DRAFT and INCOMPLETE

Table of Contents
from

A. P. Sakis Meliopoulos and George J. Cokkinides

Electric Power Quality

Chapter 1 ___________________________________________________________________ 2
Power Quality – Basic Concepts _________________________________________________ 2
1.1 Introduction __________________________________________________________________ 2
1.2 Equipment Susceptibility ________________________________________________________ 6
3.0 Typical PQ Problems ___________________________________________________________ 8
4.0 Definitions ____________________________________________________________________ 8
4.1 Sinusoidal Steady State Operation (SSS) ___________________________________________________9
4.2 Periodic Steady State Operation (PSS) ____________________________________________________11
4.3 Three-Phase Systems and Symmetrical Components _________________________________________14
4.4 Real and Reactive Power - SSS _________________________________________________________21
4.5 Real, Reactive and Distortion Power - PSS ________________________________________________24
4.6 Total Harmonic Distortion _____________________________________________________________26
4.7 Telephone Influence Factor ____________________________________________________________30
4.8 Voltage Sags and Swells _______________________________________________________________33
4.9 Flicker _____________________________________________________________________________36
4.10 K-Factor __________________________________________________________________________36
5.0 Stray Voltages and Currents ____________________________________________________ 38
6.0 Electromagnetic Interference ___________________________________________________ 39
7.0 Power Quality and Grounding Practices __________________________________________ 43
8.0 Power Quality Research Issues __________________________________________________ 51
9.0 Problems ____________________________________________________________________ 53
 Electric Power Quality: Chapter 1 – Meliopoulos & Cokkinides

Chapter 1
Power Quality – Basic Concepts

1.1 Introduction

Electric power quality is loosely defined as the ability of the system to (a) deliver electric power
service of sufficiently high quality so that the end-use equipment will operate within their design
specifications and (b) of sufficient reliability so that the operation of end-use equipment will be
continuous. The first requirement implies that the electric power service should be provided with
near sinusoidal voltage waveforms at near rated magnitude and at near rated frequency. The
second requirement refers to continuity of service. From this loose definition, it must be apparent
that power quality is very much dependent upon the characteristics of end-use equipment and
their design characteristics in terms of tolerances for voltage and frequency deviations.

Electric power quality has become an important consideration in many applications mainly
because of the increased number of sensitive electric loads. The causes and problems that impact
power quality have been in existence since the early days of electric power systems. However, in
the past, electric loads were simpler and more rugged and thus not as sensitive to power quality
deviations. Figure 1.1 illustrates a typical distribution system of a few decades ago. Note the
lack of sensitive electronic load. As microelectronics has infiltrated in most modern equipment
and appliances, the electric load has become more sensitive to electric power service
disturbances. Figure 1.2 illustrates a modern electric power distribution system. Note the
abundance of sensitive electronic equipment, such as computers, variable speed drives, static
VAR compensators, various communications systems etc.

The causes of poor power quality are multiple and complex. The quality of power at the
consumer site is affected by (a) temporary disturbances that may originate anywhere in the
system and (b) waveform distortion caused by nonlinear loads. The sources of disturbances are
multiple and with varying parameters. For example in many places of the world, the most
frequent disturbances originate from lightning activity near electrical installations. Lightning
may result in flashover causing voltage sags to some portion of the distribution system, voltage
swell to other areas, as well as interruption of power. The number of customers affected depends
on the design of the system and placement of interruption devices, while the level of voltage sags
or swells may depend on the grounding system, size of neutral, etc. Thus the grounding system
design plays an important role on the performance of the system from the PQ point of view. This
interrelationship will be explored in this book. Models will be presented that quantify the impact
of grounding system design on the power quality. It is important to note that many of the causes
are randomly distributed both in time and in space. Statistical methods represent the best way for
meaningful assessment of their effects on power quality. Statistical methods combined with
physically based models of the system provide an excellent tool for correlating design options to
power quality performance. This approach is also explored in this book with the use of Monte

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Carlo simulation techniques. Monte Carlo simulation techniques provide meaningful and cost
effective design procedures that maximize power quality.

