, 3, 5 or 7 is a factor of
more than one of the chosen integers. So in each case, no two of the five chosen numbers
have a common factor lager than 1.

Mathematics Contests The Australian Scene 2018 | AMOC Senior Contest Solutions | 73
3. Fourteen people meet one day to play three matches of netball. For each match, they
divide themselves into two teams of seven players. In each match, one team wins while
the other team loses. After all three matches, no person has been on a losing team three
times.
Prove that there are at least three players who were on the same team as each other for
all three matches.

Solution 1 (Norman Do)

For each person, we record the results of their matches with a string of W s and Ls, where
W denotes a win and L denotes a loss. The record of each player’s results is one of the
following seven possibilities.

WWW WWL W LW W LL LW W LW L LLW

It is impossible for each of these records to be obtained by exactly two players. That
would imply that the sum of the number of wins for each player is 24, while the sum of
the number of losses for each player is 18. However, there should be an equal number of
wins and losses overall.
Hence, there must exist three players who have the same record. It follows that these three
players were on the same team as each other for all three matches.

Solution 2 (Alice Devillers and Ivan Guo)

By renaming players, we can assume that the losing players in match 1 are 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7.
The conditions of the problem imply that players 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 must be on the winning
team in at least one of match 2 or match 3.
By renaming players 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 again and swapping the names of matches 2 and 3, we
can assume by the pigeonhole principle that players 1, 2, 3, 4 won match 2.
If player 5 also won match 2, then the pigeonhole principle guarantees that at least three of
the players 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 were on the same team for match 3 as well. Then these three players
were on the same team as each other for all three matches, which is what we wanted to
prove. The same argument may also be applied if player 6 or player 7 won match 2.
The only remaining case to analyse is if players 5, 6, 7 all lost match 2. But in that case,
they must all have won match 3 and were on the same team as each other for all three
matches.

Solution 3 (Chaitanya Rao and Ian Wanless)

Consider the seven players who lost the first match. Then the record of each of these
player’s results for matches 2 and 3 must be W W , W L or LW . By the pigeonhole principle,
at least three of these seven players had the same record for matches 2 and 3. Therefore,
these three players were on the same team as each other for all three matches.

Mathematics Contests The Australian Scene 2018 | AMOC Senior Contest Solutions | 74
Solution 4 (Thanom Shaw)
The 14 people play 3 matches each, which implies that there is a total of 21 wins and 21
losses between them. Suppose that the 21 losses are obtained by x people recording 1 loss
overall, and y people recording 2 losses overall. Since no one loses all 3 matches, this yields
x + 2y = 21, where x + y ≤ 14.
The only integer solutions for (x, y) are (1, 10), (3, 9), (5, 8) and (7, 7). Note that in each
case, we have y ≥ 7. That is, 7 or more people recorded 2 losses overall. There are only
three ways to record 2 losses overall — namely, W LL, LW L and LLW . Since at least
7 people had one of these three win–loss records, the pigeonhole principle asserts that at
least 3 of them had the same win–loss record. It follows that these three players were on
the same team for all three matches.

Mathematics Contests The Australian Scene 2018 | AMOC Senior Contest Solutions | 75
4. Let K1 and K2 be circles that intersect at two points A and B. The tangents to K1 at A
and B intersect at a point P inside K2 , and the line BP intersects K2 again at C. The
tangents to K2 at A and C intersect at a point Q, and the line QA intersects K1 again
at D.
Prove that QP is perpendicular to P D if and only if the centre of K2 lies on K1 .

Solution (Andrew Elvey Price)

We first prove that if the centre O of K2 lies on K1 , then QP is perpendicular to P D. Since
DA is tangent to K2 , we have ∠DAO = 90◦ , so OD is a diameter of K1 . So by symmetry,
D, O and P all lie on the line joining the centres of K1 and K2 . Observe that A is the
reflection of B in this line. Hence, ∠P AO = ∠P BO, but ∠P BO = ∠CBO = ∠BCO,
since triangle BOC is isosceles. It follows that AOP C is a cyclic quadrilateral. Moreover,
∠OAQ = ∠OCQ = 90◦ , so OAQC is also a cyclic quadrilateral. Therefore, OAQCP is a
cyclic pentagon and ∠QP O = 90◦ , as required.
We now prove that if QP is perpendicular to P D, then the centre O of K2 lies on K1 . By
the alternate segment theorem, we have ∠QCA = ∠CBA, and it follows that

∠QAC = ∠QCA = ∠P AB = ∠P BA.

Let this angle be α. Then ∠AP B = 180◦ − 2α = ∠AQC, so quadrilateral AQCP is cyclic.
Hence, ∠AP Q = α = ∠CP Q and we have ∠AP D = ∠BP D = 90◦ − α. Therefore, D,
O, P and the centre X of K1 are collinear. Since ∠DAO = 90◦ , we can deduce that
∠XOA = 90◦ − ∠XDA = 90◦ − ∠XAD = ∠XAO, so XO = XA. It follows that O lies
on K1 , as required.

Mathematics Contests The Australian Scene 2018 | AMOC Senior Contest Solutions | 76
5. Determine all functions f defined for positive real numbers and taking positive real num-
bers as values such that
xf (xf (2y)) = y + xyf (x)
for all positive real numbers x and y.

Solution 1 (Angelo Di Pasquale)

Substitute x = 1 into the functional equation to obtain

f (f (2y)) = y(1 + f (1)).

Since 1 + f (1) > 0, it follows that the right side of this equation covers all positive real
numbers as y varies over the positive real numbers. Therefore, f is surjective and there
exists a positive real number a such that f (2a) = 1.
Now substitute y = a into the functional equation to obtain
c
xf (x) = a (1 + xf (x)) ⇒ f (x) =
,
x
a
where c = 1−a is a positive real constant. (Note that the equation xf (x) = a (1 + xf (x))
implies that a = 1.)
c
Substituting f (x) = x into the functional equation yields

2y = y(1 + c).
1
Therefore, c = 1 and we deduce that f (x) = x. It is easily verified that this is indeed a
solution to the functional equation.

Solution 2 (Angelo Di Pasquale)

y
Replace y with 2 in the functional equation to obtain
1
xf (xf (y)) = y (1 + xf (x)) . (∗)
2
Substitute x = 1 into this equation to deduce that f (f (y)) = ay, where a is a constant.
Now replace y with f (y) in equation (∗) to obtain
1 f (y)(1 + xf (x)) f (y) f (x)f (y)
xf (xf (f (y))) = f (y)(1 + xf (x)) ⇒ f (axy) = = + .
2 2x 2x 2
Interchanging x with y in this equation yields
f (x) f (x)f (y)
f (ayx) = + .
2y 2
Equating the previous two expressions for f (axy) implies that
f (y) f (x)
= .
2x 2y
Now substitute y = 1 into this equation to deduce that
c
f (x) = ,
x
where c = f (1) is a constant. We may now finish the proof as in the previous solution.

Mathematics Contests The Australian Scene 2018 | AMOC Senior Contest Solutions | 77
AMOC SENIOR CONTEST RESULTS
Name School Year
Perfect Score and Gold
James Bang Baulkham Hills High School NSW 11
Andres Buritica Scotch College VIC 9
Yasiru Jayasooriya James Ruse Agricultural High School NSW 10
Sharvil Kesarwani Merewether High School NSW 11
Preet Patel Vermont Secondary College VIC 11
William Steinberg Scotch College WA 10
Hadyn Tang Trinity Grammar School VIC 9
Fengshuo (Fredy) Ye (Yip) Knox Grammar School NSW 8
Ziqi Yuan Narrabundah ACT 11
Gold
Haowen Gao Knox Grammar School NSW 11
Ken Gene Quah Melbourne High School VIC 10
Silver
Zefeng (Jeff) Li Caulfield Grammar School, Caulfield Campus VIC 11
Junhua Chen Caulfield Grammar School, Wheelers Hill VIC 10
Grace He Methodist Ladies' College VIC 10
Mikhail Savkin Gosford High School NSW 10
Harry Zhang Christian Brothers College VIC 10
Frank Zhao Geelong Grammar School VIC 11
David Lee James Ruse Agricultural High School NSW 11
Zijin (Aaron) Xu Caulfield Grammar School, Wheelers Hill VIC 10
Liam Coy Sydney Grammar School NSW 10
Anthony Pisani St Paul's Anglican Grammar VIC 11
Jason Wang Queensland Academy for Science, Mathematics and Technology 10
QLD
Marcus Rees Hobart College TAS 11
Daniel Wiese Scotch College WA 10
Bronze
Christopher Leak Perth Modern School WA 10
Huxley Berry Perth Modern School WA 10
Vicky Feng MLC School NSW 11
Evgeniya Artemova Presbyterian Ladies' College VIC 11
Yang Zhang St Joseph’s College, Gregory Terrace QLD 10
Reef Kitaeff Perth Modern School WA 11
Oliver Papillo Camberwell Grammar School VIC 11
Patrick Gleeson St Joseph’s College, Gregory Terrace QLD 10
Samuel Lam James Ruse Agricultural High School NSW 10
Leosha Trushin Perth Modern School WA 10
Peter Vowles Wesley College WA 11
Kevin Wu Scotch College VIC 11
Christopher Do Penleigh and Essendon Grammar School VIC 11
Angus Ritossa St Peter's College SA 11

Mathematics Contests The Australian Scene 2018 | AMOC Senior Contest Results | 78
Name School Year
Emilie Wu James Ruse Agricultural High School NSW 11
Eva Ge James Ruse Agricultural High School NSW 9
Wenguan Lu Barker College NSW 11
Claire Huang Radford College ACT 10
Steve Wu Prince Alfred College SA 11
Chenxiao Zhou Caulfield Grammar School, Wheelers Hill VIC 9
Lachlan Rowe Canberra College ACT 11
Micah Sinclair Perth Modern School WA 9
Le Yao Zha St Edmund's College ACT 10
Xiaoyu Chen All Saints' College WA 8
Honourable Mention
Christina Lee James Ruse Agricultural High School NSW 10
Adrian Lo Newington College NSW 10
David Lumsden Scotch College VIC 8
Oliver Cheng Hale School WA 9
Shevanka Dias All Saints' College WA 11
Ethan Ryoo Knox Grammar School NSW 9
Zian Shang Scotch College VIC 7
Lucinda Xiao Methodist Ladies' College VIC 11
Elizabeth Yevdokimov St Ursula’s College QLD 9
Matthew Cho St Joseph’s College, Gregory Terrace QLD 10
Remi Hart All Saints' College WA 10
Linda Lu The Mac.Robertson Girls' High School VIC 11
Andrey Lugovsky Perth Modern School WA 11
Oliver New Scotch College VIC 8
Angela Wang Lauriston Girl's School VIC 9
Leo Xu All Saints Anglican School QLD 10
William Cheah Penleigh and Essendon Grammar School VIC 4
Anagha Kanive-Hariharan James Ruse Agricultural High School NSW 10
Dhruv Hariharan Knox Grammar School NSW 9
Jocelin Hon James Ruse Agricultural High School NSW 11
Yikai Wu Prince Alfred College SA 11
Ryan Gray Brisbane State High School QLD 11
Mikaela Gray Brisbane State High School QLD 9
Kento Seki All Saints Anglican School QLD 10
Vivian Wang James Ruse Agricultural High School NSW 10
Gen Conway Methodist Ladies' College VIC 8
Tom Hauck All Saints Anglican School QLD 10
Hanyuan Li North Sydney Boys High School NSW 10
Bertrand Nheu Perth Modern School WA 11
Benjamin Davison-Petch Christ Church Grammar School WA 11
Zhenghao Hua Penleigh and Essendon Grammar School VIC 8
Sam Meredith Brisbane State High School QLD 8
Tony Teng Concordia College SA 10
Yale Cheng Hale School WA 11

Mathematics Contests The Australian Scene 2018 | AMOC Senior Contest Results | 79
AMOC SENIOR CONTEST STATISTICS
Score Distribution/Problem

Number of Students/Score
Problem
Mean
Number
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

1 12 9 6 2 4 4 8 51 4.9

2 24 9 0 2 8 1 5 47 4.3

3 24 2 0 0 0 1 1 68 5.1

4 62 8 4 1 1 2 1 17 1.6

5 32 29 8 4 0 2 2 19 2.2

Mathematics Contests The Australian Scene 2018 | AMOC Senior Contest Statistics | 80
AMOC SCHOOL OF EXCELLENCE
The 2017 AMOC School of Excellence was held 23 November – 2 December at Newman College,
University of Melbourne. The main qualifying exams for this are the AIMO and the AMOC Senior Contest.
AMOC had made the decision to start participating in the European Girls’ Mathematical Olympiad
(EGMO), starting with the 2018 contest. With this in mind, starting with this year’s School of
Excellence, each of the two annual AMOC training schools has permanently increased its intake. This
is in order to accommodate the need to have a sufficient pool of girls from which to select an EGMO
team each year in addition to an IMO team. The School also replaced the old Junior-Senior system
of two streams with a three streams model of Junior, Intermediate, and Senior. The new Junior would
be easier than the old Junior, the new Intermediate would be in between the old Junior and the old
Senior, and the new Senior would be about the same as the old Senior.
A total of 44 students from around Australia plus one student from New Zealand attended the school.
The breakdowns of the Australian students into the three streams, were as follows.

Stream Female Male Total

Senior 0 14 14

Intermediate 4 10 14

Junior 8 8 16

Total 12 32 44

The program covered the four major areas of number theory, geometry, combinatorics and algebra.
Each day would start at 8:30am with lectures or an exam and go until 12:30pm. After a one-hour lunch
break they would resume the lecture program at 1:30pm. By 4pm participants would usually have free
time, followed by dinner at 5:30pm. Finally, each evening would round out with a problem session,
topic review, or exam review from 6:30pm until 8:30pm.
Two highly experienced senior students were assigned to give a lecture each. William Hu was assigned
the senior Constructions—Reverse and Inspired geometry lecture, and Guowen Zhang was assigned
the senior Functional Equations lecture. They both did an excellent job!
Many thanks to Adrian Agisilaou, Ross Atkins, Michelle Chen, Alexander Chua, Andrew Elvey Price,
Jongmin Lim, and Thanom Shaw who served as live-in staff.
My thanks also go to Natalie Aisbett, Matthew Cheah, Aaron Chong, Norman Do, Yong See Foo, Ivan
Guo, Ilia Kucherov, Alfred Liang, Daniel Mathews, Chaitanya Rao, Sally Tsang, and Jeremy Yip, who
assisted in lecturing and marking.

Angelo Di Pasquale
Director of Training, AMOC

Mathematics Contests The Australian Scene 2018 | AMOC School of Excellence | 81

Participants at the 2017 AMOC School of Excellence
Name m/f Year School State
Senior
James Bang m 10 Baulkham Hills High School NSW
Linus Cooper m 11 James Ruse Agricultural High School NSW
Haowen Gao m 10 Knox Grammar School NSW
William Han m 11* Macleans College NZ
William Hu m 11 Christ Church Grammar School WA
Sharvil Kesarwani m 10 Merewether High School NSW
Charles Li m 11 Camberwell Grammar School VIC
Jeff (Zefeng) Li m 10 Caulfield Grammar School VIC
Jack Liu m 11 Brighton Grammar School VIC
William Steinberg m 9 Scotch College WA
Michael Sui m 11 Caulfield Grammar School, Wheelers Hill VIC
Ethan Tan m 10 Cranbrook School NSW
Hadyn Tang m 8 Trinity Grammar School VIC
Guowen Zhang m 11 St Joseph’s College, Gregory Terrace QLD
Stanley Zhu m 11 Melbourne Grammar School VIC
Intermediate
Andres Buritica m 8 Scotch College VIC
Liam Coy m 9 Sydney Grammar School NSW
Yifan Guo f 11 Glen Waverley Secondary College VIC
Grace He f 9 Methodist Ladies' College VIC
Jeffrey Li m 10 North Sydney Boys High School NSW
Adrian Lo m 9 Newington College NSW
Preet Patel m 10 Vermont Secondary College VIC
Ken Gene Quah m 9 Melbourne High School VIC
Mikhail Savkin m 9 Gosford High School NSW
Ruiqian Tong f 11 Presbyterian Ladies' College VIC
Daniel Wiese m 9 Scotch College WA
Fengshuo (Fredy) Ye (Yip) m 7 Chatswood High School NSW
Ziqi Yuan m 10 Lyneham High School ACT
Xinyue (Alice) Zhang f 11 A. B. Paterson College QLD
Junior
Evgeniya Artemova f 10 Presbyterian Ladies’ College VIC
Huxley Berry m 9 Perth Modern School WA
Junhua Chen m 9 Caulfield Grammar School, Wheelers Hill VIC
Matthew Cho m 9 St Joseph’s College, Gregory Terrace QLD
Vicky Feng f 10 Methodist Ladies’ College NSW
Eva Ge f 8 James Ruse Agricultural High School NSW
Dhruv Hariharan m 8 Knox Grammar School NSW
Jocelin Hon f 10 James Ruse Agricultural High School NSW
Samuel Lam m 9 James Ruse Agricultural High School NSW
Christina Lee f 9 James Ruse Agricultural High School NSW
Andy Li f 10 Presbyterian Ladies’ College VIC
Ethan Ryoo m 8 Knox Grammar School NSW
Marc Silins m 7 Australian Christian College Marsden Park NSW
Emilie Wu f 10 James Ruse Agricultural High School NSW
Yang Zhang m 9 St Joseph’s College, Gregory Terrace QLD
*Equivalent to year 12 in Australia.

Mathematics Contests The Australian Scene 2018 | AMOC School of Excellence | 82

A U S T R A L I A N M AT H E M AT I C A L O LY M P I A D C O M M I T T E E

AUSTRALIAN MATHEMATICAL OLYMPIAD

A DEPARTMENT OF THE AUSTRALIAN MATHEMATICS TRUST

A U S T R A L I A N M AT H E M AT I C A L O LY M P I A D C O M M I T T E E

A DEPARTMENT OF THE AUSTRALIAN MATHEMATICS TRUST

AUSTRALIAN MATHEMATICAL OLYMPIAD
2018

DAY 1
Tuesday, 6 February 2018
AUSTRALIAN MATHEMATICAL OLYMPIAD
Time allowed: 4 hours
No calculators are to be used. 2018
Each question is worth seven points.

DAY 2
Wednesday, 7 February 2018
1. allowed:
Time Find all pairs of positive integers (n, k) such that
4 hours
No calculators are to be used.
n! + 8 = 2k .
Each question is worth seven points.

(If n is a positive integer, then n! = 1 × 2 × 3 × · · · × (n − 1) × n.)

1 100
2. The
5. Consider a line
sequence a1with
, a2 , a23(3
, . . . is+defined
1) equally
by aspaced points marked on it.
1 = 1 and, for n ≥ 2,
Prove that 2100 of these marked points can be coloured red so that no red point is at the
same distance from two other an = 1 + a2 + · · · + an−1 ) × n.
red(apoints.
2.
3. Prove
Let ABCDEF is divisible N
that a2018GHIJKLM by be
2018
a regular tetradecagon.
Prove that the three lines AE, BG and CK intersect at a point.
6. Let P , Q and R be three points on a circle C, such that P Q = P R and P Q > QR.
(A regular
Let tetradecagon
D be the is a convex
circle with centre polygon
P that passes with 14 sides,
through Q andsuch that all that
R. Suppose sidesthe
have the
circle
samecentre
with lengthQand
andallpassing
angles through
are equal.)
R intersects C again at X and D again at Y .
Prove that P , X and Y lie on a line.
4. Find all functions f defined for real numbers and taking real numbers as values such that
7. Let b1 , b2 , b3 , . . . be a sequence of fpositive
(xy + fintegers
(y)) = yfsuch
(x) that, for each positive integer n,
bn+1 is the square of the number of positive factors of bn (including 1 and bn ). For
example,
for all real if numbers
b1 = 27, thenx andb2y.= 42 = 16, since 27 has four positive factors: 1, 3, 9 and 27.
Prove that if b1 > 1, then the sequence contains a term that is equal to 9.

8. Amy has a number of rocks such that the mass of each rock, in kilograms, is a positive
integer. The sum of the masses of the rocks is 2018 kilograms. Amy realises that it is
impossible to divide the rocks into two piles of 1009 kilograms.
What is the maximum possible number of rocks that Amy could have?
The Mathematics/Informatics Olympiads are supported by the Australian
Official sponsor of the Olympiad program Government through the National Innovation and Science Agenda.

© 2018 Australian Mathematics Trust

Mathematics Contests The Australian Scene 2018 | Australian Mathematical Olympiad | 83

The Mathematics/Informatics Olympiads are supported by the Australian
A U S T R A L I A N M AT H E M AT I C A L O LY M P I A D C O M M I T T E E

A DEPARTMENT OF THE AUSTRALIAN MATHEMATICS TRUST

A U S T R A L I A N M AT H E M AT I C A L O LY M P I A D C O M M I T T E E

A DEPARTMENT OF THE AUSTRALIAN MATHEMATICS TRUST

AUSTRALIAN MATHEMATICAL OLYMPIAD

2018

DAY 2 AUSTRALIAN MATHEMATICAL OLYMPIAD

Wednesday, 7 February 2018
2018
Time allowed: 4 hours
No calculators are to be used.
Each question is worth seven points.
DAY 2
Wednesday, 7 February 2018
Time allowed: 4 hours
No calculators are to be used.
5. The sequence a1 , a2 , a3 , . . . is defined by a1 = 1 and, for n ≥ 2,
Each question is worth seven points.
an = (a1 + a2 + · · · + an−1 ) × n.

Prove that a2018 is divisible by 20182 .

5. The sequence a1 , a2 , a3 , . . . is defined by a1 = 1 and, for n ≥ 2,
6. Let P , Q and R be three points on a circle C, such that P Q = P R and P Q > QR.
an = (a1 + a2 + · · · + an−1 ) × n.
Let D be the circle with centre P that passes through Q and R. Suppose that the circle
with centre Q and passing through R intersects C again at X and D again at Y .
Prove that a2018 is divisible by 20182 .
Prove that P , X and Y lie on a line.
6. Let P , Q and R be three points on a circle C, such that P Q = P R and P Q > QR.
7. Let D
b1 ,be
b2 ,the
b3 , .circle
. . be with
a sequence
centre of
P positive integers
that passes suchQthat,
through and for each positive
R. Suppose that integer n,
the circle
bn+1 centre
with is the Q square of the number
and passing through ofR positive
intersectsfactors of at
C again bnX(including 1 and
and D again at Ybn.). For
2
example, if b = 27, then b = 4 = 16, since 27 has four positive factors: 1, 3, 9 and 27.
Prove that P1, X and Y lie2 on a line.
Prove that if b1 > 1, then the sequence contains a term that is equal to 9.
7. Let b1 , b2 , b3 , . . . be a sequence of positive integers such that, for each positive integer n,
8. Amy hasthe
bn+1 is a number
square of of the
rocksnumber
such that the massfactors
of positive of eachofrock, in kilograms,
bn (including is abpositive
1 and n ). For
integer. sum of the masses 2
example, if b1 = 27, then b2 = 4 = 16, since 27 has four positive factors: 1, 3, 9 andit27.
The of the rocks is 2018 kilograms. Amy realises that is
impossible to divide the rocks into two piles of 1009 kilograms.
Prove that if b1 > 1, then the sequence contains a term that is equal to 9.
What is the maximum possible number of rocks that Amy could have?
8. Amy has a number of rocks such that the mass of each rock, in kilograms, is a positive
integer. The sum of the masses of the rocks is 2018 kilograms. Amy realises that it is
impossible to divide the rocks into two piles of 1009 kilograms.
What is the maximum possible number of rocks that Amy could have?

The Mathematics/Informatics Olympiads are supported by the Australian

Official sponsor of the Olympiad program Government through the National Innovation and Science Agenda.

© 2018 Australian Mathematics Trust

The Mathematics/Informatics Olympiads are supported by the Australian

Official sponsor of the Olympiad program Government through the National Innovation and Science Agenda.
Mathematics Contests The Australian Scene 2018 | Australian Mathematical Olympiad | 84
AUSTRALIAN MATHEMATICAL OLYMPIAD SOLUTIONS
Solutions to the 2018 Australian Mathematical Olympiad
1. Solution 1 (Evgeniya Artemova, year 11, Presbyterian Ladies’ College, VIC)
Answers (n, k) = (4, 5) and (5, 7).
For reference the given equation is

n! + 8 = 2k .

Case 1 n ≥ 6
Observe that n! is a multiple of 6! = 24 × 32 × 5. Hence n! = 16x for some positive
integer x. Therefore
n! + 8 = 8(2x + 1).
But the RHS of the above equation cannot be a power of 2 because 2x + 1 is an odd
integer that is greater than 1. Hence there are no solutions in this case.
Case 2 n ≤ 5
We simply tabulate the values of n! + 8 and check which ones are powers of 2.

n n! + 8 power of 2?
1 9 no
2 10 no
3 14 no
4 32 25
5 128 27

This yields the solutions given at the outset.

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Solution 2 (Andres Buritica, year 9, Scotch College, VIC)
For reference the given equation is

n! + 8 = 2k .

Case 1 n ≥ 6
We have 24 | n! and 23 8. Thus 23 n! + 8.1 Hence 23 2k , and so k = 3. But this
implies n! = 0, which is impossible. So there are no solutions in this case.
Case 2 n ≤ 3
We have 23 n! and 23 | 8. Hence 23 2k , and so k < 3. It follows that n! < 0, which
is impossible. So there are no solutions in this case.
Case 3 n = 4 or 5
If n = 4 then k = 5, and if n = 5 then k = 7.

1
For a prime number p and integers k ≥ 0 and N ≥ 1, the notation pk N means that pk | N but
pk+1 N . Put another way, it means that the exponent of p in the prime factorisation of N is k.

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Mathematics Contests The Australian Scene 2018 | Australian Mathematical Olympiad Solutions | 86
2. Solution 1 (William Hu, year 12, Christ Church Grammar School, WA)
Given some equally spaced points marked on a line, if we colour some of them red,
we say the colouring is good if no red point is equidistant from two other red points.
The result is the special case n = 100 of the following more general claim.
Claim For each positive integer n, if a line has 12 (3n + 1) equally spaced points
marked on it, then there is a good colouring of 2n of those points.
The proof is by induction on n.
The base case n = 1 holds as we simply colour each of the 12 (31 + 1) = 21 points red.
For the inductive step, suppose that the claim is true for some positive integer n.
Let k = 12 (3n + 1). Note that 3k − 1 = 12 (3n+1 + 1). To prove the claim for n + 1 we
divide the 3k − 1 points into three groups from left to right as follows.

k points k − 1 points k points

group A group B group C

Using the inductive assumption we colour 2n points in group A red so that no red
point in A is equidistant from two other red points in A. Similarly we colour 2n
points in C red so that no red point in C is equidistant from two other red points in
C. All points in B are left uncoloured.
A total of 2n + 2n = 2n+1 points have been coloured red in the union of the three
groups. Suppose, for the sake of contradiction, that this colouring is not good. Then
there are three red points W, X, Y in that order from left to right, where W X = XY .
Without loss of generality X is in A. Thus W is also in A. However,

• Y is not in A, from the inductive assumption,

• Y is not in B, because no point in Y is coloured red, and
• Y is not in C, because W X ≤ k − 1 and XY ≥ k.

This contradiction completes the induction and the proof.

Comment In order to illustrate the above proof, here are some iterations of the
inductive construction.

n=1
n=2
n=3

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Solution 2 (Sharvil Kesarwani, year 11, Merewether High School, NSW)
Without loss of generality, we identify the 12 (3100 + 1) equally spaced points with
the integers from 0 up to 12 (3100 − 1) on the real number line.
Colour red each integer of the form
99

N= d i · 3i
i=0

where di ∈ {0, 1} for 0 ≤ i ≤ 99. In this way exactly 2100 integers are coloured red.
Note that these are precisely the integers in the range from 0 to 12 (3100 − 1) which
do not contain the digit 2 in their ternary (base-3) representations.
Suppose, for the sake of contradiction, that one red integer B is equidistant from
two other red integers A and C, where A < B < C. Thus C − B = B − A, which is
the same as 2B = A + C.
Let
99
99
99

i i
A= ai · 3 , B= bi · 3 , and C = ci · 3i
i=0 i=0 i=0

be the ternary representations of A, B, and C, where ai , bi , ci ∈ {0, 1} for 0 ≤ i ≤ 99.

From 2B = A + C we have
99
99

i
2bi · 3 = (ai + ci )3i .
i=0 i=0

Since ai , bi , ci ∈ {0, 1}, we have 2bi ∈ {0, 2} and ai + ci ∈ {0, 1, 2}. Therefore both
sides of the above equation are the ternary representation of the same number. It
follows that 2bi = ai + ci for each i.
If bi = 0, then ai = ci = 0. And if bi = 1, then ai = ci = 1. Either way, A and C
have the same ternary digits, and so A = C. This contradicts A < C, and completes
the proof.

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3. Solution 1 (Elizabeth Yevdokimov, year 9, St Ursula’s College, QLD)
Since the tetradecagon is regular, it has a circumcircle.
Form triangle AGC by joining the segments AC, CG, and GA.

I H
J G

K F

L E

M D

N C
A B

Since the vertices of the tetradecagon are equally spaced around the circle, and equal
length arcs subtend equal angles, we have

∠CAE = ∠EAG, ∠AGB = ∠BGC, and ∠GCK = ∠KCA.

Hence AE, BG, and CK are the internal bisectors of the angles of AGC. As such
they are concurrent at the incentre of AGC.

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Mathematics Contests The Australian Scene 2018 | Australian Mathematical Olympiad Solutions | 89
Solution 2 (Based on the solution by Ethan Ryoo, year 9, Knox Grammar School,
NSW)
As in solution 1, we consider A, B, . . . , N as being 14 equally spaced points around
a circle. Form triangle BEK by joining segments BE, EK, and KB.

I H
J G

K F

L E

M D

N C
A B

By symmetry we have parallel chords BG CF DE. Since DK is a diameter of

the circle, we have DE ⊥ EK. Hence BG ⊥ EK.
Similarly we have EA DB and DB ⊥ BK. Hence EA ⊥ BK.
Finally we have KC LB and LB ⊥ BE (LE is a diameter). Hence KC ⊥ BE.
We have shown that BG, EA, and KC are altitudes of BEK. As such they are
concurrent at the orthocentre of BEK.

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Solution 3 (Ethan Tan, year 12, Cranbrook School, NSW)
As in solution 1, we consider A, B, . . . , N as being 14 equally spaced points around
a circle. Let X be the intersection of lines AE and BG. It suffices to show that C,
X, and K are collinear.

I H
J G

K F

L E

M X D

N C
A B

Since the vertices of the tetradecagon are equally spaced around the circle, and equal
length arcs subtend equal angles, we have

∠XEB = ∠AEB = ∠BEC and ∠CBE = ∠EBG = ∠EBX.

It follows that BEX ≡ BEC (ASA). Hence BCEX is a kite with BE ⊥ CX.
We also have parallel chords BE CD. Hence CD ⊥ CX. But CD ⊥ CK because
DK is a diameter of the circle. Thus CK CX, from which it follows that C, X,
and K are collinear, as desired.

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Solution 4 (Yifan Guo, year 12, Glen Waverley Secondary College, VIC)
As in solution 1, we consider A, B, . . . , N as being 14 equally spaced points around
a circle. Let X be the intersection of lines AE and BG. It suffices to show that C,
X, and K are collinear. Let α satisfy 14α = 180◦ .

I H
J G

K F

L E

M X D

N C
A B

Each of the 14 equal sides of the tetradecagon subtends an angle of 360◦ /14 with
the centre of the circle. Hence each of these sides subtends an angle of α = 180◦ /14
with a point on the major arc opposite the side. Using this we have

∠BAE = ∠BAC + ∠CAD + ∠DAE = 3α.

Similar calculations yield

∠GBA = 8α and ∠KCB = 5α.

A consideration of the angle sum in ABX yields ∠BXA = 3α. Hence BX = BA.
However BA = BC. Hence BXC is isosceles with apex B. Since ∠CBX = 4α, it
follows that ∠BXC = ∠XCB = 5α.
Finally, since ∠XCB = 5α = ∠KCB, it follows that C, X, and K are collinear, as
desired.

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Solution 5 (Mikhail Savkin, year 10, Gosford High School, NSW)
As in solution 1, we consider A, B, . . . , N as being 14 equally spaced points around
a circle. Form the hexagon ABCEGK.

I H
J G

K F

L E

M D

N C
A B

We quote a theorem that will help us solve the problem.

Theorem If U V W XY Z is a convex cyclic hexagon, then its main diagonals U X,
V Y , and W Z are concurrent if and only if

U V · W X · Y Z = V W · XY · ZA.

This result is found in configuration C6 in chapter 5 of Problem Solving Tactics.2

We apply the theorem as follows. From the equal spacing of points of the tetradecagon
around the circle, we deduce that

AB = BC, CE = EG, and GK = KA.

Since ABCEGK is a convex cyclic hexagon with the property that

AB · CE · GK = BC · EG · KA,

the result follows.

2
Published by the AMT

35
Mathematics Contests The Australian Scene 2018 | Australian Mathematical Olympiad Solutions | 93
4. Solution 1 (William Hu, year 12, Christ Church Grammar School, WA)
Answers f (x) = 0 and f (x) = 1 − x
For reference the given functional equation is

f (xy + f (y)) = yf (x) (1)

for all real numbers x and y.

Put y = 0 in (1) to find
f (f (0)) = 0. (2)

Next put x = 0 and y = f (0) in (1), and use (2) to deduce

f (0) = f (0)2 .

Thus f (0) = 0 or 1.
Case 1 f (0) = 0
Put x = 0 in (1) to find
f (f (y)) = 0 (3)
for all y ∈ R.
Suppose there exists a real number c with f (c) = 0. Then if we put x = c in (1), we
see that RHS(1) covers all real numbers, and so f is surjective. But if f is surjective,
then so is f ◦ f , which contradicts (3). Hence no such c exists. Thus f (x) = 0 for all
real numbers x. This function obviously satisfies (1).
Case 2 f (0) = 1
Putting x = 0 into (1) yields
f (f (y)) = y (5)
for all real numbers y. It follows that f (1) = f (f (0)) = 0.
Putting x = 1 in (1) yields

f (y + f (y)) = 0 = f (1) ⇒ f (f (y + f (y))) = f (f (1)).

With the help of (5) this implies y + f (y) = 1, and so f (y) = 1 − y.

It only remains to verify that f (x) = 1 − x satisfies (1). Indeed we have

LHS(1) = 1 − (xy + (1 − y)) = y(1 − x) = RHS(1).

Hence f (x) = 1 − x is also a solution to the problem.

36
Mathematics Contests The Australian Scene 2018 | Australian Mathematical Olympiad Solutions | 94
Solution 2 (William Steinberg, year 10, Scotch College, WA)
For reference the given functional equation is

f (xy + f (y)) = yf (x) (1)

for all real numbers x and y.

Put x = 0 in (1) to find
f (f (y)) = yf (0), (2)
for all real numbers y.
Putting y = 1 in (1) yields

f (x + f (1)) = f (x)
⇒ f (f (x + f (1))) = f (f (x))
⇒ (x + f (1))f (0) = xf (0) (from (2))
⇒ f (0)f (1) = 0. (3)

Two cases follow from (3).

Case 1 f (0) = 0
Equation (2) now becomes
f (f (y)) = 0 (4)
for all real numbers y.
Applying f to both sides of (1) and then using (4) yields

f (yf (x)) = 0. (5)

Suppose that there exists a real number c with f (c) = 0. Then putting x = c and
y = c/f (c) in (5), we deduce that f (c) = 0. This is a contradiction. Thus no such c
exists. Hence f (x) = 0 for all real numbers x.
Case 2 f (0) = 0
It follows from (3) that f (1) = 0.
Setting x = 1 in (1), and using f (1) = 0 yields

f (y + f (y)) = 0
⇒ f (f (y + f (y))) = f (0)
⇒ (y + f (y))f (0) = f (0) (from (2))
⇒ y + f (y) = 1. (since f (0) = 0)

Thus f (y) = 1 − y.
As in solution 1, we check that f (x) = 0 and f (x) = 1 − x each satisfy the given
functional equation.

37
Mathematics Contests The Australian Scene 2018 | Australian Mathematical Olympiad Solutions | 95
5. Solution 1 (Vicky Feng, year 11, Methodist Ladies’ College, NSW)
We are given
an = n(a1 + a2 + · · · + an−1 ) (1)
for any integer n ≥ 2.
Replacing n with n − 1 in (1), we find

an−1 = (n − 1)(a1 + a2 + · · · + an−2 ) (2)

for any integer n ≥ 3.

Substituting (2) into (1) yields

an = n(a1 + a2 + · · · + an−2 + an−1 )

= n(a1 + a2 + · · · + an−2 + (n − 1)(a1 + a2 + · · · + an−2 ))
= n2 (a1 + a2 + · · · + an−2 ).

Hence an is divisible by n2 for each integer n ≥ 3. In particular, a2018 is divisible by

20182 .
Comment We did not use the initial condition a1 = 1. Hence the result is true
for any integer a1 .

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Solution 2 (Xinyue (Alice) Zhang, year 12, A. B. Paterson College, QLD)
We prove an even stronger result, namely a2018 is divisible by 20183 .
First we prove by induction that a1 + a2 + · · · + an−1 = n!/2 for all integers n ≥ 2.
2!
The base case is true because a1 = 1 = 2
.
For the inductive step, assume that a1 + a2 + · · · + an−1 = n!/2 for some integer
n ≥ 2. Then

a1 + a2 + · · · + an−1 + an = a1 + a2 + · · · + an−1 + n(a1 + a2 + · · · + an−1 )

n! n · n!
= +
2 2
(n + 1) · n!
=
2
(n + 1)!
=
2
which completes the induction.
Using this result, it follows that

a2018 = 2018(a1 + · · · + a2017 )

= 2018(2018 × 2017 × · · · × 3)
= 20182 (2017 × 2016 × · · · × 1009 × · · · × 4 × 3)

which is obviously a multiple of 20182 . However 2017 × 2016 × · · · × 1009 × · · · × 4 × 3

is divisible by both 2 and 1009, and so it is also divisible by 2018. Therefore a2018 is
divisible by 20183 .

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Solution 3 (Andres Buritica, year 9, Scotch College, VIC)
We are given
an
= a1 + a2 + · · · + an−1 (1)
n
for any integer n ≥ 2.
Replacing n with n + 1 in (1), we find
an+1
= a1 + a2 + · · · + an−1 + an
n+1
an
= + an
n
an+1 (n + 1)2
⇒ = (2)
an n
for any integer n ≥ 2.
Multiplying all instances of equality (2) together for n = m − 1, m − 2, . . . , 2, where
m ≥ 3, yields a product that telescopes as follows.

am am−1 a3 m2 (m − 1)2 32
× × ··· × = × × ··· ×
am−1 am−2 a2 m−1 m−2 2
2
am m (m − 1)!
⇒ =
a2 4
2
m (m − 1)!
⇒ am =
2
In particular a2018 = (2018)2 × 2017!
2
, which is a multiple of 20182 .

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6. Solution 1 (William Steinberg, year 10, Scotch College, WA)
Since R, X, and Y all lie on a circle centred at Q, we have QR = QX = QY .

D R

P Q

In circle D, chords QY and QR have equal length. Hence they subtend equal angles
at the centre P of this circle. Thus

∠Y P Q = ∠QP R. (1)

In circle C, chords QX and QR have equal length. Hence they subtend equal angles
at the point P on the circumference of this circle. Thus

∠XP Q = ∠QP R. (2)

From (1) and (2) we have ∠XP Q = ∠Y P Q. Thus P , X, and Y are collinear.

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Solution 2 (Matthew Kerr, year 12, St Anthony’s Catholic College, QLD)
Let the circle centred at Q and passing through R intersect the line P Y for a second
time at X . It suffices to prove that P RQX is cyclic as this implies X = X.

P Q

As P and Q are centres of circles, we have P R = P Q = P Y and QR = QX = QY .

Hence P QR ≡ P QY (SSS). Thus

∠P RQ = ∠QY P = ∠QY X = ∠Y X Q

where the last equality is due to QX = QY .

Since ∠P RQ = ∠Y X Q, it follows that P RQX is cyclic, as desired.

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Mathematics Contests The Australian Scene 2018 | Australian Mathematical Olympiad Solutions | 100
Solution 3 (Sharvil Kesarwani, year 11, Merewether High School, NSW)
Let Y be the intersection of ray P X with circle D. It suffices to prove that Y = Y .
Let ∠QY X = ∠QY P = α.

D R

P Q

X
α
Y

Observe that P Y = P Q = P R because they are radii of circle D. It follows that

∠P QY = ∠QY P = α. Considering the angle sum in P QY yields

∠Y P Q = 180◦ − 2α.

Observe that QX = QR because X lies on the circle centred at Q and passing

through R. Since QX and QR are equal length chords in circle C, they subtend
equal angles at the point P on the circumference of this circle. Hence

∠QP R = ∠XP Q = ∠Y P Q = 180◦ − 2α.

Since P QR is isosceles with apex P , the angle sum in this triangle yields

∠P RQ = ∠RQP = α.

Since P RQX is a cyclic quadrilateral, we have

∠Y XQ = ∠P RQ = α = ∠QY X.

Hence QXY is isosceles with apex Q. Thus QY = QX = QR, and so Y lies on

the circle centred at Q and passing through R. Since Y and R are on opposite sides
of the line P Q, it follows that Y = Y .

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Mathematics Contests The Australian Scene 2018 | Australian Mathematical Olympiad Solutions | 101
Solution 4 (Alan Offer, AMOC Senior Problems Committee)
Comment Let E be the circle in the problem statement centred at Q and passing
through R. If we relax the condition that Q is the centre of E by requiring only that
the centre of E lies on C, then the conclusion of the problem is still true.
Here is a proof of this generalisation of the problem.

D R

P Q

X
O

We have only considered the configuration where X lies between P and Y . Other
configurations may be dealt with similarly.
Let O be the centre of E. Since P R = P Y (radii of D), and OR = OY (radii of E),
it follows that OP R ≡ OP Y (SSS). Thus

∠Y P O = ∠OP R. (1)

In circle C, chords OX and OR have equal length. Hence they subtend equal angles
at the point P on the circumference of this circle. Thus

∠XP O = ∠OP R. (2)

From (1) and (2) we have ∠XP O = ∠Y P O. Thus P , X, and Y are collinear.

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Comments (Angelo Di Pasquale, Director of Training, AMOC)
The astute reader may have noticed that the point Q did not get mentioned at all
in the previous proof. The reason is because, in this generalisation, the point Q
is irrelevant to the proof. Hence the diagram could have been drawn without the
point Q and without the line segments P Q and QR. This minimal statement of the
generalisation of the problem is as follows.

Let P , O, and R be three points on a circle C. Let D be a circle centred

at P and passing through R, and let E be the circle centred at O and
passing through R. Suppose that E intersects C again at X and D again
at Y . Then P , X, and Y lie on a line.

In fact we can say even more! There is a combinatorial symmetry in the problem
statement between D and E with respect to C. Specifically, exchanging points P and
O also exchanges D and E. Thus if D intersects C again at Q, then O, Q, and Y
also lie on a line.

C
R

E
P Q

X O

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7. Solution 1 (Tianyue (Ellen) Zheng, year 12, Smith’s Hill High School, NSW)
Since b1 > 1, it follows inductively that bn > 1 for all n ≥ 2.
Observe that bn is a perfect square for all n ≥ 2.
For any perfect square m2 , all of the factors of m2 , except for m, come in pairs
(d, m2 /d) where 1 ≤ d < m. Hence square numbers have an odd number of factors.
Thus bn is an odd perfect square for all n ≥ 3. Moreover since bn > 1, it follows that
bn ≥ 9 for all n ≥ 3.
Consider any integer n ≥ 3. Then bn = m2 for some odd integer m ≥ 3. As explained
in the previous paragraph, apart from m, the factors of m2 come in pairs (d, m2 /d)
where 1 ≤ d < m. Since m2 is odd, each such d is odd. The number of odd positive
integers less than m is equal to m−1
2
. It follows that the number of factors of m2 is
at most 2 × m−12
+ 1 = m. Therefore bn+1 ≤ bn .
However, for bn+1 = bn to occur, all of the odd positive integers less than m must
be factors of m2 . In particular m − 2 | m2 . But

gcd(m, m − 2) = gcd(m, 2) = 1 ⇒ gcd(m2 , m − 2) = 1.

Since m − 2 | m2 , it follows that m − 2 = 1. Thus m = 3, and bn = 9. So from b3

onward, the sequence is strictly decreasing until it reaches the fixed point bn = 9.

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Solution 2 (James Bang, year 11, Baulkham Hills High School, NSW)
As in solution 1 we deduce that each member of the sequence from b3 onward is an
odd perfect square that is greater than or equal to 9.
Consider any integer n ≥ 3. As in solution 1 it suffices to prove that bn+1 ≤ bn with
equality if and only if bn = 9.
r
Let bn = p2a
i , where p1 < p2 < · · · < pr are the prime factors of bn .
i

i=1
r
r

The number of factors of bn is given by (2ai + 1). Hence bn+1 = (2ai + 1)2 .
i=1 i=1
It follows that bn+1 ≤ bn if and only if
r
r

pai i ≥ (2ai + 1). (1)
i=1 i=1

To finish the proof it suffices to show that

pa ≥ 2a + 1 (2)

with equality if and only if p = 3 and a = 1.

Since pa > 3a whenever p > 3, it suffices to prove (2) just for the case p = 3. We
proceed by induction on a.
For a = 1, it is readily seen that inequality (2) is in fact an equality.
For the inductive step, suppose that 3a ≥ 2a + 1 for some a ≥ 1. It follows that

3a+1 ≥ 3(2a + 1) > 2(a + 1) + 1.

This concludes the induction and the proof.

Comment Here are two more alternative ways of proving inequality (2).
Alternative 1 (Angelo Di Pasquale, Director of Training AMOC)
Using the binomial theorem, the inequality follows from

2a 2a
2a 2a
p ≥ (1 + 2) ≥ 1 + ·2+ · 22 = 8a2 + 1 ≥ (2a + 1)2 .
1 2

Alternative 2 (Ivan Guo, AMOC Senior Problems Committee)

Factoring the difference of perfect ath powers, the inequality follows from

pa − 1 ≥ 3a − 1 = (3 − 1)(3a−1 + 3a−2 + · · · + 1) ≥ 2(1 + 1 + · · · + 1) = 2a.

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Mathematics Contests The Australian Scene 2018 | Australian Mathematical Olympiad Solutions | 105
8. For ease of exposition, in each of the solutions that follow, whenever we say some-
thing has mass n, then we use this as shorthand for saying that it has mass n
kilograms.
Solution 1 (James Bang, year 11, Baulkham Hills High School, NSW)
Answer 1009
Suppose that Amy has r ≥ 1010 rocks of masses m1 , m2 , . . . , mr . For each integer i
with 1 ≤ i ≤ r, let
Si = m1 + m2 + · · · + mi .
Note that S1 , S2 , . . . , Sr is a strictly increasing sequence of r ≥ 1010 positive integers,
each of which is in the range 1, 2, . . . , 2018.
Consider the 1009 pairs

(1, 1010), (2, 1011), (3, 1012), . . . , (1009, 2018).

By the pigeonhole principle one of the above pairs contains two of the Si . Suppose
that (t, t + 1009) = (Si , Sj ). Then j > i, and

1009 = Sj − Si = mj + mj−1 + · · · + mi+1 .

Thus mj , mj−1 , . . . , mi+1 have total mass equal to 1009. This shows that the answer
cannot be greater than or equal to 1010.
To complete the proof, here is a construction for exactly 1009 rocks. Suppose that
Amy has 1 rock of mass 1010, and 1008 rocks of mass 1. Then the pile that contains
the rock of mass 1010 obviously has mass exceeding 1009.
Comment 1 Some students found a somewhat geometric version of the above
argument which basically goes as follows.
Suppose Amy has at least 1010 rocks. Consider a circle of circumference 2018 and
partition it into arcs whose lengths correspond to the masses of the rocks. The
endpoints of the arcs are 1010 (or more) of the vertices of a regular 2018-gon, and
so by the pigeonhole principle there is a diametrically opposite pair of endpoints.
Comment 2 Some students stated and proved the following fairly well-known
lemma, and used this to complete the proof.
Lemma Any sequence of n integers contains a nonempty subsequence whose sum
is a multiple of n.
Proof Let the integers be m1 , m2 , . . . , mn . Let Si = m1 +m2 +· · ·+mi for 1 ≤ i ≤ n.
If Si ≡ 0 (mod n) for some i, then we are done.
Otherwise, by the pigeonhole principle we have Si ≡ Sj (mod n) for some i < j. It
follows that Sj − Si = mi+1 + mi+2 + · · · + mj ≡ 0 (mod n).
To complete the proof of the given problem, if we have at least 1010 rocks, consider
any 1009 of them. By the lemma, a nonempty sub-collection of those rocks has mass
equal to a multiple of 1009. Since the total mass of the sub-collection is strictly less
than 2018, it is equal to 1009.

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Mathematics Contests The Australian Scene 2018 | Australian Mathematical Olympiad Solutions | 106
Solution 2 (William Steinberg, year 10, Scotch College, WA)
Suppose that Amy has at least 1010 rocks. Suppose that a of the rocks have unit
mass and b of the rocks have mass greater than 1. If b = 0, then a = 2018, and in
this case it is obvious that the rocks can be divided into two piles of equal mass.
Hence b > 0. Let M ≥ 2 be the mass of the heaviest rock. We have the following
inequalities.

a + b ≥ 1010 (1)
a + 2(b − 1) + M ≤ 2018 (2)

Inequality (1) simply states that there are at least 1010 rocks. Inequality (2) is found
by estimating the total mass. It is true because among the b rocks of non-unit mass,
one of them has mass M , and the rest each have mass at least 2.
Inequality (1) implies b ≥ 1010 − a. Substituting this into inequality (2) yields

2018 ≥ M + a + 2(b − 1) ≥ M + a + 2(1010 − a − 1) = M + 2018 − a.

It follows that a ≥ M.
Next we create a pile of rocks with total mass 1009 as follows. First, continually
choose rocks of non-unit mass and add them to the pile one at a time until one of
the following two things occurs.

(i) It is not possible to add any more rocks of non-unit mass without the mass of
the pile under construction exceeding 1009.
(ii) We run out of rocks of non-unit mass and the mass of the pile is at most 1009.

If (i) occurs, then the difference between the current mass of the pile and 1009 is
less than M . Since a ≥ M we can top up the pile with rocks of unit mass until the
pile has mass exactly 1009.
If (ii) occurs, then all remaining rocks have unit mass. Hence we can top up the pile
with these until the pile has mass exactly 1009.
Either way a pile of mass 1009 has been created. This shows that the answer cannot
be greater than or equal to 1010.
To complete the proof, here is a construction for exactly 1009 rocks. Suppose that
Amy has 1009 rocks, each of mass 2. If some of these rocks are put into a pile, then
the total mass of the pile will be even, and so cannot have mass 1009.

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Mathematics Contests The Australian Scene 2018 | Australian Mathematical Olympiad Solutions | 107
Solution 3 (Guowen Zhang, year 12, St Joseph’s College, QLD)
We claim the answer is 1009.
As in solution 1, if Amy has 1 rock of mass 1010 and 1008 rocks of mass 1, then it
is impossible to divide the rocks into two piles of equal mass. Hence the answer is
greater than or equal to 1009. The proof that this is the largest possible number of
rocks that Amy could have follows from the following lemma.
Lemma Let n be any positive integer. Suppose that Amy has at least n + 1 rocks
where the mass of each rock is a positive integer, and the total mass of all the rocks
is 2n. Then it is always possible to divide the rocks into two piles, each of mass n.
Proof We proceed by induction on n.
For the case n = 1, Amy has two rocks with total mass 2. This implies that each of
Amy’s rocks has unit mass, from which the result immediately follows.
For the inductive step, let us assume that the lemma is true for n = k. Consider the
case n = k + 1. Thus Amy has at least k + 2 rocks whose total mass is 2k + 2.
If all of Amy’s rocks have mass greater than or equal to 2, then the total mass of
all the rocks is greater than or equal to 2(k + 2) > 2k + 2, which is a contradiction.
Hence at least one of Amy’s rocks has unit mass. If all of the rocks have unit mass
then the result follows immediately. Hence we may let the masses of the rocks be

1, m1 , m2 , . . . , mr (*)

where r ≥ k + 1 and mr > 1.

Consider the situation where we have r rocks of masses

m1 , m2 , . . . , mr−1 , mr − 1.

Observe that the number of rocks above is greater than or equal to k + 1, and the
total mass of these rocks is equal to 2k. From the inductive assumption we can
divide these into two piles, each of total mass k. Next change mr − 1 to mr and add
a single rock of unit mass to the pile not containing the rock of mass mr − 1. This
gives a division of the rocks with masses given in (*) into two piles, each having
mass k + 1. This concludes the induction, and the proof.
Comment It is possible to strengthen the lemma as follows.
Lemma Let n be any positive integer. Suppose that Amy has at least n + 1 rocks
where the mass of each rock is a positive integer, and the total mass of all the rocks
is 2n. Then for any integer N with 0 ≤ N ≤ 2n it is always possible to divide the
rocks into two piles, one of which has mass N .
The proof is very similar to the one given above.

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AUSTRALIAN MATHEMATICAL OLYMPIAD RESULTS

Name School Year

Perfect Score and Gold
James Bang Baulkham Hills High School NSW 11
Jack Gibney Penleigh and Essendon Grammar School VIC 12
William Han Macleans College NZ 12*
Grace He Methodist Ladies' College VIC 10
Charles Li Camberwell Grammar School VIC 12
Haobin (Jack) Liu Brighton Grammar School VIC 12
Jerry Mao Caulfield Grammar School, Wheelers Hill VIC 12
William Steinberg Scotch College WA 10
Ethan Tan Cranbrook School NSW 11
Fengshuo (Fredy) Ye (Yip) Chatswood High School NSW 8
Guowen Zhang St Joseph's College QLD 12
Gold
William Hu Christ Church Grammar School WA 12
Yasiru Jayasooriya James Ruse Agricultural High School NSW 10
Hadyn Tang Trinity Grammar School VIC 9
Ziqi Yuan Narrabundah College ACT 11
Silver
Andres Buritica Scotch College VIC 9
Andrew Chen St Kentigern College NZ 13*
Linus Cooper James Ruse Agricultural High School NSW 12
Liam Coy Sydney Grammar School NSW 10
Haowen Gao Knox Grammar NSW 11
Sharvil Kesarwani Merewether High School NSW 11
Johnathan Leung King’s College NZ 10*
Keiran James Lewellen Te Aho o Te Kura Pounamu NZ 13*
Steven Lim Hurlstone Agricultural High School NSW 12
Adrian Lo Newington College NSW 10
Forbes Mailler Canberra Grammar School ACT 12
Oliver Papillo Camberwell Grammar School VIC 11
Preet Patel Vermont Secondary College VIC 11
Tang (Michael) Sui Caulfield Grammar School, Wheelers Hill VIC 12
Anthony Tew Pembroke School SA 12
Xutong Wang Auckland International College NZ 13*
Bronze
Grace Chang St Kentigern College NZ 11*
Kieren Connor Sydney Grammar School NSW 12
Carl Gu Melbourne High School VIC 12
Yifan Guo Glen Waverley Secondary College VIC 12
Rick Han Macleans College NZ 10*
Matthew Kerr St Anthony’s Catholic College QLD 12
David Lee James Ruse Agricultural High School NSW 11

*NZ school year

Mathematics Contests The Australian Scene 2018 | Australian Mathematical Olympiad Results | 109
Name School Year
Alan Li Lincoln High School NZ 12*
William Li Barker College NSW 12
Zefeng (Jeff) Li Caulfield Grammar School, Caulfield Campus VIC 11
Ishan Nath John Paul College NZ 11*
Anthony Pisani St Paul’s Anglican Grammar VIC 11
Ken Gene Quah Melbourne High School VIC 10
Marcus Rees Hobart College TAS 11
Lachlan Rowe Canberra College ACT 11
Mikhail Savkin Gosford High School NSW 10
Albert Smith Christ Church Grammar School WA 12
Ryan Stocks Radford College ACT 12
Brian Su James Ruse Agricultural High School NSW 12
Ruiqian Tong Presbyterian Ladies’ College VIC 12
Andrew Virgona Smith’s Hill High School NSW 12
Daniel Wiese Scotch College WA 10
Kevin Wu Scotch College VIC 11
Shine Wu Newlands College NZ 13*
Zijin (Aaron) Xu Caulfield Grammar School, Wheelers Hill VIC 10
Xinyue Alice Zhang A. B. Paterson College QLD 12
Yang Zhang St Joseph’s College QLD 10
Linan (Frank) Zhao Geelong Grammar School VIC 11
Tianyue (Ellen) Zheng Smith’s Hill High School NSW 12
Stanley Zhu Melbourne Grammar School VIC 12
Honourable Mention
Vincent Abbott Hale School WA 12
Evgeniya Artemova Presbyterian Ladies’ College VIC 11
Huxley Berry Perth Modern School WA 10
Junhua Chen Caulfield Grammar School, Wheelers Hill VIC 10
Jonathan Chew Christ Church Grammar School WA 11
Matthew Cho St Joseph’s College QLD 10
Shevanka Dias All Saints’ College WA 11
Christopher Do Penleigh and Essendon Grammar School VIC 11
Vicky Feng Methodist Ladies’ College NSW 11
Eva Ge James Ruse Agricultural High School NSW 9
Mikaela Gray Brisbane State High School QLD 9
Ryan Gray Brisbane State High School QLD 11
Dhruv Hariharan Knox Grammar NSW 9
Remi Hart All Saints’ College WA 10
Tom Hauck All Saints Anglican School QLD 10
Jocelin Hon James Ruse Agricultural High School NSW 11
Claire Huang Radford College ACT 10
Hollis Huang Tintern Grammar School VIC 12
Shivasankaran Jayabalan Rossmoyne Senior High School WA 12
Anagha Kanive-Hariharan James Ruse Agricultural High School NSW 10

*NZ school year

Mathematics Contests The Australian Scene 2018 | Australian Mathematical Olympiad Results | 110
Name School Year
Reef Kitaeff Perth Modern School WA 11
Samuel Lam James Ruse Agricultural High School NSW 10
Andy Li Presbyterian Ladies’ College VIC 11
Jeffrey Li North Sydney Boys High School NSW 11
Yueqi (Rose) Lin Shenton College WA 12
Linda Lu The Mac.Robertson Girls’ High School VIC 11
Wenquan Lu Barker College NSW 11
Nathaniel Masfen-Yan King’s College NZ 11*
Hilton Nguyen Sydney Technical High School NSW 12
Angus Ritossa St Peter’s College SA 11
Ethan Ryoo Knox Grammar NSW 9
Queensland Academy for Science, Mathematics and Technology
Jianyi (Jason) Wang 10
QLD
Ziang (Tommy) Wei Scotch College VIC 12
Emilie Wu James Ruse Agricultural High School NSW 11
Lucinda Xiao Methodist Ladies’ College VIC 11
Jason Yang James Ruse Agricultural High School NSW 11
Xinrong Yao Auckland International College NZ 12*
Christine Ye Qs School VIC 8
Elizabeth Yevdokimov St Ursula’s College QLD 9
Jasmine Zhang Macleans College NZ 11*
Zirui (Harry) Zhang Christian Brothers College VIC 9
Yufei (Phoebe) Zuo Tara Anglican School for Girls NSW 12

*NZ school year

Mathematics Contests The Australian Scene 2018 | Australian Mathematical Olympiad Results | 111
AUSTRALIAN MATHEMATICAL OLYMPIAD STATISTICS
Score Distribution/Problem

Problem Number
Number of
Students/Score
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

0 2 49 59 58 14 25 44 18

1 2 4 10 15 0 4 11 65

2 14 3 1 6 5 23 13 7

3 2 2 0 3 0 0 6 1

4 0 0 0 2 0 1 1 1

5 0 2 0 3 0 1 6 1

6 20 12 1 4 4 2 4 3

7 81 49 50 30 98 65 36 25

Average 6 3.6 3 2.4 6 4.3 3 2.3

Mathematics Contests The Australian Scene 2018 | Australian Mathematical Olympiad Statistics | 112
30th ASIAN PACIFIC MATHEMATICS OLYMPIAD

XXX Asian Pacific Mathematics Olympiad

March, 2018

Time allowed: 4 hours Each problem is worth 7 points

The contest problems are to be kept confidential until they are posted on the official
APMO website http://apmo.ommenlinea.org.
Please do not disclose nor discuss the problems over online until that date. The use
of calculators is not allowed.

Problem 1. Let H be the orthocenter of the triangle ABC. Let M and N be

the midpoints of the sides AB and AC, respectively. Assume that H lies inside the
quadrilateral BM N C and that the circumcircles of triangles BM H and CN H are
tangent to each other. The line through H parallel to BC intersects the circumcircles
of the triangles BM H and CN H in the points K and L, respectively. Let F be the
intersection point of M K and N L and let J be the incenter of triangle M HN . Prove
that F J = F A.

Problem 2. Let f (x) and g(x) be given by

1 1 1 1
f (x) = + + + ··· +
x x−2 x−4 x − 2018
and
1 1 1 1
g(x) = + + + ··· + .
x−1 x−3 x−5 x − 2017
Prove that
|f (x) − g(x)| > 2
for any non-integer real number x satisfying 0 < x < 2018.

Problem 3. A collection of n squares on the plane is called tri-connected if the

following criteria are satisfied:

(i) All the squares are congruent.

(ii) If two squares have a point P in common, then P is a vertex of each of the
squares.

(iii) Each square touches exactly three other squares.

Mathematics Contests The Australian Scene 2018 | 30th Asian Pacific Mathematics Olympiad | 113
How many positive integers n are there with 2018 ≤ n ≤ 3018, such that there exists
a collection of n squares that is tri-connected?

Problem 4. Let ABC be an equilateral triangle. From the vertex A we draw a

ray towards the interior of the triangle such that the ray reaches one of the sides of
the triangle. When the ray reaches a side, it then bounces off following the law of
reflection, that is, if it arrives with a directed angle α, it leaves with a directed angle
180◦ − α. After n bounces, the ray returns to A without ever landing on any of the
other two vertices. Find all possible values of n.

Problem 5. Find all polynomials P (x) with integer coefficients such that for all real
numbers s and t, if P (s) and P (t) are both integers, then P (st) is also an integer.

Mathematics Contests The Australian Scene 2018 | 30th Asian Pacific Mathematics Olympiad | 114
30th ASIAN PACIFIC MATHEMATICS OLYMPIAD SOLUTIONS
Solutions to the 2018 Asian Pacific Mathematical Olympiad
1. Solution 1 (Tianyue (Ellen) Zheng, year 12, Smith’s Hill High School, NSW)
Let Y and Z be the feet of the perpendiculars from B and C to AC and AB,
respectively. Hence BZY C is cyclic due to ∠BZC = 90◦ = ∠BY C. So we may let

∠HBZ = ∠Y CH = x.

Our plan is to calculate many angles in terms of x.

M N

Z J
Y

K L
H

B C

Since M and N are the midpoints of AB and AC, respectively, it follows that
M N BC KL. Using this and cyclic BKM H yields

∠N M F = ∠LKF = ∠HKM = ∠HBM = x.

Similarly,
∠F N M = ∠F LK = x.

The above angle equalities imply F K = F L and F M = F N . Hence

F M · F K = F N · F L.

Thus F has equal power with respect to circles BKM H and CHN L. Hence F lies
on the radical axis of these two circles. Since the two circles are tangent, it follows
that F lies on the common tangent at H. Hence F H is tangent to the two circles
at H. Using the alternate segment theorem we deduce

∠F HM = ∠HBM = x and ∠N HF = ∠N CH = x.

In particular F H bisects ∠N HM , and so F , J, and H are collinear. Another conse-

quence is that F M HN is cyclic due to ∠N M F = x = ∠N HF. But now we have a

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Mathematics Contests The Australian Scene 2018 | 30th Asian Pacific Mathematics Olympiad Solutions | 115
standard configuration where J is the incentre of M N H and F is the intersection
of the circumcircle of M N H with the line HJ.1 In this configuration it is known
that F M = F J = F N , but here is a proof anyway. We calculate

∠F JM = ∠JHM + ∠HM J = x + ∠JM N = ∠JM F.

Thus F M = F J. A similar argument shows that F N = F J. Thus F is the centre

of circle M JN .
We also calculate

N JM = 180◦ − ∠JM N − ∠M N J
1
= 180◦ − (∠HM N + ∠M N H)
2
1
= 180◦ − (180◦ − ∠N HM )
2
1
= 180◦ − (180◦ − 2x)
2
= 90◦ + x.

Also ∠M AN = ∠BAC = 90◦ −x, and so ∠N JM +∠M AN = 180◦ . Thus M JN A is

cyclic. Recall F is the centre of circle M JN . Thus F is the centre of circle M JN A,
and so F A = F J, as desired.

1
See configuration B6 in chapter 5 of Problem Solving Tactics published by the AMT.

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Solution 2 (William Hu, year 12, Christ Church Grammar School, WA)
As in solution 1, we have KL BC M N , and chase out the following equal angles.

∠N M F = ∠HKM = ∠HBM = ∠N CH = ∠N LH = ∠F N M = x

y z
M x x N

J
P

x x
K L
H

x x
y z
B C

Let ∠CBH = y and ∠HCB = z. From M N BC we have ∠N M A = x + y and

∠AN M = x + z. Since ∠N M F = ∠F N M = x, it follows that

∠F M A = y and ∠AN F = z.

Observe that AM N is related to ABC by a dilation centred at A. Let H be the

image of H under this dilation. Then H is the orthocentre of AM N . Also we have
∠N M H = ∠CBH = y = ∠F M A, and ∠H N M = ∠HCB = z = ∠AN F . Hence
H and F are isogonal conjugates in AM N . But the orthocentre and circumcentre
of any triangle are isogonal conjugates, and so F is the circumcentre of AM N . 2
In order to complete the proof it only remains to show that M JN A is cyclic because
then F would be the centre of circle M JN A. Let P be any point on the common
tangent at H of the two circles such that P lies on the same side of the line KL
as A. Using the alternate segment theorem we find

∠N HM = ∠N HP + ∠P HM = ∠N LH + ∠HKM = 2x.

Using the same angle calculations near the end of solution 1, we deduce that
∠N JM = 90◦ + x, and ∠M AN = 90◦ − x. Consequently AM JN is cyclic due
to ∠N JM + ∠M AN = 180◦ , as desired.
2
See problem 1 and the corresponding footnote in section 6.0 of Problem Solving Tactics published by
the AMT.

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2. Solution (Based on the solution by James Bang, year 11, Baulkham Hills High
School, NSW)
There are two cases: 2n − 1 < x < 2n and 2n < x < 2n + 1. Note that

f (2018 − x) = −f (x) and g(2018 − x) = −g(x),

that is, a half turn about the point (1009, 0) preserves the graphs of f and g. So
it suffices to consider only the case 2n < x < 2n + 1 where n is an integer with
0 ≤ n ≤ 1008. We have the following.
1009
1 1 1
f (x) − g(x) = + − (1)
x i=1 x − 2i x − (2i − 1)
1009
1 1
= + (2)
x i=1 (x − (2i − 1))(x − 2i)

Observe that x − (2i − 1) and x − 2i are both positive if i ≤ n, and they are both
1
negative if i ≥ n + 1. Thus (x−(2i−1))(x−2i) > 0 for each i.
Case 1 0 < x < 1
By dropping all terms in (2) with i ≥ 2, we see that
1 1
f (x) − g(x) > + .
x (x − 1)(x − 2)
Thus it suffices to show
1 1
+ >2 (3)
x (x − 1)(x − 2)
⇔ (x − 1)(x − 2) + x > 2x(x − 1)(x − 2) (4)
⇔ −2x3 + 7x2 − 6x + 2 > 0
⇔ x2 + 2(1 − x)3 > 0. (5)

Note that (4) follows from (3) because x(x − 1)(x − 2) > 0 for 0 < x < 1.
It remains to observe that (5) is obviously true for 0 < x < 1.
Case 2 2n < x < 2n + 1 where n is an integer with 1 ≤ n ≤ 1008
By dropping all terms in (2) except for those with i = n and i = n + 1, we see that
1 1
f (x) − g(x) > + .
(x − (2n − 1))(x − 2n) (x − (2n + 1))(x − (2n + 2))
Let us use the substitution y = x − 2n, so that 0 < y < 1. It suffices to prove that
1 1
+ >2 (6)
y(y + 1) (y − 1)(y − 2)
⇔ (y − 1)(y − 2) + y(y + 1) > 2y(y + 1)(y − 1)(y − 2) (7)
⇔ −y 4 + 2y 3 + 2y 2 − 3y + 1 > 0
⇔ y 3 (1 − y) + y(y − 1)2 + (2y − 1)2 > 0. (8)

Note that (7) follows from (6) because y(y + 1)(y − 1)(y − 2) > 0 for 0 < y < 1.
It remains to observe that (8) is obviously true for 0 < y < 1.

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Comment 1 A shortcut can be made in the preceding solution as follows.

1009
1 1 1
f (x) − g(x) − = −
x+1 i=0
x − 2i x − (2i − 1)
1009
1
⇒ f (x) − g(x) >
i=0
(x − (2i − 1))(x − 2i)

Having the above inequality removes the need to treat 0 < x < 1 as a separate case.
Comment 2 Here is an alternative proof of inequality (6) from the preceding
solution.
1 1
+ >2
y(y + 1) (y − 1)(y − 2)
1 1 1 1
⇔ − + − >2
y y+1 y−2 y−1
1 1 1 1
⇔ − + − >2
y y−1 y−2 y+1
1 1 1
⇔ + − > 2.
y(1 − y) y − 2 y + 1

However since y and 1 − y are both positive, the GM–HM inequality yields
2
1 1 2
· ≥ = 4.
y 1−y y + (1 − y)

Also for 0 < y < 1 we have

1 1
> −1 and − > −1.
y−2 y+1
Putting it all together yields
1 1 1
+ − > 4 − 1 − 1 = 2,
y(1 − y) y − 2 y + 1

as desired.

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Mathematics Contests The Australian Scene 2018 | 30th Asian Pacific Mathematics Olympiad Solutions | 119
3. Solution (Guowen Zhang, year 12, St Joseph’s College, QLD)
Answer 501
For 2018 ≤ n ≤ 3018 we claim that a collection of n tri-connected squares is possible
if and only if n is even.
For any collection of n tri-connected squares, consider the graph G obtained as
follows. Each vertex of G corresponds to a square in the collection, and two vertices
of G are joined by an edge if and only if the two corresponding squares touch.
Observe that the sum of the degrees of the vertices of G is equal to 3n. Thus the
total number of edges of G is equal to 3n
2
. This implies that n is even.
Consider the following two configurations of squares.

Call the 6-square configuration on the left an A-piece, and the 4-square configuration
on the right a B-piece. Five A-pieces can be linked together to make a tri-connected
collection of 30 squares. And four B-pieces can be linked together to make a tri-
connected collection of 16 squares. These are shown below.

Each even integer n with 2018 ≤ n ≤ 3018 can be written in the form n = 30a + 16b
for some integers a, b ≥ 0. For example, {30, 60, 90, 120, 150, 180, 210, 240} represents
all even congruence classes modulo 16, and then we can top up with multiples of 16.
Take a copies of the 30-square configuration on the left and b copies of the 16-square
configuration on the right, making sure that all a + b configurations are mutually
disjoint. This yields a tri-connected collection of n squares. Indeed we have shown
that a tri-connected collection of n squares exists for all even n ≥ 240.
Comment (Guowen Zhang, year 12, St Joseph’s College, QLD)
Alternatively, we could link together a A-pieces and b B-pieces into a single closed
loop of a + b pieces whenever a and b are non-negative integers with a + b ≥ 4.
Thus any n = 6a + 4b = 2a + 4(a + b) with a + b ≥ 4 is possible. This shows that a
tri-connected collection of n squares exists for any even n ≥ 16.

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Mathematics Contests The Australian Scene 2018 | 30th Asian Pacific Mathematics Olympiad Solutions | 120
4. Solution (Hadyn Tang, year 9, Trinity Grammar School, VIC)
Answer All n ≡ 1, 5 (mod 6) with the exceptions of 5 and 17.
Consider the equilateral triangular lattice obtained by repeatedly reflecting triangle
ABC in one of its three sides.

P
C

A B

For each point P that is a vertex of the triangular lattice, we write P = (r, s) where
r and s are the unique integers r and s such that
−→ −→ −→
AP = r AB +s AC .
Note that A = (0, 0), B = (1, 0) and C = (0, 1) under this system.
Next we colour all points as follows. The point (r, s) is coloured red, white, or black
according to r − s ≡ 0, 1, or 2 (mod 3), respectively. It is easy to show by induction
that each reflected image of A is red, each reflected image of B is white, and each
reflected image of C is black.
Consider a path in triangle ABC. Each time the path reflects off a side of the
triangle, we reflect the triangle along with the remaining part of the path in the
said side. In this way, since the original path obeys the law of reflection, it unfolds
into a straight line through the above triangular lattice. A path that starts and ends
at A in the original triangle now corresponds to a straight line segment through the
triangular lattice that starts at the red vertex at A and ends at another red vertex
P say. One such original path in triangle ABC along with its unfolded path AP is
illustrated in the diagram. In the example P = (4, 1).
In general, if P has coordinates (r, s), then P is red if and only if
r≡s (mod 3). (1)

We are told that the ray returns to A after n bounces without ever landing on any
of the other two vertices. Thus the segment AP contains no lattice points strictly
between A and P . This is true if and only if
gcd(r, s) = 1. (2)

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With (1) in view, this implies that

r≡s≡1 (mod 3) or r ≡ s ≡ 2 (mod 3). (3)

Let us calculate the number of bounces n in terms of r and s. Since AP crosses r − 1

lines parallel to AC, s − 1 lines parallel to AB, and r + s − 1 lines parallel to BC,
we have
n = 2(r + s) − 3. (4)

Equation (4) forces n to be odd. Also from (3) we have 3 r + s and so 3 n. It only
remains to discuss n ≡ 1, 5 (mod 6).
Case 1 n = 6k + 1 for some integer k ≥ 0
It is straightforward to verify that P = (1, 3k + 1) satisfies (1), (2), and (4).
Case 2 n = 12k + 11 for some integer k ≥ 0
It is straightforward to verify that P = (2, 6k + 5) satisfies (1), (2), and (4).
Case 3 n = 24k + 5 for some integer k ≥ 1
It is straightforward to verify that P = (6k − 1, 6k + 5) satisfies (1), (2), and (4).
Case 4 n = 24k + 17 for some integer k ≥ 1
It is straightforward to verify that P = (6k − 1, 6k + 11) satisfies (1), (2), and (4).
Observe that cases 3 and 4 together cover all n = 12k + 5 for all integers k ≥ 2, and
together with case 2 cover all n ≡ 5 (mod 6) except for n = 5 and n = 17.
Case 5 n = 5
From (4), we require r + s = 4. And r ≡ s (mod 3) from (1). Thus (r, s) = (2, 2).
But this violates (2). So there are no solutions in this case.
Case 6 n = 17
From (4), we require r + s = 10. And r ≡ s (mod 3) from (1). Thus (r, s) = (5, 5),
(2, 8), or (8, 2). But these violate (2). So there are no solutions in this case either.
Having covered all cases, the proof is complete.

58
Mathematics Contests The Australian Scene 2018 | 30th Asian Pacific Mathematics Olympiad Solutions | 122
5. Solution (Based on the presentation by William Hu, year 12, Christ Church Gram-
mar School, WA)
Answer P (x) = xn + c and P (x) = −xn + c for any integers c and n with n ≥ 0.
It is straightforward to verify that the above stated answers are solutions to the
problem. We claim that there are no further solutions.
For any integer polynomial P we shall say that a real number r is P -good if P (r) is
an integer.
Suppose that P is a solution to the problem. We may write

P (x) = a0 + a1 x + · · · + an xn

0. Let S be the set of P -good real

for some integers a0 , a1 , a2 , . . . , an where an =
numbers. Clearly Z ⊆ S. Also the problem statement informs us that if r, s ∈ S
then rs ∈ S.
Consider the polynomial

Q(x) = 2n P (x) − P (2x)

n−1

= (2n − 2i )ai xi .
i=0

If r ∈ S, then since 2 ∈ S, we have 2r ∈ S. Thus Q(r) = 2r P (r) − P (2r) ∈ Z. So

we have shown the following.

Each real number that is P -good is also Q-good. (1)

We claim that a1 = a2 = · · · = an−1 = 0. Since 2n − 2i = 0 for i < n, this is the

same as saying that Q is a constant polynomial.
Suppose, for the sake of contradiction, that deg(Q) = m where 1 ≤ m ≤ n−1. Since
P and Q are polynomials of positive degree, both are strictly monotonic continuous
functions for all sufficiently large real numbers u. But any strictly monotonic contin-
uous real function is also a bijection. So P attains each integer value between P (u)
and P (u + 1) inclusive exactly once. Hence there are exactly 1 + |P (u + 1) − P (u)|
P -good real numbers in the interval [u, u + 1]. We similarly reason that there are
exactly 1 + |Q(u + 1) − Q(u)| Q-good real numbers in the interval [u, u + 1]. But
from (1), each P -good number in [u, u + 1] is also Q-good. Hence

1 + |Q(u + 1) − Q(u)| ≥ 1 + |P (u + 1) − P (u)|, (2)

for all sufficiently large u. Let P1 (x) = P (x+1)−P (x) and Q1 (x) = Q(x+1)−Q(x).
Note that deg(P1 ) = n − 1 > m − 1 = deg(Q1 ). Hence |P1 (x)| > |Q1 (x)| for all
sufficiently large x, which contradicts (2).
So we have shown that a1 = a2 = · · · = an−1 = 0. Hence P (x) = an xn + a0 .
Let r = 1 1 . Since P (r) = ±1 + a0 ∈ Z, we have r ∈ S. Thus also r2 ∈ S. So
|an | n
P (r2 ) = 1
an
+ a0 ∈ Z. Hence an = ±1, which concludes the proof.

59
Mathematics Contests The Australian Scene 2018 | 30th Asian Pacific Mathematics Olympiad Solutions | 123
30th ASIAN PACIFIC MATHEMATICS OLYMPIAD RESULTS
Top 10 Australian scores

Name School Year Total

Silver Award
Guowen Zhang St Joseph's College QLD 12 21
William Hu Christ Church Grammar School WA 12 20
Charles Li Camberwell Grammar School VIC 12 20
Bronze Award
Ethan Tan Cranbrook School NSW 11 20
Hadyn Tang Trinity Grammar School VIC 9 17
James Bang Baulkham Hills High School NSW 11 17
William Steinberg Scotch College WA 10 14
Honourable Mention
Haowen Gao Knox Grammar NSW 11 12
Jerry Mao Caulfield Grammar School, Wheelers Hill VIC 12 12
Fengshuo (Fredy) Ye (Yip) Chatswood High School NSW 8 12

Country Scores

Number of Total Gold Silver Bronze Honourable

Rank Country
Contestants Score Awards Awards Awards Mentions
1 Republic of Korea 10 320 1 2 4 3
2 USA 10 306 1 2 4 3
3 Japan 10 254 1 2 4 3
4 Singapore 10 231 1 2 4 3
5 Canada 10 220 1 2 4 3
6 Russia 10 210 1 2 4 3
7 Taiwan 10 208 1 2 4 3
Islamic Republic of
8 10 186 1 2 4 3
Iran
9 Thailand 10 185 1 2 4 3
10 Indonesia 10 173 1 2 4 3
11 Peru 10 166 1 2 4 3
12 Australia 10 165 0 3 4 3
13 Philippines 10 153 1 2 4 3
14 Brazil 10 148 0 2 5 3
15 Hong Kong 10 145 0 3 4 2
16 Kazakhstan 10 141 0 1 6 3
17 Bangladesh 10 135 0 2 5 3
18 Mexico 10 132 0 1 6 3
19 India 10 123 0 0 7 3
20 Argentina 10 122 0 2 4 3
21 Malaysia 10 100 0 2 2 3
22 Saudi Arabia 10 97 0 0 3 7
23 New Zealand 10 88 0 1 3 1
24 Macedonia 10 85 0 0 2 7

Mathematics Contests The Australian Scene 2018 | 30th Asian Pacific Mathematics Olympiad Results | 124
Number of Total Gold Silver Bronze Honourable
Rank Country
Contestants Score Awards Awards Awards Mentions
25 Turkmenistan 10 85 0 0 2 8
26 Tajikistan 10 75 0 0 0 10
27 Bolivia 5 66 0 2 1 1
28 Colombia 9 60 0 0 2 3
29 Syria 10 60 0 0 2 4
30 Kyrgyzstan 8 54 0 0 1 5
31 Pakistan 10 47 0 0 1 1
32 Sri Lanka 6 40 0 0 0 5
33 El Salvador 4 28 0 0 1 1
34 Nicaragua 10 24 0 0 0 3
Trinidad and
35 10 24 0 0 0 1
Tobago
36 Panama 3 21 0 0 0 3
37 Cambodia 5 20 0 0 0 1
38 Costa Rica 10 12 0 0 0 1
39 Guatemala 2 7 0 0 0 0
Total 352 4716 12 43 109 124

Mathematics Contests The Australian Scene 2018 | 30th Asian Pacific Mathematics Olympiad Results | 125
AMOC SELECTION SCHOOL
The 2018 AMOC Selection School was held 21–30 March at Robert Menzies College, Macquarie
University, Sydney. The qualifying exam was the 2018 AMO.
A total of 43 students from around Australia attended the school. The breakdowns of the students into
the three streams, were as follows.

Stream Female Male Total

Senior 1 15 16

Intermediate 6 10 16

Junior 9 2 11

Total 16 27 43

The routine is similar to that for the AMOC School of Excellence; however, there is the added interest
of the actual selection of the Australian IMO team. This year the IMO would be held in Cluj-Napoca,
Romania in the month of July. It is from the seniors that the team of six for the 2018 IMO plus one
reserve team member would be selected.
The team of four girls for the 2018 EGMO had already been selected on the basis of the AMO. This
year’s EGMO would be held in Florence Italy in the month of April. So their presence at the AMOC
Selection School would constitute the main part of their final preparations for EGMO.
Unfortunately I was unable to attend the School in person this year. I am grateful to Ivan Guo who ably
took the lead in my absence.
Many thanks to Adrian Agisilaou, Ross Atkins, Michelle Chen, Jongmin Lim, Thanom Shaw, and Andy
Tran who assisted Ivan as live-in staff members.
My thanks also go to Alexander Babidge, Dzmitry Badziahin, Stephen Farrar, Sean Gardiner, Victor
Khou, Vickie Lee, Vinoth Nandakumar, Gareth White, Rachel Wong, Sampson Wong, and Jonathan
Zheng, all of whom came in to give lectures or help with the marking of exams.

Angelo Di Pasquale
Director of Training, AMOC

Mathematics Contests The Australian Scene 2018 | AMOC Selection School | 126
2018 Australian EGMO team

Name Year School State

Yifan Guo 12 Glen Waverley Secondary College VIC
Grace He 10 Methodist Ladies’ College VIC
Xinyue (Alice) Zhang 12 A. B. Paterson College QLD
Tianyue (Ellen) Zheng 12 Smith’s Hill High School NSW
Reserve
Vacant in 2018

2018 Australian IMO team

Name Year School State

William Hu 12 Christ Church Grammar School WA
Charles Li 12 Camberwell Grammar School VIC
William Steinberg 10 Scotch College WA
Ethan Tan 12 Cranbrook School NSW
Hadyn Tang 9 Trinity Grammar School VIC
Guowen Zhang 12 St Joseph’s College, Gregory Terrace QLD
Reserve
Yasiru Jayasooriya 10 James Ruse Agricultural High School NSW

Mathematics Contests The Australian Scene 2018 | AMOC Selection School | 127
Participants at the 2018 AMOC Selection School
Name m/f Year School State
Senior
James Bang m 11 Baulkham Hills High School NSW
Linus Cooper m 12 James Ruse Agricultural High School NSW
Haowen Gao m 11 Knox Grammar School NSW
Jack Gibney m 12 Penleigh and Essendon Grammar School VIC
Grace He f 10 Methodist Ladies’ College VIC
William Hu m 12 Christ Church Grammar School WA
Yasiru Jayasooriya m 10 James Ruse Agricultural High School NSW
Sharvil Kesarwani m 11 Merewether High School NSW
Charles Li m 12 Camberwell Grammar School VIC
Haobin (Jack) Liu m 12 Brighton Grammar School VIC
William Steinberg m 10 Scotch College WA
Ethan Tan m 12 Cranbrook School NSW
Hadyn Tang m 9 Trinity Grammar School VIC
Fengshuo (Fredy) Ye (Yip) m 8 Chatswood High School NSW
Ziqi Yuan m 11 Narrabundah College ACT
Guowen Zhang m 12 St Joseph’s College, Gregory Terrace QLD
Intermediate
Evgeniya Artemova f 11 Presbyterian Ladies’ College VIC
Andres Buritica m 9 Scotch College VIC
Liam Coy m 10 Sydney Grammar School NSW
Vicky Feng f 11 Methodist Ladies’ College NSW
Yifan Guo f 12 Glen Waverley Secondary College VIC
Jocelin Hon f 11 James Ruse Agricultural High School NSW
David Lee m 11 James Ruse Agricultural High School NSW
Adrian Lo m 10 Newington College NSW
Preet Patel m 11 Vermont Secondary College VIC
Ken Gene Quah m 10 Melbourne High School VIC
Mikhail Savkin m 10 Gosford High School NSW
Daniel Wiese m 10 Scotch College WA
Zijin (Aaron) Xu m 10 Caulfield Grammar School, Wheelers Hill VIC
Xinyue (Alice) Zhang f 12 A. B. Paterson College QLD
Yang Zhang m 10 St Joseph’s College, Gregory Terrace QLD
Tianyue (Ellen) Zheng f 12 Smith’s Hill High School NSW
Junior
Genevieve Conway f 8 Methodist Ladies’ College VIC
Eva Ge f 9 James Ruse Agricultural High School NSW
Mikaela Gray f 9 Brisbane State High School QLD
Claire Huang f 10 Radford College ACT
Anagha Kanive-Hariharan f 10 James Ruse Agricultural High School NSW
Linda Lu f 11 The Mac.Robertson Girls’ High School VIC
Ying Tan f 10 Presbyterian Ladies’ College VIC
Queensland Academy for Science, Mathematics &
Jianyi (Jason) Wang m 10 QLD
Technology
Christine Ye f 8 Lauriston Girls' School VIC
Elizabeth Yevdokimov f 9 St Ursula’s College QLD
Zirui (Harry) Zhang m 9 Christian Brothers College VIC

Mathematics Contests The Australian Scene 2018 | AMOC Selection School | 128
The 7th EGMO,
The 7th European Girls’ Mathematical Olympiad (EGMO) was held 9–15 April 2018, The 7th European Girls’
in the city of Florence, Italy. This was the first time Italy has hosted an Olympiad and
in the city of Florence, Ital
it was the biggest EGMO to date with 8 new countries participating in 2018: Australia, it was the biggest EGMO t
Austria, Bolivia, Canada,EGMO Germany, TEAM LEADER’S
Greece, Mongolia, and Peru.REPORT For this 7th EGMO, a Bolivia, Canada, G
Austria,
total of 195 contestants from 52 countries participated (137 contestants from 36 official total of 195 contestants fro
1
European countries)Girls’
The 7th European . Peru had the youngest
Mathematical Olympiad team withwas
(EGMO) an average
held 9–15age of 2018,
April 14 years andcity ofcountries)1 . Peru
inEuropean
the
10Florence,
months,Italy.
Latvia had the oldest team with an average age of 18 years
This was the first time Italy has hosted an Olympiad and it was the biggest and 7 months, EGMOLatvia
10 months, to had the
date
and with 8 new countries
Lichtenstein, a countryparticipating
of just 40000, in had
2018:the
Australia,
smallest Austria,
team of Bolivia,
one. Canada, Germany, Greece,
and Lichtenstein, a country
Mongolia, and Peru. For
Each participating this 7thmay
country EGMO, senda total of 195
a team contestants
of up from 52 countries
to four students, participated
a Team Leader Each participating coun
(137a contestants
and Deputy Team from 36 official
Leader. At European
the EGMO, countries)
the Team 1
. Leaders form what is called the
and a Deputy Team Leader
Jury,
Peruwhich
had the in youngest
2018 was teamchaired
withbyanRoberto
averageDvornicich.
age of 14 years For and
decisions such Latvia
10 months, as approving
had the
Jury, oldest
which in 2018 was cha
team
each with as
paper anwell
average age of 18
as marking years and
schemes, all7Leaders
months,may and vote,
Lichtenstein,
and motions a country of just 40000,
are carried by had the
each paper as well as marki
a smallest team of one.
simple majority of those voting. For decisions such as determining medal cut-offs and majority of those v
a simple
coordination appeals,
Each participating however,
country mayonlysendLeaders
a team ofof official
up to fourEuropean
students, teams
a Teammay vote. and
Leader a Deputy appeals, howev
coordination
Participating countries are invited to submit up to six proposed
Team Leader. At the EGMO, the Team Leaders form what is called the Jury, which problems to be in
received
2018 was chairedcountries a
Participating
bybythe
Roberto
Problem Dvornicich.
SelectionFor decisions such
Committee, whichas in
approving
2018 was each paperby
chaired as Massimo
well as marking
Gobbino. schemes, all
by the Problem Selection C
Leaders
This may vote,
committee and the
selects motions are problems
contest carried byand a simple majority of problems
has alternative those voting. For decisions
prepared such as
if acommittee
This selects the
determining
problem turnsmedal
out tocut-offs andknown.
be already coordination appeals,problems
The selected however,were only presented
Leaders oftoofficial
the European teams
Jury
problem turns out to be alre
inmay
theirvote.
first meeting on Tuesday 10 April. With no objections from the Jury, problems for first meeting on Tue
in their
Participating
Day 1 andcountries are invited
were to submit up to six proposed problems to be
33 received
both Day 2 papers approved, including translations into the both by
languages Daythe
1 and Day 2 pape
Problemby
required Selection Committee,
the contestants. which
The Jury,in 2018 was chaired
Observers, and any by Massimo
others who Gobbino. This committee selects
have knowledge
required by the contestants
ofthe
thecontest
problemsproblems and has alternative
and solutions before the problems prepared
examinations, are iftrusted
a problem turns
to do oututmost
their to be already
of the problems
known. The selected problems were presented to the Jury in their
to ensure that no contestant has any information, direct or indirect, about any proposed first meeting on Tuesday 10 April. and solutio
With no objections from the Jury, problems for both Day 1 and Day 2 papers were approved, to ensureincluding
that no contestan
problem. problem.
translations into the 33 languages required by the contestants. The Jury, Observers, and any others
The six problems on the EGMO contest papers may be described as follows.
who have knowledge of the problems and solutions before the examinations, are trusted Theto do
six their
problems on the
utmost to ensure that no contestant has any information, direct or indirect, about any proposed
1. A lovely geometry problem about a point lying on a circle, proprosed by Velina 1. A lovely geometry pr
problem.
Ivanova, Bulgaria. Ivanova, Bulgaria.
The six problems on the EGMO contest papers may be described as follows.
2. A
1. A number
lovely theory
geometry
problem
problemabout
aboutexpressing integers
a point lying as a product
on a circle, ofby
proposed numbers of 2.
theA number
Velina Ivanova, Bulgaria.theory prob
form 1 + 1
, proposed by Mihail Baluna, Romania. 1

2. A number theory
k problem about expressing integers as a product of numbers of the form 1 + k , propose
proposed by Mihail Baluna, Romania.
3. A fun combinatorics problem involving a Jury choosing and then rearranging the 3. A fun
3. order
A fun of
combinatorics
contestants problem involving
in a queue. It wasaproposed
Jury choosing and then rearranging the order
by Hungary. of combinatorics p
contestants in a queue. It was proposed by Hungary. order of contestants in
4. A combinatorics problem involving
involvingbalanced
balanced configurations
configurations of
of dominoes
dominoes on an
4. A 4. nAboard.
an n × It
combinatorics probl
was proposed
board. by Merlijn by
It was proposed Staps, the Netherlands.
Merlijn Staps, the Netherlands. board. It was propose
5. A classical circle geometry problem, proposed by Dominika Regiec, Poland.
5. A classical circle geometry problem, proposed by Dominika Regiec, Poland.
6. A tricky algebra problem involving the closeness of pairs of elements in a set of positive integers.circle geom
5. A classical
It was proposed by Merlijn Staps, the Netherlands.
6. A tricky algebra problem involving the closeness of pairs of elements in a set6.ofA tricky algebra prob
Like positive
for the International
integers. It Mathematical
was proposed Olympiad,
by MerlijnProblems 1–3Netherlands.
Staps, the appeared on the Day 1 Paper and
positive integers. It w
problems 4–6 appeared on the Day 2 Paper. These papers were held on Wednesday 11 April and
Thursday
Like for12the
April respectively,Mathematical
International with the contestants allowed
Olympiad, four and1–3
Problems a half hours per
appeared onpaper
Like to
the forwork
the Internation
individually
Day 1 Paper on the
and problems4–6
problems andappeared
write their
onattempted
the Day 2proofs.
Paper.Each problem
These paperswas scored
were heldout of a
Day 1 Paper and problems
onmaximum
Wednesdayof seven points.
11 April and Thursday 12 April respectively, with the contestants allowed
on Wednesday 11 April and
four and
Prior a half
to the firsthours
day ofper paper to work
competition, individually
the opening on the
ceremony wasproblems
held in theand writefour
beautiful their
Teatro
andVerdi
a half hours per p
and hosted
attempted by Alessandra
proofs. Caraceni
Each problem wasand Massimo
scored Gobbino.
out of The occasion
a maximum of seven included
points. speeches from the
attempted proofs. Each pro
Vice Mayor of Florence and various sponsors for the event as well as several jokes about a lack of a
1 timetable
This is a newfor the week.
record for theThe parade
EGMO, withofthe
teams wasofcomplete
number with
participating beautifully-designed
countries increasing every background
1 year.
slides This is a new record for the EG
In 2012 for each
for the country
first edition and
therean accompaniment
were of 16
only 19 countries, theofunique instrumental
them official Europeanmusic
ones. of Lame Da Barba.
Finally, it was declared that the 2018 EGMO was officially open. After the opening ceremonyfor In 2012 the first edition the
there
was also an opportunity for teams and their deputies to mingle and participate in a Treasure Hunt in
Florence before the two contest days.
1

1 This is a new record for EGMO, with the number of participating countries increasing every year. In 2012 for the first edition
there were only 19 countries, 16 of them official European ones.

Mathematics Contests The Australian Scene 2018 | EGMO Team Leader’s Report | 129
On each day of the contest, the Jury considered written questions raised by contestants during the
first half-hour and decided on replies. After this, proposals for marking schemes were presented to
the Jury and approved. By late afternoon on each contest day, Leaders and their Deputies received
the scripts of their students and were able to spend the evening assessing their work in accordance
with the approved marking schemes. A local team of markers (Coordinators) also assessed the
scripts independently. Coordination, the process of determining official scores for each contestant,
took place the following day, Friday 13 April (while the students were out enjoying a trip to Pisa
and Lucca). The live, online coordination schedule, which adjusted meeting times according to the
average time taken by each team, was impressive and extremely helpful! Coordinators along with the
Leader and Deputy of a team have to agree on scores for each student of that team. Disagreements
that cannot not be resolved in this way are first referred to the Problem Captain, then the Chief
Coordinator, and ultimately to the Jury if there is still no agreement. This year there was an unusually
high number of six disagreements that were referred to the Jury. For the two disagreements in
Problem 1 and one disagreement in Problem 3, the Jury voted in favour of the Coordinators, and for
the three disagreements in Problem 4, including Australia’s, the Jury voted against the Coordinators.
After a long day of coordination, it was a very long night resolving matters referred to the Jury, and
an even longer night for the Coordinators of Problem 4 who reviewed all 194 scripts in light of the
three disputes that did not go in their favour. No one got much sleep before an early Jury meeting on
Saturday 14 April to finalise Problem 4 scores and to vote for medal cut-offs, which were necessary for
organising the Closing Ceremony later that afternoon. The EGMO Advisory Board has now introduced
a new way of handling coordination issues at the EGMO which involves an Appeal Committee
consisting of five members of the Jury, who will make decisions to resolve any coordination disputes.
The contestants found Problem 1 (geometry) to be the easiest with an average score of 5.754, a
similar average to Problem 1 in 2017 and the second-highest average for an EGMO Problem 1. Problem
4 (combinatorics) had the next-highest average score of 4.313 and this was the highest average for
an EGMO Problem 4. Problem 6 was the most difficult with an average score of just 0.58, the lowest
average for an EGMO Problem 6 (though two problem 3s have seen lower averages at the EGMO). The
score distributions by problem number were as follows.

Mark P1 P2 P3 P4 P5 P6
0 11 20 102 30 86 163
1 7 70 28 23 46 8
2 8 37 26 16 5 12
3 12 14 16 8 6 0
4 3 8 8 1 2 0
5 7 11 1 1 1 1
6 13 7 1 13 1 1
7 134 28 13 87 48 10
Mean 5.754 2.621 1.344 4.313 2.200 0.579

Mathematics Contests The Australian Scene 2018 | EGMO Team Leader’s Report | 130
The medal cut-offs were set at 32 points for Gold, 22 for Silver and 15 for Bronze. The medal
distributions 2 were as follows.

Gold Silver Bronze Total

All teams (195 contestants) 17 39 52 108
Official European teams (137 contestants) 12 24 35 71
Proportion from official European teams 8.8% 17.5% 25.5% 51.8%

These awards were presented at the closing ceremony. Of those who did not get a medal, a further 45
contestants (37 from official European teams) received an Honourable Mention for scoring full marks
on at least one problem. Five contestants achieved perfect scores of 42: Jelena Ivancic (Serbia), Alina
Harbuzova (Ukraine), Emily Beatty (UK), Catherine Wu (USA), and Wanlin Li (USA).
A big congratulations goes to the Australian team on such a fantastic performance in Australia’s first
ever appearance at an EGMO. The team finished 20th in the rankings,3 bringing home one Silver medal,
two Bronze medals, and an Honourable Mention.
The Silver medallist was
• Grace He, year 10, Methodist Ladies’ College, VIC
The Bronze medallists were
• Xinyue Alice Zhang, year 12, A.B. Paterson College, QLD
• Tianyue (Ellen) Zheng, year 12, Smith’s Hill High School, NSW
The Honourable Mention recipient was
• Yifan Guo, year 12, Glen Waverley Secondary College, VIC
The following table shows their scores in detail.

Name P1 P2 P3 P4 P5 P6 Score Award

Grace He 7 5 3 7 1 0 23 Silver Medal
Xinyue Alice Zhang 7 3 2 7 0 0 19 Bronze Medal
Tianyue (Ellen) Zheng 7 1 2 6 3 0 19 Bronze Medal
Yifan Guo 2 2 1 7 0 0 12 Honourable Mention
Australian Average 5.75 2.75 2.00 6.75 1.00 0.00 18.25
EGMO average 5.75 2.62 1.34 4.31 2.20 0.58 16.81

2 The total number of medals is approved by the Jury and is approximately half the number of contestants. The numbers
of Gold, Silver, and Bronze medals are in the approximate ratio 1:2:3 and are chosen on the basis of the performances of
members of official European teams. Medals are awarded to participants from guest teams and any additional teams on the
basis of the boundaries set by the Jury.
3 Countries are ranked each year on the EGMO’s official website according to the sum of the individual student scores from
each country.

Mathematics Contests The Australian Scene 2018 | EGMO Team Leader’s Report | 131
The table below shows the distribution of awards for each country at the 2018 EGMO.

Country Size Total Gold Silver Bronze HM Rank

Albania 4 43 0 0 0 4 35
Australia 4 73 0 1 2 1 20
Austria 3 34 0 0 1 0 42
Azerbaijan 4 18 0 0 0 0 48
Belarus 4 99 0 3 0 0 10
Belgium 4 46 0 0 1 1 34
Bolivia 3 4 0 0 0 0 52
Bosnia and Herzegovina 4 76 0 1 2 1 18
Brazil 4 84 0 2 2 0 13
Bulgaria 4 83 0 2 1 1 14
Canada 4 72 0 1 2 1 21
Costa Rica 4 19 0 0 0 0 46
Cyprus 4 30 0 0 0 2 44
Czech Republic 4 63 0 1 1 2 28
Ecuador 4 52 0 0 2 1 30
Finland 4 19 0 0 0 2 46
France 4 76 0 2 2 0 18
Georgia 4 66 0 2 0 1 25
Germany 4 50 0 0 1 1 33
Greece 4 36 0 0 1 1 41
Hungary 4 102 0 2 2 0 7
India 2 33 0 0 2 0 43
Ireland 4 37 0 0 0 3 40
Israel 4 80 1 1 0 1 15
Italy 4 64 0 0 4 0 27
Italy B 1 12 0 0 0 1 50
Japan 4 94 1 1 1 0 12
Kazakhstan 4 97 1 1 1 1 11
Latvia 4 52 0 0 1 3 30
Liechtenstein 1 14 0 0 0 1 49
Lithuania 4 78 1 0 2 1 17
Luxembourg 2 8 0 0 0 0 51
Macedonia (FYR) 3 43 0 0 1 2 35
Mexico 4 102 0 4 0 0 7
Moldova 4 56 0 1 1 1 29
Mongolia 4 80 0 1 3 0 15
Netherlands 4 68 0 1 2 1 24
Norway 4 30 0 0 1 1 44
Peru 4 71 1 1 0 1 22
Poland 4 108 1 2 1 0 4
Romania 4 101 2 1 0 0 9

Mathematics Contests The Australian Scene 2018 | EGMO Team Leader’s Report | 132
Country Size Total Gold Silver Bronze HM Rank
Russian Federation 4 145 4 0 0 0 1
Saudi Arabia 4 71 0 2 1 0 22
Serbia 4 103 1 1 1 1 6
Slovenia 4 43 0 0 1 2 35
Spain 4 41 0 0 1 1 38
Switzerland 4 52 0 0 2 2 30
Tunisia 4 40 0 0 1 2 39
Turkey 4 66 0 0 3 1 25
Ukraine 4 104 1 2 0 0 5
United Kingdom 4 111 1 2 1 0 3
United States of America 4 129 2 1 1 0 2
Total (52 teams, 195 contestants) 17 39 52 45

The 2018 EGMO was organised by the Unione Matematica Italiana with the patronage and backing of
the Italian Ministry of Education.
The 2019 EGMO is scheduled to be held 7–13 April in Kyiv, Ukraine, and the 2020 EGMO will be hosted
by the Netherlands.
Much of the statistical information found in this report can also be found on the official website of the
EGMO, https://www.egmo.org. More details can also be found on the EGMO 2018-specic site, https://
www.egmo2018.org, and official photos found on Flickr, https://www.flickr.com/photos/egmo2018.
Many stories and photos of Australia’s first ever adventure to the European Girls’ Mathematical
Olympiad can be found on the Australian EGMO team blog, https://ausegmo.wordpress.com. May
these stories and photos that capture the incredibly wonderful and invaluable experience of girls
competing in mathematics on an international stage be just the first of many more for years to come.

Thanom Shaw
EGMO Team Leader, Australia

Mathematics Contests The Australian Scene 2018 | EGMO Team Leader’s Report | 133
EUROPEAN GIRLS’ MATHEMATICAL OLYMPIAD

Language: English
Day: 1

Wednesday, April 11, 2018

Problem 1. Let ABC be a triangle with CA = CB and ∠ACB = 120◦ , and let M be the midpoint
of AB. Let P be a variable point on the circumcircle of ABC, and let Q be the point on the segment CP
such that QP = 2QC. It is given that the line through P and perpendicular to AB intersects the
line M Q at a unique point N .
Prove that there exists a fixed circle such that N lies on this circle for all possible positions of P .

Problem 2. Consider the set

1
A = 1 + : k = 1, 2, 3, . . . .
k

(a) Prove that every integer x ≥ 2 can be written as the product of one or more elements of A, which
are not necessarily different.

(b) For every integer x ≥ 2, let f (x) denote the minimum integer such that x can be written as the
product of f (x) elements of A, which are not necessarily different.
Prove that there exist infinitely many pairs (x, y) of integers with x ≥ 2, y ≥ 2, and

f (xy) < f (x) + f (y).

(Pairs (x1 , y1 ) and (x2 , y2 ) are different if x1 = x2 or y1 = y2 .)

Problem 3. The n contestants of an EGMO are named C1 , . . . , Cn . After the competition they
queue in front of the restaurant according to the following rules.

• The Jury chooses the initial order of the contestants in the queue.

• Every minute, the Jury chooses an integer i with 1 ≤ i ≤ n.

– If contestant Ci has at least i other contestants in front of her, she pays one euro to the
Jury and moves forward in the queue by exactly i positions.
– If contestant Ci has fewer than i other contestants in front of her, the restaurant opens and
the process ends.

(a) Prove that the process cannot continue indefinitely, regardless of the Jury’s choices.

(b) Determine for every n the maximum number of euros that the Jury can collect by cunningly
choosing the initial order and the sequence of moves.

Language: English Time: 4 hours and 30 minutes

Each problem is worth 7 points

Mathematics Contests The Australian Scene 2018 | European Girls' Mathematical Olympiad | 134
Language: English
Day: 2

Thursday, April 12, 2018

Problem 4. A domino is a 1 × 2 or 2 × 1 tile.

Let n ≥ 3 be an integer. Dominoes are placed on an n × n board in such a way that each domino
covers exactly two cells of the board, and dominoes do not overlap.
The value of a row or column is the number of dominoes that cover at least one cell of this row or
column. The configuration is called balanced if there exists some k ≥ 1 such that each row and each
column has a value of k.
Prove that a balanced configuration exists for every n ≥ 3, and find the minimum number of
dominoes needed in such a configuration.

Problem 5. Let Γ be the circumcircle of triangle ABC. A circle Ω is tangent to the line segment AB
and is tangent to Γ at a point lying on the same side of the line AB as C. The angle bisector of ∠BCA
intersects Ω at two different points P and Q.
Prove that ∠ABP = ∠QBC.

Problem 6.

(a) Prove that for every real number t such that 0 < t < 12 there exists a positive integer n with the
following property: for every set S of n positive integers there exist two different elements x and
y of S, and a non-negative integer m (i.e. m ≥ 0), such that

|x − my| ≤ ty.

1
(b) Determine whether for every real number t such that 0 < t < 2 there exists an infinite set S of
positive integers such that
|x − my| > ty
for every pair of different elements x and y of S and every positive integer m (i.e. m > 0).

Language: English Time: 4 hours and 30 minutes

Each problem is worth 7 points

Mathematics Contests The Australian Scene 2018 | European Girls' Mathematical Olympiad | 135
EUROPEAN GIRLS’ MATHEMATICAL OLYMPIAD
SOLUTIONS
Solutions to the 2018 European Girls’ Mathematical Olympiad
1. Solution 1 (Xinyue Alice Zhang, year 12, A.B. Paterson College, QLD. Alice was
a Bronze medallist with the 2018 Australian EGMO team.)

A M B
Q

Consider triangles QN P and QM C. Vertically opposite angles N QP and M QC

are equal. We also have that CM is perpendicular to AB since ABC is isosceles
and M is the midpoint of AB. Given that N P is also perpendicular to AB, CM
and N P are parallel. Therefore ∠N P Q = ∠M CQ and ∠P N Q = ∠CM Q. Hence
triangles QN P and QM C are similar.
Since QP = 2QC, it follows that N P = 2M C. Furthermore, N P is parallel to M C.
−−→
The point N is therefore a translation of P by the fixed vector 2M C. Therefore, as
P varies on the circumcircle of ABC, there is a fixed circle on which N lies.
Comment From the condition that ∠ACB = 120◦ , it follows that M is the mid-
point of CO, where O is the circumcentre of ABC. That is, 2M C = OC. Therefore,
N lies on the circle (ω, say) that is the image of the circumcircle of ABC through
the translation that sends O to C; that is, the circle with centre C and radius CO.
Also note that since N is defined uniquely, P does not lie on the line CO, and
therefore N also does not lie on the line CO. The possible positions of N are in fact
all the points of ω with the exception of the two points lying on the line CO.

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Solution 2 (Based on the solution by Tianyue (Ellen) Zheng, year 12, Smith’s
Hill School, NSW. Ellen was a Bronze medallist with the 2018 Australian EGMO
team.)

A M B
Q

As in solution 1 (with comments), N P is parallel to CM and hence CO (C, M , O

are collinear with M the midpoint of CO), triangles QN P and QM C are similar,
and N P = 2M C = OC.
Since N P and CO are equal and parallel, OCN P is a parallelogram. Since adjacent
sides OC and OP are equal, OCN P is actually a rhombus. Hence CN = CO, the
radius of the circumcircle of ABC. Therefore N lies on the circle with centre C and
radius CO.

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Solution 3 (2018 EGMO Problem Selection Committee)
A computational approach could be set up as follows.
Set the centre of the circumcircle of ABC at (0, 0) and set
√ √
3 1 3 1 1
A= − , , B= , , C = (0, 1) , M = 0, .
2 2 2 2 2

Let P = (a, b). Since Q lies on CP such that QP = 2QC, we get that

a b+2
Q= , .
3 3

The equation of the line through P and perpendicular to AB is x = a and the

equation of the line M Q (if a = 0), is

2b + 1 1
y= x+ .
2a 2

The point of intersection of the two lines is therefore

N = (a, b + 1) = P + (0, 1).

This shows that the map P → N is a translation by the vector (0, 1) and this result
is independent of the position of P (provided that a = 0, because otherwise N is
not well-defined).
Hence, when P lies on the circumcircle of ABC, with the exception of the two
points with a = 0, N lies on the translated circle which is the circle with centre C
and radius 1.

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2. Solution 1 (Based on the partial solution by Grace He, year 10, Methodist Ladies’
College, VIC. Grace was a Silver medallist with the 2018 Australian EGMO team.)
We have the set

1 k+1
A= 1 + : k = 1, 2, 3, . . . = : k = 1, 2, 3, . . . .
k k

For every integer x ≥ 2,

k+1 x−1
2 3 x
x = × × ··· × = .
1 2 x − 1 k=1 k

That is, every integer x ≥ 2, can be written as a product of one or more elements
of A which establishes the result for part (a).
The largest element of A is 2, hence for integers n ≥ 0,

3 × 2n > 2n+1 ⇒ f (3 × 2n ) ≥ n + 2.
3
Since 3 × 2n = 2
× 2n+1 , the product of n + 2 elements of A, f (3 × 2n ) = n + 2.
Similarly,
33 × 2n > 2n+5 ⇒ f (33 × 2n ) ≥ n + 6
33
and since 33× 2n = 32
× 2n+5 , the product of n+ 6 elements of A, f (33 ×2n ) = n + 6.
Lastly, f (11) ≥ 5 since 11 cannot be written as the product of four or fewer elements
of A: 24 > 11, 23 × 32 > 11, and any other product of at most four elements of A
does not exceed 23 × 34 = 10 23 < 11. Since 11 = 11 10
× 54 × 2 × 2 × 2, we have that
f (11) = 5.
Putting these results together,

f (33 × 2n ) = n + 6 < n + 2 + 5 = f (3 × 2n ) + f (11)

for all integers n ≥ 0. Hence, there are infinitely many pairs, x = 3 × 2n , y = 11,
with x ≥ 2, y ≥ 2 and f (xy) < f (x) + f (y).

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Solution 2 (2018 EGMO Problem Selection Committee)
First we show that f (xy) < f (x) + f (y) for (x, y) = (7, 7). We have that f (7) ≥ 4
since 7 cannot be written as the product of three or fewer elements of A: 23 > 7, and
any other product of at most three elements of A does not exceed 22 × 32 = 6 < 7.
Also f (49) ≤ 7 since 49 = 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 32 × 49
48
. Hence

f (49) ≤ 7 < 8 ≤ f (7) + f (7).

Now suppose by contradiction that there exists only finitely many pairs (x, y) that
satisfy f (xy) < f (x) + f (y). This implies that there exists an M large enough such
that whenever a > M or b > M holds we have f (ab) = f (a) + f (b). (Note that
f (ab) ≤ f (a) + f (b) is always satisfied.)
Now take any pair (x, y) that satisfies f (xy) < f (x) + f (y) and let n > M be any
integer. Then

f (n) + f (xy) = f (nxy) = f (nx) + f (y) = f (n) + f (x) + f (y),

which contradicts f (xy) < f (x) + f (y).

Therefore there exist infinitely many pairs (x, y) with x ≥ 2, y ≥ 2, and f (xy) <
f (x) + f (y).

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3. Solution 1 (Cunning initial order and sequence of moves for maximum number of
euros found by all medallists of the 2018 Australian EGMO Team)

(a) We prove by induction that each contestant Ci can move at most 2n−i − 1
times and note that this also shows that each contestant can move only a finite
number of times and therefore the process cannot continue indefinitely.
For this induction we work backwards and use the key observation that when
a contestant Ci moves forward, past i other contestants, she must pass at least
one Cj where j > i.
In the base case, Cn cannot move at all because there are not n other contes-
tants in the queue. As for Cn−1 , when she moves, she must past every other of
the n − 1 contestants, including Cn . Once she has passed Cn there is no way
Cn can get back in front of Cn−1 (because Cn cannot move). Hence there is no
way Cn−1 can move again and so Cn−1 can move at most once.
Assume that each contestant Cj , for j > i, can move at most 2n−j − 1 times
and consider how many times contestant Ci can pass Cj where j > i. If Cj
moves at most 2n−j − 1 times then, by passing Ci every move, she can pass Ci
at most 2n−j − 1 times. Since Cj may have started ahead of Ci , we have that
Ci can pass Cj at most 2n−j times.
Therefore we have that Ci can pass Cn at most 20 times, Cn−1 at most 21 times,
Cn−2 at most 22 times, . . ., Ci+1 at most 2n−i−1 times.
Each time Ci moves, she must pass at least one Cj where j > i, and in the
extreme case, she passes all of C1 , C2 , . . . , Ci−1 and one Cj . Therefore, the
maximum number of times Ci can move is

1 + 2 + 22 + · · · + 2n−i−1 = 2n−i − 1.

(b) What remains is to show how the Jury can arrange the queue initially, and
what moves they can make, to achieve this maximal number of moves for each
contestant. That is, 20 − 1 moves for Cn , 21 − 1 moves for Cn−1 , 22 − 1 moves
for Cn−2 , . . ., 2n−1 − 1 moves for C1 and so a total number of moves (i.e. euros)
of
(20 − 1) + (21 − 1) + (22 − 1) + · · · + (2n−1 − 1) = 2n − 1 − n.
We prove by induction that by lining the contestants up in reverse order,
Cn , Cn−1 , . . . , C1 , the jury can collect 2n − 1 − n euros before the contestants
are lined up in the order C1 , C2 , . . . , Cn and the restaurant must open.
For the base case, with just C1 in the queue, no moves can be made and the
Jury makes 21 − 1 − 1 = 0 euros. Indeed, for 2 contestants lined up in reverse
order C2 , C1 , only a single move can occur to give C1 , C2 before the restaurant
opens and the Jury makes a total of 22 − 1 − 2 = 1 euro.
Starting with n + 1 contestants in reverse order

Cn+1 , Cn , Cn−1 , . . . , C2 , C1 ,

keeping Cn+1 in its first position, by the inductive hypothesis, the Jury can
make 2n − 1 − n euros reversing the order of the remaining contestants,

Cn+1 , C1 , C2 , . . . , Cn−1 , Cn .

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Then in the next n moves, all contestants C1 , C2 , . . . , Cn , in this order, move
(past Cn+1 ) and end up in the first n positions of the line in reverse order

Cn , Cn−1 , . . . , C2 , C1 , Cn+1 .

Finally, again by the inductive hypothesis, the Jury can make 2n − 1 − n euros
reversing the order of the first n contestants

C1 , C2 , . . . , Cn , Cn+1 .

This series of moves results in all n + 1 contestants queued in order and the
restaurant opening after a total of

(2n − 1 − n) + n + (2n − 1 − n) = 2n+1 − 1 − (n + 1)

euros are made by the Jury.

In this way, given n contestants queuing for the restaurant, the Jury can collect
a maximum number of 2n − 1 − n euros.

Solution 2 (2018 EGMO Problem Selection Committee)

This solution is a different argument for proving that the process cannot continue
indefinitely.
As in the previous solution, the key observation is that when a contestant Ci moves
forward, past i other contestants, she must pass at least one Cj where j > i.
To show that the process ends after a finite number of moves, we assume that this
is not the case. Then there must be at least one contestant who moves infinitely
many times. Let i0 be the largest index such that Ci0 moves infinitely many times
(that is, for all i > i0 , Ci moves a finite number of times). It must be the case that
Ci0 passes some fixed Cj0 infinitely many times with j0 > i0 . However, Cj0 moves a
finite number of times and so can only precede Ci0 in the queue a finite number of
times. Hence it is impossible for Ci0 to move infinitely many times and the process
must necessarily end after a finite number of moves.

Solution 3 (Based on the partial solution by Grace He, year 10, Methodist Ladies’
College, VIC. Grace was a Silver medallist with the 2018 Australian EGMO team.)
This solution is a different argument for proving that the process cannot continue
indefinitely.
We prove by induction on the number of contestants that the process must eventually
end.
For the base case n = 1, the only contestant is C1 and there are no contestants in
front of her so the process immediately ends.
Now suppose that we know the process will end if there are k contestants in the line.
Consider the situation where there are k + 1 contestants. Notice that contestant
Ck+1 can never move forward in the line since there are only k other contestants,
hence she can only move backwards, and at most k times. Therefore Ck+1 can only
move a finite number of times, and so there will be a point after which Ck+1 does
not move anymore.
After this point, all contestants behind Ck+1 will remain behind Ck+1 , and all con-
testants in front of Ck+1 will remain in front of Ck+1 . If we now remove Ck+1 , we

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are left with a valid initial order for k contestants, and moreover, we may observe
that any move which occurs after this point remains a valid move even with Ck+1
removed: any move by Ci will move them ahead of exactly i of {C1 , C2 , . . . , Ck }
since no contestant jumps over Ck+1 . The problem has now been reduced to the
case with k contestants, so by the inductive hypothesis the process will eventually
end.

Solution 4 (2018 EGMO Problem Selection Committee)

This solution is a different proof of the upper bound for the number of euros col-
lected.
We show that at most 2n − n − 1 moves are possible in the following way. Given an
arrangement of the n contestants, for each pair in which Ci is behind Cj in the queue
and i < j (we will call this a reverse pair), we assign a weight of 2i−1 . We define
the total weight of an arrangement as the sum of the weights for each reverse pair.
In this way, the maximum possible total weight of an arrangement occurs when Ci
is behind exactly all contestants with a larger number than herself, and so in front
of all contestants with a smaller number than herself. That is, for the arrangement
Cn , Cn−1 , Cn−2 , . . . , C2 , C1 . This maximum total weight of an arrangement is

(n − 1)20 + (n − 2)21 + (n − 3)22 + · · · + (2)2n−3 + (1)2n−2 = 2n − n − 1.

Now consider the total weight of an arrangement before and after Ci moves forward
in the queue. Since Ci moves forward past i other contestants, she must pass at
least one contestant Cj where j > i, and at most i − 1 contestants Cj where j < i.
This gives a reduction of at least 2i−1 in the total weight, and an addition of at most
20 + 21 + 22 + · · · + 2i−2 = 2i−1 − 1. Hence the total weight of an arrangement must
decrease when any contestant Ci moves forward in the queue.
Since the maximum total weight of an arrangement is 2n − n − 1, and this total
weight decreases every move, at most 2n − n − 1 are possible.

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4. Solution 1 (Yifan Guo, year 12, Glen Waverley Secondary College, VIC. Yifan
was awarded an Honourable Mention with the 2018 Australian EGMO team.)
Consider a balanced configuration with D dominoes on an n×n board in which each
row and each column has a value k. On one hand, the total value of all rows and
columns is 2nk. On the other hand, since each of D dominoes contributes 2 + 1 = 3
to the total value of all rows and columns, this total value is 3D. Hence we have
the equality
2nk
2nk = 3D ⇒ D = .
3
First consider the case where n is a multiple of 3. Since k ≥ 1, we have that D ≥ 2n
3
.
The following diagram shows a balanced configuration for n = 3 with k = 1 and
2×3
3
= 2 dominoes on the board.

If n is a multiple of 3, we can obtain a balanced configuration with k = 1 and n3 of

these 3 × 3 blocks (each containing 2 dominoes) along a main diagonal of the board.

...

Hence, for n a multiple of 3, the minimum number of dominoes needed in a balanced

configuration is 2n
3
.
If n is not a multiple of 3, then k is a multiple of 3. Hence k ≥ 3 and D ≥ 2n.
The following diagram shows a balanced configuration for n = 4 with k = 3 and
2 × 4 = 8 dominoes on the board.

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Balanced configurations for n ≡ 1(mod 3) and n ≡ 2(mod 3) with 2n dominoes for
n ≥ 5 can be constructed as described below using the following 3 × 3 blocks.

Block A Block B

For n ≡ 1(mod 3) with n ≥ 7, n−1 3

Block B’s are placed along a main diagonal of the
(n − 1) × (n − 1) sub-board, as shown in the diagram below. Each of these dominoes
contribute 2 to the value of each of the first n − 1 rows and n − 1 columns. Then
n−4
3
Block A’s are placed along a main diagonal of the (n − 7) × (n − 7) sub-board
as well as in the bottom-right corner. These Block A’s with a further 2 dominoes
placed in the bottom row and 2 dominoes placed in the rightmost column, as shown,
each contribute 1 to the value of the first n − 1 rows and n − 1 columns, and 3 to
the value of the nth row and nth column. The total number of dominoes placed on
the board in this construction is 4 × n−1
3
+ 2 × n−4
3
+ 4 = 2n.

...

For n ≡ 2(mod 3) with n ≥ 5, n−2 3

Block B’s are placed along a main diagonal of the
(n − 2) × (n − 2) sub-board, as shown in the diagram below. Each of these dominoes
contribute 2 to the value of each of the first n − 2 rows and n − 2 columns. Then n−2
3
Block A’s are placed along a main diagonal of the (n − 5) × (n − 5) sub-board as well
as in the bottom-right corner. These Block A’s with a further 2 dominoes placed

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in the bottom two rows and 2 dominoes placed in the rightmost two columns, as
shown, each contribute 1 to the value of the first n−2 rows and n−2 columns, and 3
to the value of the bottom two rows and rightmost two columns. The total number
of dominoes placed on the board in this construction is 4 × n−2
3
+ 2 × n−2
3
+ 4 = 2n.
Note that this construction does indeed work for n = 5. Despite Block B and Block
A overlapping in the middle row and column in this case, only Block B has a domino
placed in this middle cell.

.
..

Therefore the minimum number of dominoes required in a balanced configuration

is therefore 2n
3
if n is a multiple of 3, and 2n otherwise.

Solution 2 (Xinyue Alice Zhang, year 12, A.B. Paterson College, QLD. Alice was
a Bronze medallist with the 2018 Australian EGMO team.)
This solution presents alternative balanced configurations for n ≡ 0 (mod 3) with
k = 3 and 2n dominoes.
The following diagrams show balanced configurations with k = 3 and n ∈ {4, 5, 6, 7}.
Note that 2n dominoes are used in each case.

Any n ≥ 8 can be written in the form 4x + r where x is a positive integer and

r ∈ {4, 5, 6, 7}. Hence a balanced configuration can be obtained for n ≥ 8 and k = 3
by using x 4 × 4 blocks and one r × r block along a main diagonal of the board.
Such a configuration uses 8x + 2r = 2(4x + r) = 2n dominoes.

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5. Solution 1 (Based on the partial solutions by Tianyue (Ellen) Zheng, year 12,
Smith’s Hill School, NSW and Grace He, year 10, Methodist Ladies’ College, VIC.
Ellen was a Bronze medallist and Grace was a Silver medallist with the 2018 Aus-
tralian EGMO team.)
Let V be the intersection of Ω and Γ, let U be the intersection of Ω and AB, and
let M be the midpoint of the arc AB that does not contain C. Note that the angle
bisector of ∠BCA intersects Γ at M .

Ω
Q

V
O1 O2

P
U
A B

We first show that V , U , and M are collinear. Let O1 and O2 be the centres of Ω
and Γ respectively, and let V U intersect Γ at M . We have ∠O1 U V = ∠O1 V U =
∠O2 V M = ∠O2 M V and hence O1 U O2 M . Since O1 U ⊥ AB (AB is tangent
to Ω at U ), O2 M ⊥ AB and hence M is the midpoint of the arc AB (that does
not contain C) and M = M . (Indeed, the dilation with centre V that sends Ω to
Γ sends U to the point of Γ where the tangent of Γ is parallel to AB and this point
is M ).
Triangles M AV and M U A are similar since ∠AM V = ∠U M A and ∠M V A =
∠M CA = ∠M CB = ∠M AB = ∠M AU . It follows that M U × M V = M A2 =
M B2.
Computing the power of M with respect to Ω we have that
M P × M Q = M U × M V = M B2.

Now we have that triangles M BP and M QB are similar as ∠BM P = ∠QM B and
MP
MB
= M
MQ
B
. In particular, we then have ∠M BP = ∠M QB. We already have that
∠M CB = ∠M CA = ∠M BA. Putting these together, we can conclude
∠ABP = ∠M BP − ∠M BA = ∠M QB − ∠M CB = ∠QBC,
as required.

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Solution 2 (2018 EGMO Problem Selection Committee)
This solution is a different proof to the first part of Solution 1.
Consider the inversion with respect to the circle with centre M and radius M A =
M B.
The inversion swaps AB and Γ. Let Ω swap to Ω . We will prove that Ω = Ω , that
the inversion swaps V and U , and that V , U , and M are collinear.
First consider the points where Ω intersects the inversion circle, W1 and W2 , say.
We know that the inversion fixes W1 and W2 and so these must lie on Ω . Now,
since Ω is tangent to Γ (at V ), Ω is tangent to AB at a point on the line through
M and V . Also, since Ω is tangent to AB (at U ), Ω is tangent to Γ at a point
on the line through M and U . To summarise, Ω is a circle tangent to both AB
and Γ that passes through fixed points W1 and W2 . So Ω must be Ω itself. The
inversion swaps points of tangency V and U , and these points and M , the centre of
the inversion, are collinear.
Now P and Q are intersections between the fixed line M C and Ω, and since the
only fixed point on the line segment M C is its intersection with the inversion circle,
P and Q are swapped. This implies that M P × M Q = M B 2 .

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6. Solution (part a) (2018 EGMO Problem Selection Committee)
Let t be a real number such that 0 < t < 12 .
We wish to find a positive integer n, such that for every set S of n integers, denoted

s1 < s2 < s3 < · · · < sn ,

there exist two elements si and sj such that |sj − msi | ≤ tsi for a non-negative
integer m. In other words sj is within tsi of a multiple of si .

tsi

0 si 2si 3si 4si

If si+1 − si ≤ tsi , for some 1 ≤ i ≤ n − 1, then we have that si+1 is within tsi of the
first multiple of si , namely 1 × si (m = 1). Hence the inequality is satisfied.
Otherwise, si+1 − si > tsi ⇒ si+1 > (1 + t)si for all 1 ≤ i ≤ n − 1. That is,

sn > (1 + t)sn−1 > (1 + t)2 sn−2 > (1 + t)3 sn−3 > · · · > (1 + t)n−1 s1 .

This gives that

1
sn > (1 + t)n−1 s1 ⇒ s1 < sn .
(1 + t)n−1
Finally, due to Bernoulli’s inequality, we know that for n large enough,
1 1
< (1 + t)n−1 ⇒ ≤ t.
t (1 + t)n−1

Hence we have that s1 − 0sn < tsn , that is, s1 is within tsn of the zero-th multiple
of sn (m = 0). Hence the inequality is satisfied.
Solution (part b) (Stephen Farrar, long-time friend of the Olympiad program in
Australia. Stephen was also a Gold and Bronze medallist with the 1997 and 1998
Australian IMO team.)
Let t be a real number such that 0 < t < 12 .
This time, we wish to construct an infinite set S of positive integers such that
|sj − msi | > tsi for every pair of different elements si and sj of S and for every
positive integer m. In other words, no element of S (different from si ) is within tsi
of every positive multiple of si . And this holds for all infinitely many si .
We can construct such an infinite set S using a sieving process.
To begin, we choose the smallest element s1 of S to be the smallest odd integer such
that ts1 < (s1 − 1)/2. This is equivalent to s1 > 1/(1 − 2t).
Having chosen s1 , certain numbers are excluded from being in S. S cannot contain
any multiple of s1 , like Eratosthenes’ sieve for finding primes. The difference in this
question is that the numbers close to a multiple of s1 are also excluded from S. The
exclusion radius is ts1 , and when t is close to 1/2 it could be that most integers
are excluded from S. The highlighted regions on the numberline below show those
numbers excluded by s1 .

21
Mathematics Contests The Australian Scene 2018 | European Girls' Mathematical Olympiad Solutions | 149
s1 −1
ts1 < 2

0 s1 2s1 3s1 4s1

It’s easier to name a few numbers which are not excluded by s1 . The numbers
(m + 1/2)s1 , where m is a positive integer, are not excluded, though these are not
integers. However, near (m + 1/2)s1 , we have integers x = (m + 1/2)s1 ± 1/2. Call
these half-multiples of s1 and note that one of each pair must be odd. These half-
multiples are not excluded because ((m + 1/2)s1 − 1/2) − ms1 = (s1 − 1)/2 > ts1
and (m + 1)s1 − ((m + 1/2)s1 − 1/2) = (s1 − 1)/2 > ts1 and these half-multiples
are even further from other multiples of s1 .

ts1 < s1 −1 (m + 12 )s1

ms1 (m + 1)s1
half-multiples of s1 :
(m + 12 )s1 − 12 , (m + 12 )s1 + 1
2

We now choose the next smallest element of S, s2 , to be an odd half-multiple of s1 .

We know that s2 is not excluded by s1 and claim that if s2 > 2s1 , we also have that
s1 is not excluded by s2 (that is, not within ts2 of every positive multiple of s2 ).
Indeed, since m ≥ 1 and t < 1/2, we have that m − t > 1/2. And if s2 > 2s1 then
this gives s2 (m − t) > s1 ⇒ ms2 − s1 > ts2 ⇒ |s1 − ms2 | > ts2 .
So in particular, we will choose s2 to be whichever of the half-multiples (5/2)s1 ±1/2
is odd and note that since s1 > 1, s2 = (5/2)s1 ± 1/2 = 2s1 + (s1 ± 1)/2 > 2s1 .
Now this excludes even more numbers from S. Again we can be sure that the half-
multiples of s2 are not excluded on account of being too close to a multiple of s2 .
And so we can be sure that any number which is a half-multiple of both s1 and s2
is still a possibility for inclusion in S.
Now let’s prove that if a and b are odd integers, then the half-multiples of ab are
also half-multiples of both a and b. Suppose h = (k + 1/2)ab ± 1/2 is a half-multiple
of ab. Then h = ( + 1/2)a ± 1/2 where = kb + (b − 1)/2 is an integer. Therefore
h is a half-multiple of a. Similarly it is a half-multiple of b.
We now choose infinitely many more elements in S according to this rule: sk+1 is an
odd half-multiple of s1 s2 · · · sk with sk+1 > 2si for all 1 ≤ i ≤ k. In this way, sk+1
is an odd half-multiple of each of s1 , s2 , . . . , sk and so not excluded by any of these
elements. Furthermore, sk+1 > 2si ⇒ sk+1 (m − t) > si ⇒ msk+1 − si > tsk+1 ⇒
|si − msk+1 | > tsk+1 and so for all 1 ≤ i ≤ k, si is not excluded by sk+1 .
Specifically, we choose sk+1 to be an odd integer given by
sk+1 = 5s1 s2 · · · sk /2 ± 1/2.
Note that since each of s1 , s2 , . . . , sk is greater than 1, sk+1 > 5si /2 ± 1/2 = 2si +
(si ± 1)/2 > 2si for all 1 ≤ i ≤ k. Also note that the si sequence is increasing.
Therefore, we have found such an infinite set S of integers s1 < s2 < s3 < · · · , each
chosen to be odd and given by s1 > 1/(1 − 2t) and sk+1 = 5s1 s2 · · · sk /2 ± 1/2.

22
Mathematics Contests The Australian Scene 2018 | European Girls' Mathematical Olympiad Solutions | 150
IMO TEAM PREPARATION SCHOOL
For the week preceding the IMO, our team met with our British counterparts in Budapest for a final
dose of training. We were also joined by an Estonian student, Richard, for the duration of the camp.
I was accompanied by Mike Clapper and Jo Cockwill for the entire camp, and Angelo Di Pasquale for
the first few days, after which he left to do his leader duties at the IMO.
This year the plan for the Australians was to meet in Perth then fly together from there to Budapest.
Upon landing in Perth we learnt that Wen would arrive a day late due to a delayed flight. I got the job
of staying for an extra day in Perth while everyone else flew to Budapest. After enjoying a surprisingly
warm winter’s morning in Perth, I met Wen at the airport and then accompanied him to Budapest.
At the team preparation school, each of the five days starts with a 4.5 hour IMO style exam for all
13 students. For the first exam only 12 students were present as Wen (and I) were still in transit. Rather
than miss the exam entirely, Wen spent 3 hours on it while we waited at Perth airport, after which he
boasted the highest point to time ratio of all 13 students. After the exam each morning, the teams were
given free time for the rest of the day while the adults marked their exams. During the free time they
mostly played games or visited some local attractions.
For the third exam each team set the problems for the other team. (For this purpose, Richard was
designated an honorary Brit.) In past years the Australians have used problems from their training
and sometimes constructed one or two themselves. This year they were committed to composing
all three problems themselves, and even came prepared with a shortlist of about 30 problems which
they had compiled over the preceding months. The three problems they finally chose were particularly
appealing. The British team didn’t disappoint — they set two lovely original problems for the
Australians as well as an interesting problem which they came across in training. In the afternoon after
this exam, the students did the marking, then coordinated with us. This has two upshots: it teaches the
students about what can make a mathematical argument better or worse, and it gives the adults an
afternoon free of marking.
As tradition dictates, the fifth and final exam was designated the Mathematics Ashes, in which our
teams compete for glory and an urn containing burnt remains of the British scripts from 2008. Before
this year our only victory had been in the first Ashes, while in each of the 9 years since we either lost
or tied. This year looked like it would be tight. Australia cleaned up on problem 1 putting us ahead
42-40. The United Kingdom came back by beating us 37-28 on problem 2, leaving us 7 points behind
with only the most difficult problem 3 to mark. The UK scored a solid 21 on this problem, but Australia
claimed the victory with 29 making the final score 99-98 in our favour.
Once again, this camp was a great way to wind up both teams’ training before the IMO. The co-training
experience was hugely beneficial for all involved, as the students learnt a lot from each other, and as
trainers we learnt something too. Hopefully this tradition will continue well into the future. Many thanks
to everyone who made this a success, in particular, the UKMT and the entire UK delegation.

Andrew Elvey Price

IMO Deputy Leader

Mathematics Contests The Australian Scene 2018 | IMO Team Preparation School | 151
THE MATHEMATICS ASHES

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Mathematics Contests The Australian Scene 2018 | The Mathematics Ashes | 152
THE MATHEMATICS ASHES RESULTS

Australia P1 P2 P3 Total
William Hu 7 7 7 21
Charles Li 7 1 7 15
William Steinberg 7 5 1 13
Ethan Tan 7 7 6 20
Hadyn Tang 7 1 2 10
Guowen Zhang 7 7 6 20
Total 42 28 29 99

United Kingdom P1 P2 P3 Total

Agnijo Banerjee 7 7 7 21
Sam Bealing 5 7 0 12
Tom Hillman 7 2 0 9
Benedict Randall Shaw 7 7 6 20
Aron Thomas 7 7 1 15
Harvey Yau 7 7 7 21
Total 40 37 21 98

Mathematics Contests The Australian Scene 2018 | The Mathematics Ashes Results | 153
IMO TEAM LEADER’S REPORT

The 59th International Mathematical Olympiad (IMO) was held 3–14 July 2018 in the city of Cluj-
Napoca, Romania. This year was the sixth time that Romania1 has hosted the IMO. A total of 594 high
school students from 107 countries participated. Of these, 60 were girls.
Each participating country may send a team of up to six students, a Team Leader and a Deputy Team
Leader. At the IMO the Team Leaders, as an international collective, form what is called the Jury. This
Jury was ably chaired by Mihai Bălună.
The first major task facing the Jury is to set the two competition papers. During this period the
Leaders and their observers are trusted to keep all information about the contest problems completely
confidential. The local Problem Selection Committee had already shortlisted 28 problems from the 168
problem proposals submitted by 49 of the participating countries from around the world. During the
Jury meetings four of the shortlisted problems had to be discarded from consideration due to being
too similar to material already in the public domain. Eventually, the Jury finalised the exam problems
and then made translations into the 57 languages required by the contestants.
The six problems that ultimately appeared on the IMO contest papers may be described as follows.
1. A relatively easy classical geometry problem proposed by Greece. It is remarkable that new easy
problems in geometry are still being composed that have a relatively uncluttered diagram. This is
a fine example of such a problem!
2. A medium sequence problem proposed by Slovakia.
3. A deceptively difficult combinatorics problem concerning the existence of a triangular array of
positive integers. It was proposed by Iran.
4. An easy combinatorial problem in the form of a two-player game that may be played on a 20 × 20
chessboard. It was proposed by Armenia.
5. A medium number theory problem proposed by Mongolia.
6. A difficult geometry problem, whose diagram consists merely of five points and eight line
segments. It was proposed by Poland.
These six problems were posed in two exam papers held on Monday 9 July and Tuesday 10 July. Each
paper had three problems. The contestants worked individually. They were allowed four and a half
hours per paper to write their attempted proofs. Each problem was scored out of a maximum of seven
points.
For many years now there has been an opening ceremony prior to the first day of competition. The
President of Romania attended this in person and addressed the audience. Following this and other
formal speeches there was the parade of the teams, a dance show, and the 2018 IMO was declared
open.
After the exams the Leaders and their Deputies spent about two days assessing the work of the
students from their own countries, guided by marking schemes, which had been agreed to earlier. A
local team of markers called Coordinators also assessed the papers.
They too were guided by the marking schemes but are allowed some flexibility if, for example, a
Leader brought something to their attention in a contestant’s exam script that is not covered by the
marking scheme. The Team Leader and Coordinators have to agree on scores for each student of the
Leader’s country in order to finalise scores. Any disagreements that cannot be resolved in this way are
ultimately referred to the Jury. No such referrals occurred this year.

1 Romania hosted the very first IMO in 1959, where just seven countries participated.

Mathematics Contests The Australian Scene 2018 | IMO Team Leader's Report | 154
The contestants found Problem 1 to be the easiest with an average score of 4.93. Problem 3 was the
hardest, averaging just 0.28. Only 11 contestants scored full marks on it. The score distributions by
problem number were as follows.

Mark P1 P2 P3 P4 P5 P6
0 96 158 548 148 175 419
1 54 85 7 13 184 108
2 24 87 9 106 31 26
3 15 66 14 18 7 11
4 10 18 4 18 6 5
5 7 16 1 15 8 2
6 7 7 0 5 11 5
7 381 157 11 271 172 18
Mean 4.93 2.95 0.28 3.96 2.70 0.64

The medal cuts were set at 31 points for Gold, 25 for Silver and 16 for Bronze. The medal distributions2
were as follows.

Gold Silver Bronze Total

Number 48 98 143 289
Proportion 8.1% 16.5% 24.1% 48.7%

These awards were presented at the closing ceremony. Of those who did not get a medal, a further 138
contestants received an Honourable Mention for scoring full marks on at least one problem.
The following two contestants achieved the most excellent feat of a perfect score of 42.
• Agnijo Banerjee, United Kingdom
• James Lin, United States
They were given a standing ovation during the presentation of medals at the closing ceremony.
Fittingly their Gold medals were awarded by Ciprian Manolescu.3
A big congratulations to the Australian IMO team on their exceptional performance this year! They
finished 11th in the rankings,4 bringing home two Gold5 medals, three Silver medals, and one Bronze
medal.
The Gold medallists were
• Ethan Tan6, year 12, Cranbrook School, NSW
• Guowen Zhang , year 12, St Joseph’s College, Gregory Terrace, QLD
The Silver medallists were
• Charles Li , year 12, Camberwell Grammar School, VIC
• William Steinberg, year 10, Scotch College, WA
• Hadyn Tang, year 9, Trinity Grammar School, VIC

2 The total number of medals must be approved by the Jury and should not normally exceed half the total number of
contestants. The numbers of gold, silver, and bronze medals should be approximately in the ratio 1:2:3.
3 Ciprian Manolescu, of Romania, has the singular distinction of achieving three perfect scores at the IMO. He competed at the
IMO in 1995, 1996, and 1997.
4 The ranking of countries is not officially part of the IMO general regulations. However, countries are ranked each year on the
IMO’s official website according to the sum of the individual student scores from each country.
5 Australia has now reached the milestone of 20 Gold medals at the IMO since first participating in 1981.
6 This was Ethan’s first and only appearance at the IMO. Only three other members of Australian IMO teams have had the
distinction of winning only gold at IMOs. They were Andrew Hassell in 1985, Benjamin Burton in 1991, and Thomas Lam in
1997.

Mathematics Contests The Australian Scene 2018 | IMO Team Leader's Report | 155
The Bronze medallist was
• William Hu, year 12, Christ Church Grammar School , WA
Their scores in detail are shown below.

Name P1 P2 P3 P4 P5 P6 Score Award

William Hu 7 7 0 7 1 1 23 Bronze
Charles Li 7 7 2 7 2 1 26 Silver
William Steinberg 7 7 0 7 7 1 29 Silver
Ethan Tan 7 3 7 7 7 0 31 Gold
Hadyn Tang 7 3 0 7 7 1 25 Silver
Guowen Zhang 7 7 4 7 7 3 35 Gold
Australian Average 7.00 5.67 2.17 7.00 5.17 1.17 28.17
IMO average 4.93 2.95 0.28 3.96 2.70 0.64 15.45

Two members of the 2018 Australian IMO are eligible for the 2019 IMO team.
The 2018 IMO was organised by the Romanian Mathematical Society with support from the Romanian
government.
The 2019 IMO is scheduled to be held 10–22 July in Bath, United Kingdom. Hosts for future IMOs have
been secured up to 2023 as follows.
• 2020 Russia
• 2021 United States
• 2022 Norway
• 2023 Japan
Much of the statistical information found in this report can also be found on the official website of the
IMO, www.imo-official.org

Mathematics Contests The Australian Scene 2018 | IMO Team Leader's Report | 156
Some Country Totals

Rank Country Total

1 United States of America 212
2 Russia 201
3 China 199
4 Ukraine 186
5 Thailand 183
6 Taiwan 179
7 South Korea 177
8 Singapore 175
9 Poland 174
10 Indonesia 171
11 Australia 169
12 United Kingdom 161
13 Japan 158
13 Serbia 158
15 Hungary 157
16 Canada 156
17 Italy 154
18 Kazakhstan 151
19 Iran 150
20 Vietnam 148
21 Bulgaria 146
22 Croatia 145
23 Slovakia 140
24 Sweden 138
24 Turkey 138
26 Israel 136
27 Georgia 133
28 Brazil 132
28 India 132
28 Mongolia 132
31 Germany 131
32 Armenia 130
33 France 129
33 Romania 129
35 Peru 125
36 Mexico 123
36 Netherlands 123
38 Philippines 121
39 Argentina 115
39 Czech Republic 115

Mathematics Contests The Australian Scene 2018 | IMO Team Leader's Report | 157
Distribution of Awards at the 2018 IMO

Country Total Gold Silver Bronze HM

Albania 37 0 0 0 1
Algeria 18 0 0 0 0
Argentina 115 0 1 4 0
Armenia 130 0 2 4 0
Australia 169 2 3 1 0
Austria 72 0 0 3 1
Azerbaijan 50 0 0 0 5
Bangladesh 114 1 0 3 2
Belarus 102 0 0 4 1
Belgium 92 0 0 4 1
Bolivia 33 0 0 0 3
Bosnia and Herzegovina 103 0 0 4 2
Botswana 12 0 0 0 1
Brazil 132 1 0 4 1
Bulgaria 146 1 3 1 1
Cambodia 11 0 0 0 0
Canada 156 0 5 1 0
Chile 19 0 0 0 2
China 199 4 2 0 0
Colombia 59 0 0 1 2
Costa Rica 65 0 0 2 2
Croatia 145 0 4 1 0
Cyprus 45 0 0 1 1
Czech Republic 115 0 2 2 2
Denmark 71 0 0 3 0
Ecuador 48 0 0 0 3
Egypt 10 0 0 0 1
El Salvador 20 0 0 0 2
Estonia 80 0 1 0 3
Finland 70 0 0 2 2
France 129 1 1 4 0
Georgia 133 0 1 5 0
Germany 131 1 2 1 2
Ghana 13 0 0 0 0
Greece 74 0 0 2 2
Guatemala 11 0 0 0 1
Honduras 6 0 0 0 0
Hong Kong 89 0 0 2 4
Hungary 157 0 4 2 0
Iceland 56 0 0 1 3
India 132 0 3 2 1
Indonesia 171 1 5 0 0
Iran 150 1 3 1 1
Iraq 9 0 0 0 0

Mathematics Contests The Australian Scene 2018 | IMO Team Leader's Report | 158
Country Total Gold Silver Bronze HM
Ireland 43 0 0 1 1
Israel 136 0 2 4 0
Italy 154 0 4 2 0
Ivory Coast 8 0 0 0 1
Japan 158 1 3 2 0
Kazakhstan 151 0 4 2 0
Kosovo 21 0 0 0 2
Kyrgyzstan 41 0 0 0 4
Latvia 40 0 0 0 2
Lithuania 77 0 0 2 3
Luxembourg 14 0 0 0 1
Macau 61 0 0 1 3
Macedonia (FYR) 27 0 0 0 2
Malaysia 90 0 0 2 3
Mexico 123 0 1 4 1
Moldova 86 0 0 3 3
Mongolia 132 0 1 5 0
Montenegro 20 0 0 0 1
Morocco 46 0 0 0 3
Myanmar 23 0 0 0 2
Nepal 5 0 0 0 0
Netherlands 123 0 1 4 1
New Zealand 102 0 1 2 3
Nigeria 26 0 0 0 2
Norway 73 0 0 2 1
Pakistan 35 0 0 0 3
Panama 21 0 0 0 2
Paraguay 12 0 0 0 0
Peru 125 0 2 3 1
Philippines 121 1 1 2 2
Poland 174 1 5 0 0
Portugal 77 0 0 2 3
Puerto Rico 46 0 0 1 1
Romania 129 1 1 2 2
Russia 201 5 1 0 0
Saudi Arabia 69 0 1 1 1
Serbia 158 2 2 2 0
Singapore 175 2 3 1 0
Slovakia 140 0 3 3 0
Slovenia 104 0 1 1 4
South Africa 66 0 0 1 4
South Korea 177 3 3 0 0
Spain 74 0 0 2 4
Sri Lanka 47 0 0 1 3
Sweden 138 1 2 2 1

Mathematics Contests The Australian Scene 2018 | IMO Team Leader's Report | 159
Country Total Gold Silver Bronze HM
Switzerland 52 0 0 1 1
Syria 69 0 0 2 2
Taiwan 179 3 1 2 0
Tajikistan 103 0 0 5 1
Tanzania 1 0 0 0 0
Thailand 183 3 3 0 0
Trinidad and Tobago 26 0 0 0 1
Tunisia 49 0 0 0 3
Turkey 138 1 1 4 0
Turkmenistan 65 0 0 1 4
Uganda 9 0 0 0 0
Ukraine 186 4 2 0 0
United Kingdom 161 1 4 0 1
United States of America 212 5 1 0 0
Uruguay 7 0 0 0 0
Uzbekistan 21 0 0 0 2
Venezuela 2 0 0 0 0
Vietnam 148 1 2 3 0
Total (107 teams, 594 contestants) 48 98 143 138

N.B. Not all countries sent a full team of six students.

Angelo Di Pasquale
IMO Team Leader, Australia

Mathematics Contests The Australian Scene 2018 | IMO Team Leader's Report | 160
INTERNATIONAL MATHEMATICAL OLYMPIAD

Mathematics Contests The Australian Scene 2018 | International Mathematical Olympiad | 161
Mathematics Contests The Australian Scene 2018 | International Mathematical Olympiad | 162
INTERNATIONAL MATHEMATICAL OLYMPIAD SOLUTIONS
Solutions to the 2018 International Mathematical Olympiad
1. Solution 1 (William Hu, year 12, Christ Church Grammar School, WA. William
was a Bronze medallist with the 2018 Australian IMO team.)
Let the line through F and D intersect Γ for a second time at X, and let the line
through G and E intersect Γ for a second time at Y .

Y
E
D
G
F

B C

Since F AXB is cyclic, we have ∠DXA = ∠F XA = ∠F BA = ∠F BD. Since also

∠F DB = ∠XDA, it follows that F BD ∼ AXD (AA). Since F lies on the
perpendicular bisector of BD, we have F BD is isosceles with F B = F D. Thus
AXD is isosceles with AX = AD.
A similar argument shows that AE = AY . But since AD = AE, it follows that
AX = AD = AE = AY , and so XEDY is cyclic with centre A. Using this and the
fact that F GXY is also cyclic, we deduce

∠Y ED = ∠Y XD = ∠Y XF = ∠Y GF,

and so DE is parallel to F G.
Comment (Based on the solution by Charles Li, year 12, Camberwell Grammar
School, VIC. Charles was a Silver medallist with the 2018 Australian IMO team.)
A further interesting property of the above diagram is

FB = FD = FY and GC = GE = GX.

We leave this as a challenge for the reader to demonstrate.

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Solution 2 (William Steinberg, year 10, Scotch College, WA. William was a Silver
medallist with the 2018 Australian IMO team.)
Let O be the centre of Γ, and let M and N be the midpoints of AB and AC,
respectively. Note that OM ⊥ AB and ON ⊥ AC.
Let F and G be the midpoints of BD and CE, respectively. Note that F F ⊥ AB
and GG ⊥ AC.
Let X and Y be the projections of O onto the lines F F and GG , respectively.

A A

D E D E
M N G Q G
P
F F
O G G
F F
X Y

B C B C

Note that M OXF is a rectangle due to all its right angles. Hence we have
1 1 1
OX = M F = M B − F B = AB − DB = AD.
2 2 2
Similarly OY = 12 AE. Since AD = AE, we deduce that OX = OY . But OF = OG
(radii of Γ), and OX ⊥ XF and OY ⊥ Y G. Hence OXF ≡ OY G (RHS). Thus
∠XF O = ∠OGY . Since also ∠OF G = ∠F GO, we have ∠F F G = ∠F GG .
Let F G intersect lines AB and AC at P and Q, respectively. From the angle sums
in P F F and QGG , we deduce ∠F P F = ∠G QG, and so ∠QP A = ∠AQP .
Hence AP Q is isosceles with apex A. Since ADE is also isosceles with apex A,
it follows that DE and F G are parallel.

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2. Solution 1 (William Hu, year 12, Christ Church Grammar School, WA. William
was a Bronze medallist with the 2018 Australian IMO team.)
Answer All positive integers n that are multiples of 3
For each integer i > n let ai+2 = ai ai+1 + 1. In this way we have an infinite sequence
a1 , a2 , . . . with the property that ai+2 = ai ai+1 + 1 for each positive integer i and
ai = aj whenever i ≡ j (mod n). Thus n is a period of the sequence.
Lemma 1 The sequence does not contain two consecutive positive numbers.
Proof Suppose, for the sake of contradiction, that ai , ai+1 > 0 for some positive
integer i. It follows that ai+2 = ai ai+1 + 1 > 1. Similarly ai+3 > 1. It follows that
ai+4 = ai+2 ai+3 + 1 > ai+3 + 1 > ai+3 . Similarly ai+5 > ai+4 , and inductively we see
that the sequence is strictly increasing from ai+3 onward. But this is impossible for
a periodic sequence.
Lemma 2 The sequence does not contain a number ai such that ai = 0.
Proof If ai = 0 for some positive integer i, then ai+1 = ai+2 = 1 > 0. But this
contradicts lemma 1.
Lemma 3 The sequence does not contain three consecutive negative numbers.
Proof If ai , ai+1 < 0, then ai+2 = ai ai+1 + 1 > 0.
Consider the sequence where we only remember the signs of the terms. We denote
positive and negative terms by + and −, respectively. We have shown that neither
+, + nor −, −, − occur in the sequence. Thus any two consecutive + terms are
separated by either one or two − terms.
Case 1 The sequence does not contain +, −, −, +.
It follows that the sequence is a pure alternating sequence . . . , +, −, +, −, +, −, . . ..
Consider any fragment . . . , a, −b, c, −d, . . . of the sequence such that a, b, c, d > 0.
We have the following two deductions.
1 − ab = c > 0 ⇒ ab < 1
1 − bc = −d < 0 ⇒ bc > 1
It follows that ab < bc, and so a < c. Since this is true of any two consecutive positive
terms, it follows that the positive terms form a strictly increasing subsequence. But
this is impossible for a periodic sequence. So this case does not occur.
Case 2 The sequence contains both +, −, + and +, −, −, +.
Choose a place where the sequence is +, −, −, + and follow it forward until it reaches
+, −, + for the first time. In this way we find a part of the sequence that looks like
+, −, −, +, −, +, −. Thus we may consider a fragment . . . , −y, −z, a, −b, c, −d, . . .
where y, z, a, b, c, d > 0. Observe that a < c may be deduced in exactly the same
way as in case 1. Thus
c > a = yz + 1 > 1.
But c = 1 − ab < 1 which contradicts the above. So this case does not occur either.
Case 3 The sequence does not contain +, −, +.
It follows that the sequence proceeds as . . . , +, −, −, +, −, −, +, −, −, . . .. This im-
plies that n is a multiple of 3.
It only remains to observe that the sequence that starts with a1 = a2 = −1 follows
the pattern −1, −1, 2, −1, −1, 2, . . . which yields a valid sequence for any n that is
a multiple of 3.

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Solution 2 (Ross Atkins, Leader of the 2018 New Zealand IMO team. Ross was
also a Bronze medallist with the 2003 Australian IMO team.)
As in solution 1, we extend to the infinite periodic sequence a1 , a2 , . . ..
Consider the sequence b1 , b2 , b3 , . . . defined by

bi = 2ai ai+1 ai+2 − (ai − 1)2 − (ai+1 − 1)2 − (ai+2 − 1)2 .

We show that this sequence is increasing by considering the term bi+1 − bi .

bi+1 − bi = 2ai+1 ai+2 ai+3 − 2ai ai+1 ai+2 − (ai+3 − 1)2 + (ai − 1)2
= 2ai+1 ai+2 (ai+3 − ai ) − (ai−3 − ai )(ai+3 + ai − 2)
= (ai+3 − ai )(2ai+1 ai+2 − (ai+3 + ai − 2))
= (ai+3 − ai )(2(ai+3 − 1) − (ai+3 + ai − 2))
= (ai+3 − ai )2
≥ 0.

Since the sequence is increasing and b1 = bn+1 , the sequence must be constant.
However, if bi = bi+1 , then we have the equality (ai+3 − ai )2 = 0 and therefore
ai = ai+3 for all i. Therefore the sequence a1 , a2 , a3 , . . . is periodic with period 3 and
(since an+i = ai ) periodic with period n.

• If n is not a multiple of 3, then this would have to be a constant sequence. But

this is not possible because the equation x2 + 1 = x has no real solutions.
• If n is a multiple of 3, then −1, −1, 2, −1, −1, 2, . . . satisfies the problem.

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Solution 3 (2018 IMO Problem Selection Committee)
The problem statement simply states that we have n simultaneous equations

ai+2 = ai ai+1 + 1 for i = 1, 2, . . . , n

where the indices are considered modulo n. It follows that

a2i+2 = ai ai+1 ai+2 + ai+2

= ai (ai+3 − 1) + ai+2
2
⇔ ai+2 − ai ai+3 = ai+2 − ai . (1)

Summing the equalities at (1) for i = 1, 2, . . . , n yields

n
n

(a2i+2 − ai ai+3 ) = (ai+2 − ai )
i=1 i=1
n

⇔ (ai − ai+3 )2 = 0. (2)
i=1

Here we have used ai+2 = ai and a2i+2 = a2i = a2i+3 .
It follows from (2) that ai = ai+3 for all i. Hence the sequence has period 3. Since
the sequence also has period n, it follows that it has period gcd(3, n).

• If n is not a multiple of 3, then the sequence has period 1, and so is constant.

But this is not possible because the equation x2 + 1 = x has no real solutions.
• If n is a multiple of 3, then −1, −1, 2, −1, −1, 2, . . . satisfies the problem.

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3. This was the hardest problem of the 2018 IMO. Only 11 of the 594 contestants were
able to solve this problem completely.
Solution (Ethan Tan, year 12, Cranbrook School, NSW. Ethan was a Gold medal-
list with the 2018 Australian IMO team.)
Answer Such a proposed anti-Pascal triangle with 2018 rows does not exist!
We start with the following observations. For any positive integer x in an anti-Pascal
triangle T that is not in the bottom row, the two numbers below it are y and x + y
for some positive integer y. Thus starting from any integer x1 in T , we may generate
the sequences x1 , x2 , x3 , . . . and y2 , y3 , . . . of positive integers inductively as follows.

Whenever xn is not in the bottom row of T , let xn+1 and yn+1 be the
larger and smaller of the two numbers, respectively, below xn in T . (*)

Thus xn+1 = xn + yn+1 for each positive integer n. From this it easily follows that

xn = x1 + y2 + y3 + · · · + yn

for each positive integer n.

For example, in the following four-row anti-Pascal triangle, starting with x1 = 4 we
generate (x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 ) = (4, 6, 7, 10) and (y2 , y3 , y4 ) = (2, 1, 3).

4
2 6
5 7 1
8 3 10 9

For the problem at hand let us assume, for the sake of contradiction, the existence
of an anti-Pascal triangle T that has 2018 rows and which contains the numbers
from 1 to 1 + 2 + · · · + 2018.
Let x1 be the top number in T , and consider the sequences x1 , x2 , x3 , . . . , x2018 and
y2 , y3 , . . . , y2018 generated from x1 as described at (*). We have

x2018 = x1 + y2 + y3 + · · · + y2018 .

Since x1 , y2 , y3 , . . . , y2018 are distinct positive integers, it follows that

x2018 ≥ 1 + 2 + · · · + 2018.

But the largest number in T is 1 + 2 + · · · + 2018. Thus x2018 = 1 + 2 + · · · + 2018

and (x1 , y2 , . . . , y2018 ) is a permutation of (1, 2, . . . , 2018).
Next, let T1 and T2 be the sub-equilateral triangular arrays whose bases consist of
the 1009 leftmost numbers and 1009 rightmost numbers, respectively, in the bottom
row of T . Note that T1 and T2 are disjoint and that their union covers the entire
bottom row. Without loss of generality we may suppose that x2018 lies outside T1 .
It follows that all of x2017 , x2016 , . . . , x1 lie outside T1 .
Let T1 be the sub-equilateral triangular array whose base consists of the 1008 left-
most numbers in the bottom row of T . Since yn is adjacent to xn in each row of the
triangle, and each xn lies outside of T1 , it follows that T1 contains no xn and no yn .
In particular none of the numbers 1, 2, . . . , 2018 lies inside T1 .

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T
x1

T1 T2
T1
x1

x2018

Let x1 be the top number in T1 . Generate the sequences x1 , x2 , x3 , . . . , x1008 and
y2 , y3 , . . . , y1008

as described at (*). These numbers all lie in T1 . Since T1 does not
contain any of 1, 2, . . . , 2018, it follows that

x1008 = x1 + y2 + y3 + · · · + y1008

≥ 2019 + 2020 + · · · + 3026

1
= 1008 × (2019 + 3026)
2
1009 × 2019
= 1 + 2 + · · · + 2018.

This is an obvious contradiction because the numbers in T are less than or equal to
1 + 2 + · · · + 2018.

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Discussion (Angelo Di Pasquale, Leader of the 2018 Australian IMO team)
Suppose that n is any positive integer, N = 1 + 2 + · · · + n = n(n+1)
2
, and T is an
anti-Pascal triangle with n rows that contains the numbers from 1 to N . In what
follows, we present a refinement of the argument given in the previous solution to
prove that n ≤ 8.
Following the previous solution, we generate the sequences x1 , x2 , x3 , . . . , xn and
y2 , y3 , . . . , yn of numbers in T , and deduce that xn = N and (x1 , y2 , y3 , . . . , yn ) is a
permutation of (1, 2, . . . , n).
Observe that xn and yn are adjacent on the bottom row of T . Let T be the sub-
equilateral triangle whose base consists of all numbers to the left of xn and yn on
the bottom row of T . And let T be the sub-equilateral triangle whose base consists
of all numbers to the right of xn and yn on the bottom row of T .
For any i < n, the number xi is directly above xi+1 and yi+1 , and yi is next to
xi . It follows that T and T are disjoint and neither contains any of the numbers
x1 , x2 , x3 , . . . , xn or y2 , y3 , . . . , yn . Hence neither contains any of 1, 2, . . . , n, or N .
Suppose that the base of T contains a numbers and the base of T contains b
numbers. Note that a + b = n − 2.
As described at (*) in the previous solution, generate the sequences x1 , x2 , x3 , . . . , xa
and y2 , y3 , . . . , ya for T and the sequences x1 , x2 , x3 , . . . , xb and y2 , y3 , . . . , yb for T .
As in the previous solution, we have

x1 + y2 + y3 + · · · + ya = xa and x1 + y2 + y3 + · · · + yb = xb .

Adding these two equalities together and using the fact that all of the above terms
are different numbers that are greater than n but less than N yields

(n + 1) + (n + 2) + · · · + (n + (n − 2)) ≤ N − 1 + N − 2
1
⇒ (n − 2)(3n − 1) ≤ n(n + 1) − 3
2
⇒ n2 ≤ 9n − 8.

Hence n ≤ 8.
Remark The above argument can be further refined to show that no anti-Pascal
triangles exist for n = 8 and n = 7, although the arguments, especially for n = 7,
bifurcate into a number of cases.
The case for n = 6 can be ruled out by a simple parity argument as follows. One
may show that the sum of the numbers in each indicated region is even.

∗
∗ ∗
∗ ∗ ∗
∗ ∗ ∗ ∗
∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗
∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗

Thus the sum of all the numbers in a six-row anti-Pascal triangle is even. But such
a triangle cannot contain the numbers from 1 to 21 because their sum is odd.

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Comment It can be shown that anti-Pascal triangles with n rows which use each
of the positive integers from 1 up to 1 + 2 + · · · + n exactly once exist only for
the cases n ≤ 5. See the research paper Exact Difference Triangles by Chang, Hu,
Lih, and Shieh in the Bulletin of the Institute of Mathematics, Academia Sinica,
Volume 5, Number 1, June 1977, pages 191–197. This paper can be found online at
http://w3.math.sinica.edu.tw/bulletin/bulletin_old/d51/5120.pdf.
Up to reflective symmetry, the complete list of anti-Pascal triangles with at most 5
rows are shown below.

• n=2

1 2
3 2 3 1

• n=3

1 2 3 3
4 3 5 3 4 1 5 2
6 2 5 6 1 4 2 6 5 1 6 4

• n=4

3 3 4 4
4 7 5 2 2 6 5 1
5 9 2 4 9 7 5 7 1 2 7 6
6 1 10 8 6 10 1 8 8 3 10 9 8 10 3 9

• n=5

5
9 4
2 11 7
10 12 1 8
13 3 15 14 6

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4. Solution (Found by all members of the 2018 Australian IMO team)
Answer K = 100
The problem has a natural reinterpretation as follows. The 400 sites can be viewed
as the 400 unit squares of a 20 × 20 chessboard. Amy and Ben take turns placing
their stones in unoccupied unit squares such that no two red stones are a knight’s
move apart, that is, no two red stones are at diagonally opposite corners of a 2 × 3
or 3 × 2 sub-board.
The proof falls naturally into the two parts that follow.
Part 1 Show that K ≥ 100
Colour each of the 400 squares either black or white using the usual chessboard
colouring. Note that if two squares are separated by a knight’s move, then one is
white and one is black.
Suppose that Amy adopts the strategy of placing her stones only on white squares.
Since there are 200 white squares, this ensures that she will place at least 100 red
stones, and no two will be a knight’s move apart.
Part 2 Show that K ≤ 100
Partition the chessboard into 25 small 4 × 4 chessboards. We further partition each
such small chessboard into four groups of four squares as follows.

A1 B1 C1 D2
A2 B2 C2 D1
A2 B2 C2 D1
A1 B1 C1 D2
Group A Group B Group C Group D

Note that each group of four squares forms a four-cycle of knight’s moves.
Suppose that Ben adopts the strategy of playing symmetrically opposite Amy in
each group. Then Amy can play at most once in each group, resulting in at most
four red stones in each small chessboard, which is at most 100 stones in total.

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5. Solution (Hadyn Tang, year 9, Trinity Grammar School, VIC. Hadyn was a Silver
medallist with the 2018 Australian IMO team.)
We present a sequence of lemmas, the last of which completes the proof.
Lemma 1 For any integer n ≥ N the following number is an integer.
an an+1 − an
+
an+1 a1

Proof The result follows by calculating the difference of the two integers
a1 a2 an−1 an a1 a2 an−1 an an+1
+ + ··· + + and + + ··· + + + .
a2 a3 an a1 a2 a3 an an+1 a1

Lemma 2 Suppose that a, b, c, d are integers with b, d > 0. If each of the fractions
a
b
and dc is in lowest terms and ab + dc is an integer, then b = d.
Proof We have ab + dc = ad+bc bd
. Thus b | ad + bc, and so b | ad. Since gcd(a, b) = 1,
it follows that b | d. A similar argument shows that d | b. Hence b = d.
Lemma 3 For all integers n ≥ N we have

gcd(a1 , an ) ≤ gcd(a1 , an+1 ).

Proof Suppose, for the sake of contradiction, that gcd(a1 , an ) > gcd(a1 , an+1 ) for
some integer n ≥ N . Then there exists a prime power pk such that pk | a1 , an but
pk an+1 . It follows that pk an+1 − an . Hence in lowest terms, the denominator
an
of an+1 is not divisible by p, but the denominator of an+1a1−an is divisible by p. This
contradicts lemmas 1 and 2.
Lemma 4 There is a positive integer G such that for all integers n ≥ G we have

gcd(a1 , an ) = gcd(a1 , an+1 ).

Proof Clearly gcd(a1 , an ) ≤ a1 for all n. So the result follows from lemma 3 because
gcd(a1 , an ) can increase only finitely many times for n ≥ N .
Lemma 5 For all integers n ≥ G we have an+1 ≤ an .
Proof From lemma 4, there is a positive integer g such that gcd(a1 , an ) = g for
all n ≥ G. Hence the numbers bn = agn are integers for n = 1 and for all integers
n ≥ G. Moreover gcd(b1 , bn ) = 1 for all n ≥ G.
From lemma 1 it follows that
bn bn+1 − bn b1 bn + b2n+1 − bn bn+1
+ =
bn+1 b1 b1 bn+1

is an integer for all n ≥ G. Thus bn+1 | b1 bn + b2n+1 − bn bn+1 , and so bn+1 | b1 bn .

Since gcd(b1 , bn+1 ) = 1, it follows that bn+1 | bn , and so bn+1 ≤ bn for all n ≥ G.
Multiplying by g yields an+1 ≤ an for all n ≥ G.
Lemma 6 There is a positive integer M such that an = an+1 for all n ≥ M .
Proof Clearly an ≥ 1 for all n. So the result follows from lemma 5 because an can
decrease only finitely many times for n ≥ G.

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Comment The next solution uses the following machinery of p-adic valuations.
For each prime number p, the p-adic valuation νp is defined as follows. If n is any
positive integer, then νp (n) denotes the exponent of p in the prime factorisation of n.
For example, if n = 24 = 23 · 31 , then ν2 (n) = 3, ν3 (n) = 1, and νp (n) = 0 for any
prime p > 3. We also have by convention νp (0) = +∞.
It is straightforward to prove the following standard properties of νp for any positive
integers m and n.

• νp (mn) = νp (m) + νp (n)

• νp (m ± n) ≥ min{νp (m), νp (n)}
• νp (m ± n) = min{νp (m), νp (n)} whenever νp (m) = νp (n)

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Solution 2 (Guowen Zhang, year 12, St Joseph’s College, QLD. Guowen was a
Gold medallist with the 2018 Australian IMO team.)
an an+1 −an
As in solution 1, an+1
+ a1
is an integer for each n ≥ N . Hence, so also is

an an+1 − an (a1 − an+1 )(an − an+1 )

+ −1= . (1)
an+1 a1 a1 an+1

Thus an+1 | (a1 − an+1 )(an − an+1 ), and so an+1 | a1 an . It follows inductively that
for any integer n ≥ N , the set of prime divisors of an is a subset of the set of prime
divisors of a1 aN .
To solve the given problem it suffices to show that for each prime divisor p of a1 aN ,
the sequence νp (a1 ), νp (a2 ), . . . is eventually constant. In what follows p is a fixed
prime divisor of a1 aN , and ν means νp .
Since RHS(1) is an integer, we require ν(a1 an+1 ) ≤ ν((a1 − an+1 )(an − an+1 )).
Therefore
ν(a1 ) + ν(an+1 ) ≤ ν(a1 − an+1 ) + ν(an − an+1 ). (2)

Case 1 ν(an ) = ν(a1 ) for some n ≥ N

Let ν(a1 ) = ν(an ) = a and ν(an+1 ) = c.
If c = a, then (2) yields the following contradiction.

a + c ≤ min{a, c} + min{a, c} < a + c

Thus c = a. So if ν(an ) = ν(a1 ) for some n ≥ N , then ν(an+1 ) = ν(a1 ). This

inductively implies that ν(am ) is constant for all m ≥ n, as desired.
Case 2 ν(an ) = ν(a1 ) for all n ≥ N
Let ν(a1 ) = a, ν(an ) = b, and ν(an+1 ) = c. Note that a = b and a = c.
If b < c, then (2) yields the following contradiction.

a + c ≤ min{a, c} + min{b, c} ≤ a + b < a + c

Thus b ≥ c. So if ν(an ) = ν(a1 ) for all n ≥ N , then ν(an ) ≥ ν(an+1 ) for all n ≥ N .
But the sequence ν(an ) ≥ ν(an+1 ) ≥ ν(an+2 ) ≥ · · · strictly decreases only finitely
many times. Hence it is eventually constant, as desired.

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6. Solution 1 (Dan Carmon, Leader of the 2018 Israeli IMO team)
We start with some results about trapeziums that we will use later.
Lemma 1 Let a, b, c, d be the sides of any trapezium (with a parallel to c), and
diagonals e, f . Then
e2 + f 2 = b2 + d2 + 2ac. (1)

Proof This is straightforward using vectors. Let the trapezium be ABCD where
a = AB, b = BC, c = CD, and d = AD. For an arbitrary origin O, let A, B, C, D
−→ −→ −→ −→
also represent the vectors OA, OB, OC, OD. We have

LHS(1) = (A − C) · (A − C) + (B − D) · (B − D). (2)

Also since a and c are parallel, we have

RHS(1) = (B − C) · (B − C) + (A − D) · (A − D) + 2(A − B) · (D − C). (3)

It is straightforward to expand RHS(2) and RHS(3) and verify that they are both
equal to
|A|2 + |B|2 + |C|2 + |D|2 − 2A · C − 2B · D.

Lemma 2 (Trapezium inequality) Let a, b, c, d be the sides of a non-cyclic trapez-

ium (a parallel to c), and e, f be its diagonals, with f > e. Then

f 2 > ac + bd > e2 .

Proof Using lemma 1, we have

2 e2 + f 2 b2 + d2 + 2ac 2bd + 2ac

f ≥ = ≥ = ac + bd.
2 2 2
Also from Ptolemy’s inequality we have

ac + bd > ef > f 2 .

With lemma 2 in hand, we proceed to the proof of the given problem.

Assume, for the sake of contradiction, that ∠BXA + ∠DXC = 180◦ . Due to the
symmetry in the problem statement, we may suppose without loss of generality that

∠BXA + ∠DXC > 180◦ > ∠CXB + ∠AXD.

Construct ABY externally on the side AB of ABCD so that ABY ∼ DCX.

Since ∠Y BA = ∠XCD = ∠XAB, we have AY BX is a trapezium with AY XB.
From ∠BXA + ∠DXC > 180◦ , we have ∠BXA + ∠AY B > 180◦ . Hence AB is the
longer diagonal of trapezium AY BX. From the trapezium inequality we have

AB 2 > XA · BY + XB · AY. (4)

From ABY ∼ DCX, we have

BY AB XC · AB
= ⇒ BY = ,
CX DC CD

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Mathematics Contests The Australian Scene 2018 | International Mathematical Olympiad Solutions | 176
and
AY AB XD · AB
= ⇒ AY = .
DX DC CD
Substituting these values into (4) and rearranging yields

AB · CD > XA · XC + XB · XD. (5)

B
C
Y

A D

Next construct BCZ externally on ABCD so that BCZ ∼ ADX. Since

∠ZCB = ∠XDA = ∠XBC, we have BZCX is a trapezium with CZ XB.
From ∠CXB + ∠AXD < 180◦ , we have ∠CXB + ∠BZC > 180◦ and so BC is the
shorter diagonal of trapezium BZCX. From the trapezium inequality we have

BC 2 < XB · CZ + XC · BZ. (6)

From BCZ ∼ ADX, we have

CZ BC XD · BC
= ⇒ CZ = ,
DX AD AD
and
BZ BC XA · BC
= ⇒ BZ = .
AX AD AD
Substituting these values into (6) and rearranging a little yields

BC · AD > XB · XD + XA · XC. (7)

Finally, comparing (5) and (7) yields

AB · CD > BC · DA,

which contradicts AB · CD = BC · DA.

75
Mathematics Contests The Australian Scene 2018 | International Mathematical Olympiad Solutions | 177
Solution 2 (Andrew Elvey Price, Deputy Leader of the 2018 Australian IMO
team)
This solution is via an inversion about the point A.
First we deal with the case where no two sides of ABCD are parallel. We may
assume without loss of generality that ray AB intersects ray DC at some point P
and ray AD intersects ray BC at some point Q. It follows from the given angle
conditions that quadrilaterals DXBQ and P CXA are cyclic.

B
C

A D Q

Now we invert the diagram around the point A, sending each point Z = A to the
point Z on the ray AZ which satisfies AZ · AZ = 1.
We will utilise the following standard properties of inversion.

• Any line passing through A is sent to itself.

• Any circle passing through A is sent to a line not passing through A and
vice versa.
• Any circle not passing through A is sent to a circle not passing through A.
• If Y and Z are sent to Y and Z , respectively, then AY Z ∼ AZ Y .

We now analyse the diagram resulting from the inversion. Since A, D, Q lie on a line
in that order, the point Q lies on segment AD . Similarly, P lies on segment AB .
Since C lies within angle BAD, this is also true of C . Moreover, as C is the inter-
section of lines BQ and DP , its image C is the intersection of circles AB Q and
AD P .
The given length condition can be rewritten as
BC CD
= .
AB AD

Converting this to the inverted diagram using the similarities ABC ∼ AC B
and ADC ∼ AC D yields
BC C D
=
AC AC
and so B C = C D .

76
Mathematics Contests The Australian Scene 2018 | International Mathematical Olympiad Solutions | 178
Finally, X is an intersection of circles DBQ and P CA, so X is an intersection of line
P C with circle D B Q . In order to determine which of these two intersection points
is X , we will need to use the condition that X lies inside quadrilateral ABCD. In
the inverted diagram, this means that X lies within angle B AD , but outside circles
AB C and AC D .

Y
B

X1 = X
C

P
X2

A Q D

Using circles AP C D and AQ C B , we deduce

\CP B = \CD Q and \CB P = \CQ D .
Hence C B P ∼ C Q D , and so \B C P = \Q C D . Thus line C P is the
reflection of line C Q in the angle bisector of B C D . However, since B C = C D ,
this angle bisector is also the perpendicular bisector of B D .
Let Y be the second intersection of line C Q with circle B D Q , and let X1 and
X2 be the reflections of Y and Q in the perpendicular bisector of B D . Since the
perpendicular bisector of B D passes through the centre of circle B D Q , the points
X1 and X2 lie on this circle, so either X = X1 or X = X2 . We will show that the
latter is impossible.
Suppose, for the sake of contradiction, that X2 = X . Then X2 lies within angle
B AD . Since X2 is the reflection of Q in the perpendicular bisector of B D , we
have X2 Q B D , and so X2 lies within angle AQ B . Together these imply that
X = X2 lies inside triangle AB Q , which is inside circle AB C Q . This contradicts
the fact that X lies inside the quadrilateral ABCD. Hence X = X1 .
Now we prove the statement in question, that is,
\BXA + \DXC = 180◦ . (1)
But \DXC = 360◦ − \CXA − \AXD, and so (1) is equivalent to
\BXA + 180◦ = \CXA + \AXD. (2)
Converting this to the inverted diagram using the similarities AXB ∼ AB X ,
AXC ∼ AC X , and AXD ∼ AD X , this is the same as
\AB X + 180◦ = \AC X + \X D A. (3)

77
Mathematics Contests The Australian Scene 2018 | International Mathematical Olympiad Solutions | 179
The proof of (3) is an angle chase as follows.
We have

∠AC X = ∠AC Q + ∠Q C X

= ∠AB Q + ∠Q C X (circle AB C Q )
= ∠AB Q + ∠Q Y X + ∠Y X C (exterior angle C X Y )
= ∠AB Q + ∠Q B X + ∠Y X C (circle B Q D X )
= ∠AB X + ∠Y X C .

Thus (3) is equivalent to

∠Y X C + ∠X D Q = 180◦ . (4)

Recall that lines P C X and Q C Y are symmetric with respect to the perpendicular
bisector of B D , which passes through the centre of circle B Q D X Y . Hence

∠Y X C = ∠C Y X = ∠Q Y X = 180◦ − ∠X D Q ,

where the last equality follows from circle Q D X Y . Hence we have established (4),
as desired. This concludes the proof in the case that no two sides of ABCD are
parallel.
For the case where either AB DC or AD BC, essentially the same proof applies.
The only difference is that if AB DC, we set P = A in the inverted diagram, and
the circle AC D is tangent to AB at this point, while if AD BC, we set Q = A,
and the circle AB C is tangent to AD at this point.

78
Mathematics Contests The Australian Scene 2018 | International Mathematical Olympiad Solutions | 180
ORIGIN OF SOME QUESTIONS

2018 AMOC Senior Contest

Questions 1 and 5 were submitted by Angelo Di Pasquale.
Questions 2 and 3 were submitted by Norman Do.
Question 4 was submitted by Andrew Elvey Price.

2018 Australian Mathematical Olympiad

Questions 1, 3, 4, 7 and 8 were submitted by Angelo Di Pasquale.
Question 2 was submitted by Mike Clapper.
Questions 5 and 6 were submitted by Norman Do.

2018 Asian Pacific Mathematics Olympiad

Questions 2 and 3 were composed by Angelo Di Pasquale and submitted by the AMOC Senior
Problems Committee.

2018 International Mathematical Olympiad

Although no problem submitted by Australia appeared on the final IMO papers, one appeared on the
IMO 2018 shortlist, which will be available to the public after the conclusion of IMO 2019.
Problem G2 on the 2018 IMO shortlist was composed by Andrew Elvey Price. Andrew is a member of
the AMOC Senior Problems Committee. He represented Australia at the 2008 IMO and the 2009 IMO,
where he was awarded a Silver medal and a Gold medal, respectively.

Mathematics Contests The Australian Scene 2018 | Origin of Some Questions | 181
AMOC HONOUR ROLL 1979–2018
Because of changing titles and affiliations, the most senior title achieved and later affiliations are
generally used, except for the Interim committee, where they are listed as they were at the time.

Interim Committee 1979–1980

Mr P J O’Halloran Canberra College of Advanced Education, Chair
Prof A L Blakers University of Western Australia
Dr J M Gani Australian Mathematical Society
Prof B H Neumann Australian National University
Prof G E Wall University of Sydney
Mr J L Williams University of Sydney

Australian Mathematical Olympiad Committee

The Australian Mathematical Olympiad Committee was founded at a meeting of the Australian Academy of
Science at its meeting of 2–3 April 1980.
* Denotes Executive Position
Chair*
Prof B H Neumann Australian National University 7 years; 1980–1986
Prof G B Preston Monash University 10 years; 1986–1995
Prof A P Street University of Queensland 6 years; 1996–2001
Prof C Praeger University of Western Australia 17 years; 2002–2018
Deputy Chair*
Prof P J O’Halloran University of Canberra 15 years; 1980–1994
Prof A P Street University of Queensland 1 year; 1995
Prof C Praeger University of Western Australia 6 years; 1996–2001
Assoc Prof D Hunt University of New South Wales 14 years; 2002–2015
Prof Andrew Hassell Australian National University 3 years; 2016–2018
Executive Director*
Prof P J O’Halloran University of Canberra 15 years; 1980–1994
Prof P J Taylor University of Canberra 18 years; 1994–2012
Adj Prof M Clapper University of Canberra 4 years; 2013–2016
Mr Nathan Ford University of Canberra 2 years; 2017–2018
Chief Mathematician
Mr Mike Clapper Melbourne 2 years; 2017–2018
Secretary
Prof J C Burns Australian Defence Force Academy 9 years; 1980–1988
Vacant 4 years; 1989–1992
Mrs K Doolan Victorian Chamber of Mines 6 years; 1993–1998
Treasurer*
Prof J C Burns Australian Defence Force Academy 8 years; 1981–1988
Prof P J O’Halloran University of Canberra 2 years; 1989–1990
Ms J Downes CPA 5 years; 1991–1995
Dr P Edwards Monash University 8 years; 1995–2002
Prof M Newman Australian National University 6 years; 2003–2008
Dr P Swedosh The King David School, Victoria 10 years; 2009–2018
Director of Mathematics Challenge for Young Australians*
Mr J B Henry Deakin University 17 years; 1990–2006
Dr K McAvaney Deakin University 13 years; 2006–2018
Chair, Senior Problems Committee
Prof B C Rennie James Cook University 1 year; 1980
Mr J L Williams University of Sydney 6 years; 1981–1986
Assoc Prof H Lausch Monash University 27 years; 1987–2013
Dr N Do Monash University 5 years; 2014–2018

Mathematics Contests The Australian Scene 2018 | AMOC Honour Roll 1979–2018 | 182
Director of Training*
Mr J L Williams University of Sydney 7 years; 1980–1986
Mr G Ball University of Sydney 3 years; 1987–1989
Dr D Paget University of Tasmania 6 years; 1990–1995
Dr M Evans Scotch College, Victoria 3 months; 1995
Assoc Prof D Hunt University of New South Wales 5 years; 1996–2000
Dr A Di Pasquale University of Melbourne 18 years; 2001–2018
IMO Team Leader
Mr J L Williams University of Sydney 5 years; 1981–1985
Assoc Prof D Hunt University of New South Wales 9 years; 1986, 1989, 1990, 1996–2001
Dr E Strzelecki Monash University 2 years; 1987, 1988
Dr D Paget University of Tasmania 5 years; 1991–1995
Dr A Di Pasquale University of Melbourne 16 years; 2002–2010, 2012–2018
Mr I Guo University of New South Wales 1 year; 2011
IMO Deputy Team Leader
Prof G Szekeres University of New South Wales 2 years; 1981–1982
Mr G Ball University of Sydney 7 years; 1983–1989
Dr D Paget University of Tasmania 1 year; 1990
Mr J Graham University of Sydney 3 years; 1991–1993
Dr M Evans Scotch College, Melbourne 3 years; 1994–1996
Dr A Di Pasquale University of Melbourne 5 years; 1997–2001
Mr D Mathews University of Melbourne 3 years; 2002–2004
Mr N Do University of Melbourne 4 years; 2005–2008
Mr I Guo University of New South Wales 4 years; 2009–2010, 2012–2013
Mr G White University of Sydney 1 year; 2011
Mr A Elvey Price Melbourne University 5 years; 2014–2018
EGMO Team Leader
Miss T Shaw SCEGGS Darlinghurst 1 year, 2018
EGMO Deputy Team Leader
Miss M Chen Melbourne University 1 year, 2018
State Directors
Australian Capital Territory
Prof M Newman Australian National University 1 year; 1980
Mr D Thorpe ACT Department of Education 2 years; 1981–1982
Dr R A Bryce Australian National University 7 years; 1983–1989
Mr R Welsh Canberra Grammar School 1 year; 1990
Mrs J Kain Canberra Grammar School 5 years; 1991–1995
Mr J Carty ACT Department of Education 17 years; 1995–2011
Mr J Hassall Burgmann Anglican School 2 years; 2012–2013
Dr C Wetherell St. Francis Xavier College 5 years; 2014–2018
New South Wales
Dr M Hirschhorn University of New South Wales 1 year; 1980
Mr G Ball University of Sydney 16 years; 1981–1996
Dr W Palmer University of Sydney 19 years; 1997–2015
A/Prof Daniel Daners University of Sydney 1 year; 2016
Dr Dzmitry Badziahin University of Sydney 2 years; 2017–2018
Northern Territory
Dr I Roberts Charles Darwin University 6 years; 2013–2018
Queensland
Dr N H Williams University of Queensland 21 years; 1980–2000
Dr G Carter Queensland University of Technology 10 years; 2001–2010
Dr V Scharaschkin University of Queensland 4 years; 2011–2014
Dr Alan Offer Queensland 4 years; 2015–2018
South Australia
Mr K Hamann Rostrevor 19 years; 1980–1982, 1991–2005; 2013
Mr V Treilibs SA Department of Education 8 years; 1983–1990
Dr M Peake Adelaide 7 years; 2006–2012
Mr D Martin Adelaide 5 years; 2014–2018

Mathematics Contests The Australian Scene 2018 | AMOC Honour Roll 1979–2018 | 183
Tasmania
Mr J Kelly Tasmanian Department of Education 8 years; 1980–1987
Dr D Paget University of Tasmania 8 years; 1988–1995
Mr W Evers St Michael’s Collegiate School 9 years; 1995–2003
Dr K Dharmadasa University of Tasmania 15 years; 2004–2018
Victoria
Dr D Holton University of Melbourne 3 years; 1980–1982
Mr B Harridge Melbourne High School 1 year; 1982
Ms J Downes CPA 6 years; 1983–1988
Mr L Doolan Melbourne Grammar School 9 years; 1989–1998
Dr P Swedosh The King David School 21 years; 1998–2018
Western Australia
Dr N Hoffman WA Department of Education 3 years; 1980–1982
Assoc Prof P Schultz University of Western Australia 14 years; 1983–1988,
1991–1994, 1996–1999
Assoc Prof W Bloom Murdoch University 2 years; 1989–1990
Dr E Stoyanova WA Department of Education 7 years; 1995, 2000–2005
Dr G Gamble University of Western Australia 13 years; 2006–2018
Editor
Prof P J O’Halloran University of Canberra 1 year; 1983
Dr A W Plank University of Southern Queensland 11 years; 1984–1994
Dr A Storozhev Australian Maths Trust 15 years; 1994–2008
Editorial Consultant
Dr O Yevdokimov University of Southern Queensland 10 years; 2009–2018
Other Members of AMOC (showing organisations represented where applicable)
Mr W J Atkins Australian Mathematics Foundation 18 years; 1995–2012
Mr M Bammann South Australia 1 year; 2018
Dr S Britton University of Sydney 8 years; 1990–1998
Prof G Brown Australian Academy of Science 10 years; 1980, 1986–1994
Dr R A Bryce Australian Mathematical Society 8 years; 1991–1998
Mathematics Challenge for Young Australians 14 years; 1999–2012
Mr G Cristofani Department of Education and Training 2 years; 1993–1994
Mr Josh Dean Tasmania 2 years; 2017–2018
Ms L Davis IBM Australia 4 years; 1991–1994
Dr W Franzsen Australian Catholic University 9 years; 1990–1998
Dr J Gani Australian Mathematical Society 1980
Assoc Prof T Gagen ANU AAMT Summer School 6 years; 1993–1998
Ms P Gould Department of Education and Training 2 years; 1995–1996
Mr Keith Hamann South Australia 4 years; 2015–2018
Mr Nhat Hoang Western Australia 1 year; 2018
Prof G M Kelly University of Sydney 6 years; 1982–1987
Ms J McIntosh Mathematics Challenge for Young Australians 7 years; 2012–2018
Prof R B Mitchell University of Canberra 5 years; 1991–1995
Ms Anna Nakos Mathematics Challenge for Young Australians 16 years; 2003–2018
Mr S Neal Department of Education and Training 4 years; 1990–1993
Prof M Newman Australian National University 13 years; 1986–1998
Mathematics Challenge for Young Australians 20 years; 1999–2018,
(Treasurer during the interim) 2003–2008
Prof R B Potts University of Adelaide 1980
Mr H Reeves Australian Association of Maths Teachers/ 16 years; 1988–1998,
Australian Mathematics Foundation 2014–2018
Mr N Reid IBM Australia 3 years; 1988–1990
Mr Martin Roberts Tasmania 4 years; 2014–2017
Mr R Smith Telecom Australia 5 years; 1990–1994
Prof P J Taylor Australian Mathematics Foundation 6 years; 1990–1994, 2013
Prof N S Trudinger Australian Mathematical Society 3 years; 1986–1988
Assoc Prof I F Vivian University of Canberra 1 year; 1990
Dr M W White IBM Australia 9 years; 1980–1988

Mathematics Contests The Australian Scene 2018 | AMOC Honour Roll 1979–2018 | 184
Associate Membership (inaugurated in 2000)
Ms S Britton 17 years; 2000–2016
Dr M Evans 19 years; 2000–2018
Dr W Franzsen 17 years; 2000–2016
Prof T Gagen 17 years; 2000–2016
Mr H Reeves 15 years; 2000–2014
Mr G Ball 13 years; 2004–2016
Mr I Guo 1 year; 2018

Mathematics Challenge for Young Australians

Problems Committee for Mathematics Challenge Stage
Dr K McAvaney Deakin University (Director) 13 years; 2006–2018;
Member 2 years; 2005–2006
Mr B Henry Victoria (Director) 17 years; 1990–2006
Member 12 years; 2007–2018
Prof P J O’Halloran University of Canberra 5 years; 1990–1994
Dr R A Bryce Australian National University 23 years; 1990–2012
Mr M Clapper Australian Maths Trust 6 years; 2013–2018
Ms L Corcoran Australian Capital Territory 3 years; 1990–1992
Ms B Denney New South Wales 9 years; 2010–2018
Mr J Dowsey University of Melbourne 8 years; 1995–2002
Mr A R Edwards Department of Education, Queensland 29 years; 1990–2018
Dr M Evans Scotch College, Victoria 6 years; 1990–1995
Assoc Prof H Lausch Monash University 24 years; 1990–2013
Ms J McIntosh Australian Mathematical Sciences Institute 17 years; 2002–2018
Mrs L Mottershead New South Wales 27 years; 1992–2018
Miss A Nakos Temple Christian College, South Australia 26 years; 1993–2018
Dr M Newman Australian National University 29 years; 1990–2018
Ms F Peel St Peter’s College, South Australia 2 years; 1999–2000
Dr I Roberts Charles Darwin University, NT 6 years; 2013–2018
Miss T Shaw SCEGGS, NSW 6 years; 2013–2018
Ms K Sims Blue Mountains Grammar School 20 years; 1999–2018
Dr A Storozhev Attorney General’s Department 23 years; 1994–2016
Prof P Taylor Australian Maths Trust 20 years; 1995–2014
Mrs A Thomas New South Wales 18 years; 1990–2007
Dr S Thornton Exec. Dir. reSolve 21 years; 1998–2018
Miss G Vardaro Wesley College, Victoria 25 years; 1993–2006, 2008–2018
Visiting members
Prof E Barbeau University of Toronto, Canada 1991, 2004, 2008
Prof G Berzsenyi Rose Hulman Institute of Technology, USA 1993, 2002
Dr L Burjan Department of Education, Slovakia 1993
Dr V Burjan Institute for Educational Research, Slovakia 1993
Mrs A Ferguson Canada 1992
Prof B Ferguson University of Waterloo, Canada 1992, 2005
Dr D Fomin St Petersburg State University, Russia 1994
Prof F Holland University College, Cork, Ireland 1994
Dr A Liu University of Alberta, Canada 1995, 2006, 2009
Prof Q Zhonghu Academy of Science, China 1995
Dr A Gardiner University of Birmingham, United Kingdom 1996
Prof P H Cheung Hong Kong 1997
Prof R Dunkley University of Waterloo, Canada 1997
Dr S Shirali India 1998
Mr M Starck New Caledonia 1999
Dr R Geretschlager Austria 1999, 2013
Dr A Soifer United States of America 2000
Prof M Falk de Losada Colombia 2000
Mr H Groves United Kingdom 2001
Prof J Tabov Bulgaria 2001, 2010
Prof A Andzans Latvia 2002
Prof Dr H-D Gronau University of Rostock, Germany 2003
Prof J Webb University of Cape Town, South Africa 2003, 2011

Mathematics Contests The Australian Scene 2018 | AMOC Honour Roll 1979–2018 | 185
Mr A Parris Lynwood High School, Christchurch, NZ 2004
Dr A McBride University of Strathclyde, United Kingdom 2007
Prof P Vaderlind Stockholm University, Sweden 2009, 2012
Prof A Jobbings United Kingdom 2014
Assoc Prof D Wells United States of America 2015
Emer. Fellow P Neumann Queen’s College Oxford UK 2016
Dr C Jones Alabama State University, USA 2018
Dr P Couch Lamar University, USA 2018
Moderators for Mathematics Challenge Stage
Mr W Akhurst New South Wales
Ms N Andrews ACER, Camberwell, Victoria
Mr L Bao Leopold Primary School, Victoria
Prof E Barbeau University of Toronto, Canada
Mr R Blackman Victoria
Ms J Breidahl St Paul’s Woodleigh, Victoria
Ms S Brink Glen Iris, Victoria
Prof J C Burns Australian Defence Force Academy
Mr J Carty ACT Department of Education, Australian Capital Territory
Mr A Canning Queensland
Mrs F Cannon New South Wales
Dr E Casling Australian Capital Territory
Mr B Darcy South Australia
Ms B Denney New South Wales
Mr J Dowsey Victoria
Mr S Ewington Sydney Grammar School, New South Wales
Br K Friel Trinity Catholic College, New South Wales
Dr D Fomin St Petersburg University, Russia
Mrs P Forster Penrhos College, Western Australia
Mr T Freiberg Queensland
Mr W Galvin University of Newcastle, New South Wales
Mr S Gardiner University of Sydney, New South Wales
Mr M Gardner North Virginia, USA
Ms P Graham Tasmania
Mr B Harridge University of Melbourne
Ms J Hartnett Queensland
Mr G Harvey Australian Capital Territory
Ms I Hill South Australia
Ms N Hill Victoria
Dr N Hoffman Edith Cowan University, Western Australia
Prof F Holland University College, Cork, Ireland
Mr D Jones Coff’s Harbour High School, New South Wales
Ms R Jorgensen Australian Capital Territory
Dr T Kalinowski University of Newcastle, New South Wales
Assoc Prof H Lausch Victoria
Mr J Lawson St Pius X School, Chatswood, New South Wales
Mr R Longmuir China
Dr K McAvaney Deakin University
Ms K McAsey Penleigh and Essendon Grammar School, Victoria
Ms J McIntosh University of Melbourne
Ms N McKinnon Victoria
Ms T McNamara Victoria
Mr G Meiklejohn Queensland School Curriculum Council, Queensland
Mr M O’Connor AMSI, Victoria
Mr J Oliver Northern Territory
Mr S Palmer New South Wales
Dr W Palmer University of Sydney
Mr A Peck Mt Carmel College, Tasmania
Mr G Pointer Marryatville High School, South Australia
Prof H Reiter University of North Carolina, USA
Mr M Richardson Yarraville Primary School, Victoria
Mr G Samson Nedlands Primary School, Western Australia
Mr J Sattler Parramatta High School, New South Wales

Mathematics Contests The Australian Scene 2018 | AMOC Honour Roll 1979–2018 | 186
Mr A Saunder Victoria
Mr W Scott Seven Hills West Public School, New South Wales
Mr R Shaw Hale School, Western Australia
Miss T Shaw New South Wales
Dr B Sims University of Newcastle
Dr H Sims Victoria
Ms K Sims Blue Mountains Grammar School, New South Wales
Prof J Smit The Netherlands
Ms C Smith St Paul’s School, Queensland
Ms D Smith Inquisitive Minds, New South Wales
Mrs M Spandler New South Wales
Mr G Spyker Curtin University
Ms C Stanley Queensland Study Authority (Primary), Queensland
Ms R Stone Plympton Primary School, South Australia
Dr E Strzelecki Monash University, Victoria
Dr M Sun New South Wales
Mr P Swain Ivanhoe Girls Grammar School, Victoria
Dr P Swedosh The King David School, Victoria
Prof J Tabov Academy of Sciences, Bulgaria
Mrs A Thomas New South Wales
Ms K Trudgian Queensland
Prof J Webb University of Capetown, South Africa
Assoc Prof D Wells North Carolina, USA
Ms J Vincent Melbourne Girls Grammar School, Victoria

Mathematics Enrichment development

Mathematics Enrichment Series Committee — Development Team (1992–1995)
Mr B Henry Victoria (Chairman)
Prof P O’Halloran University of Canberra (Director)
Mr G Ball University of Sydney
Dr M Evans Scotch College, Victoria
Mr K Hamann South Australia
Assoc Prof H Lausch Monash University
Dr A Storozhev Australian Maths Trust, Australian Capital Territory
Pólya Enrichment Series — Development Team (1992–1995)
Mr G Ball University of Sydney (Editor)
Mr K Hamann South Australia (Editor)
Prof J Burns Australian Defence Force Academy
Mr J Carty Merici College, Australian Capital Territory
Dr H Gastineau-Hill University of Sydney
Mr B Henry Victoria
Assoc Prof H Lausch Monash University
Prof P O’Halloran University of Canberra
Dr A Storozhev Australian Maths Trust, Australian Capital Territory
Pólya Enrichment Series — Development Team (2013–2015)
Adj Prof M Clapper Australian Maths Trust (Editor)
Dr R Atkins New Zealand
Dr A Di Pasquale University of Melbourne
Dr R Geretschlager Austria
Dr D Mathews Monash University
Dr K McAvaney Australian Maths Trust
Euler Enrichment Series — Development Team (1992–1995)
Dr M Evans Scotch College, Victoria (Editor)
Mr B Henry Victoria (Editor)
Mr L Doolan Melbourne Grammar School, Victoria
Mr K Hamann South Australia
Assoc Prof H Lausch Monash University
Prof P O’Halloran University of Canberra
Mrs A Thomas Meriden School, New South Wales

Mathematics Contests The Australian Scene 2018 | AMOC Honour Roll 1979–2018 | 187
Gauss Enrichment Series — Development Team (1993–1995)
Dr M Evans Scotch College, Victoria (Editor)
Mr B Henry Victoria (Editor)
Mr W Atkins University of Canberra
Mr G Ball University of Sydney
Prof J Burns Australian Defence Force Academy
Mr L Doolan Melbourne Grammar School, Victoria
Mr A Edwards Mildura High School, Victoria
Mr N Gale Hornby High School, New Zealand
Dr N Hoffman Edith Cowan University
Prof P O’Halloran University of Canberra
Dr W Pender Sydney Grammar School, New South Wales
Mr R Vardas Dulwich Hill High School, New South Wales
Noether Enrichment Series — Development Team (1994–1995)
Dr M Evans Scotch College, Victoria (Editor)
Dr A Storozhev Australian Maths Trust, Australian Capital Territory (Editor)
Mr B Henry Victoria
Dr D Fomin St Petersburg University, Russia
Mr G Harvey New South Wales
Newton Series — Development Team (2001–2002)
Mr B Henry Victoria (Editor)
Mr J Dowsey University of Melbourne
Mrs L Mottershead New South Wales
Ms G Vardaro Annesley College, South Australia
Ms A Nakos Temple Christian College, South Australia
Mrs A Thomas New South Wales
Dirichlet Series — Development Team (2001–2003)
Mr B Henry Victoria (Editor)
Mr A Edwards Ormiston College, Queensland
Ms A Nakos Temple Christian College, South Australia
Mrs L Mottershead New South Wales
Mrs K Sims Chapman Primary School, Australian Capital Territory
Mrs A Thomas New South Wales
Ramanujan Enrichment Series — Development Team (2014–2016)
Mr B Henry Victoria (Editor)
Adj Prof M Clapper Australian Maths Trust
Ms A Nakos Temple Christian College, South Australia
Mr A Edwards Department of Education, Queensland
Dr K McAvaney Australian Maths Trust
Dr I Roberts Charles Darwin University, NT

Australian Intermediate Mathematics Olympiad Committee

Dr K McAvaney Deakin University (Chair) 12 years; 2007–2018
Mr J Dowsey University of Melbourne 18 years; 1999–2016
Dr M Evans Australian Mathematical Sciences Institute 20 years; 1999–2018
Mr B Henry Victoria (Chair) 8 years; 1999–2006
Member 12 years; 2007–2018
Assoc Prof H Lausch Monash University 17 years; 1999–2015
Mr R Longmuir China 2 years; 1999–2000
Adj Prof M Clapper Australian Maths Trust 5 years; 2014–2018
Dr D Mathews Monash University 2 years; 2017–2018

Mathematics Contests The Australian Scene 2018 | AMOC Honour Roll 1979–2018 | 188
AMOC Senior Problems Committee
Current members
Mr M Clapper Australian Maths Trust 6 years; 2013–2018
Dr Alice Devillers University of Western Australia 3 years; 2016–2018
Dr A Di Pasquale University of Melbourne 18 years; 2001–2018
Dr N Do Monash University (Chair) 5 years; 2014–2018
(Member) 11 years; 2003–2013
Mr I Guo University of Sydney 11 years; 2008–2018
Dr J Kupka Monash University 16 years; 2003–2018
Dr K McAvaney Deakin University 23 years; 1996–2018
Dr D Mathews Monash University 18 years; 2001–2018
Dr A Offer Queensland 7 years; 2012–2018
Dr C Rao Victoria 19 years; 1999–2018
Dr B Saad Monash University 25 years; 1994–2018
Dr J Simpson Curtin University 20 years; 1999–2018
Dr I Wanless Monash University 19 years; 2000–2018
Previous members
Mr G Ball University of Sydney 16 years; 1982–1997
Mr M Brazil LaTrobe University 5 years; 1990–1994
Dr M S Brooks University of Canberra 8 years; 1983–1990
Dr G Carter Queensland University of Technology 10 years; 2001–2010
Dr M Evans Australian Mathematical Sciences Institute 28 years; 1990–2016
Mr J Graham University of Sydney 1 year; 1992
Dr M Herzberg Telecom Australia 1 year; 1990
Assoc Prof D Hunt University of New South Wales 29 years; 1986–2014
Assoc Prof H Lausch Monash University (Chair) 28 years; 1987–2013
(Member) 2 years; 2014–2015
Dr L Kovacs Australian National University 5 years; 1981–1985
Dr D Paget University of Tasmania 7 years; 1989–1995
Prof P Schultz University of Western Australia 8 years; 1993–2000
Dr L Stoyanov University of Western Australia 5 years; 2001–2005
Dr E Strzelecki Monash University 5 years; 1986–1990
Dr E Szekeres University of New South Wales 7 years; 1981–1987
Prof G Szekeres University of New South Wales 7 years; 1981–1987
Emerit Prof P Taylor Australian Maths Trust 1 year; 2013
Dr N H Williams University of Queensland 20 years; 1981–2000

Mathematics School of Excellence

Dr S Britton University of Sydney (Coordinator) 2 years; 1990–1991
Mr L Doolan Melbourne Grammar (Coordinator) 6 years; 1992, 1993–1997
Mr W Franzsen Australian Catholic University (Coordinator) 2 years; 1990–1991
Dr D Paget University of Tasmania (Director) 6 years; 1990–1995
Assoc Prof D Hunt University of New South Wales (Director) 5 years; 1996–2000
Dr A Di Pasquale University of Melbourne (Director) 17 years; 2001–2018

International Mathematical Olympiad Selection School

Mr G Ball University of Sydney (Director) 6 years; 1984–1989
Mr L Doolan Melbourne Grammar (Coordinator) 3 years; 1989–1991
Dr S Britton University of Sydney (Coordinator) 7 years; 1992–1998
Mr W Franzsen Australian Catholic University (Coordinator) 8 years; 1992–1996; 1999–2001
Dr D Paget University of Tasmania (Director) 6 years; 1990–1995
Mr J L Williams University of Sydney (Director) 2 years; 1982–1983
Assoc Prof D Hunt University of New South Wales (Director) 5 years; 1996–2000
Dr A Di Pasquale University of Melbourne (Director) 18 years; 2001–2018

Mathematics Contests The Australian Scene 2018 | AMOC Honour Roll 1979–2018 | 189

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