Figure 1.1 Electric Power Distribution System – Past

A variety of temporary disturbances affect power quality. We have mentioned lightning as one
of the causes of reduced power quality. Additional types of temporary disturbances which are
discussed in this book are: switching, power faults, feeder energization inrush currents, motor
start transients, load imbalance, harmonics and resonance, EMI, etc. The effects of these
disturbances on the end user are voltage distortion, voltage sags, voltage swells, outages, voltage
imbalance, etc. These effects may have different levels of impact, depending on the
susceptibility of the end-user equipment. As end-user equipment becomes more sensitive, these
effects are labeled as power quality problems. The impact of these temporary disturbances can be
mitigated by modifications of circuit layout, grounding system design, overvoltage protection,
filters, steel conduit, additional transformers, etc. The effectiveness of these design options on
power quality can be analyzed with appropriate models and analysis procedures.

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 Electric Power Quality: Chapter 1 – Meliopoulos & Cokkinides

Energy Management
System

Optical Fiber
Communications

Distribution Management
System

CATV&
Sensitive Load
Communications

Static
Conditioner
Variable
Speed
Drives

Figure 1.2 Present Day Electric Power Distribution System

Two other related issues are: (a) stray voltages and currents, and (b) safety. Stray voltages and
currents have received attention because of several high profile cases involving livestock. Stray
voltages occur whenever potential differences develop between grounding electrodes of a power
system. These voltages cause currents to flow through the earth, known as stray currents. Stray
voltages and currents may transfer to any subsystem, which is electrically connected to the
electric power system. Stray voltages pose an electric shock hazard to people or animals that
may touch metallic objects electrically connected to the power grounding system. If substantial
stray currents are flowing through the soil, a potential gradient develops along the soil surface
which may again pose an electric shock hazard to people or animals standing on the soil. Note
that stray voltages and currents are typically caused by load imbalance in a three-phase power
system, and thus they are of persistent continuous nature (i.e. it lasts for a long time).

Safety. Asymmetrical faults in transmission or distribution circuits (i.e. short circuits between
one or two phase conductors and the neutral or ground conductor) cause voltage elevation of the
neutral of the system with respect to the earth voltage. Since customer installation grounding
systems, metallic equipment cases etc, are electrically connected to the neutral, the elevated

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neutral voltage is transferred to many locations causing an electric shock hazard. This voltage is
most severe during faults on the transmission or distribution circuits. Unlike stray voltages, fault
induced ground potential rise lasts a short time i.e. for the duration of the fault. As with stray
voltages, it is also possible to transfer these voltages to end users via the system neutral and/or
the grounding conductors. Both the temporary neutral voltage elevation and the stray voltages
present the danger of electric shock.

So far we have discussed disturbances that originate within the power system (switchings, etc.)
or they are imposed to the system from exogenous factors (i.e. lightning) and may cause power
quality problems. Another source of power quality problems can be end-use equipment or certain
power system apparatus. Specifically, recent advances in power electronics resulted in a large
number of switching devices, which are directly connected to the power system. These devices
may be end-use equipment (electric motor drives, air-conditioning units, etc.) or power
apparatus, which perform a specific control function (static VAR compensators, transformer tap
controllers, etc.). A subclass of these devices controls the power quality and they affect system
performance. These devices interact with the power system, may distort the voltage waveform
(thus generating harmonics) and also are subjected to all transients, which are generated by the
power system. The dynamic interaction of these devices with the electric power system may
have a profound effect on power quality and it is explored in this book. What is unique about
these devices is that they can be designed to improve power quality.

In this book we will discuss the physical phenomena that affect power quality, introduce the
various metrics that measure power quality and we will focus on power system models and
analyses procedures that provide the interrelationship between the design parameters of the
system and the effects on power quality.

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1.2 Equipment Susceptibility

We have discussed that equipment susceptibility plays a great role in power quality. The
susceptibility of equipment to power quality disturbances has been addressed since the early
days of computers, i.e. the first sensitive electronic loads of electric power systems. The
Computer Business Equipment and Manufacturers Association (CBEMA) have studied
extensively the response of large mainframe computers to power quality deviations. The result of
these investigations is known as the “CBEMA curve”, which was first published in the seventies.
The CBEMA curve is illustrated in Figure 1.3. The CBEMA curve defines a region of
acceptable power quality in terms of voltage deviation from the nominal value versus the
deviation duration. Note that as the duration of the voltage deviation increases, the acceptable
voltage deviation range decreases.

250

200 Overvoltage Conditions

Percent Change in Bus Voltage

150
0.5 Cycle

100

50

Acceptable
0 Power Rated Voltage
8.33 ms

-50
Undervoltage Conditions
-100
0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000
Time (seconds)

Figure 1.3. The CBEMA Power Acceptability Curve

One of the issues relative to the acceptable power region is that it is device dependent. For
example, as power supply technology for computer equipment has advanced, computers can
tolerate higher deviations of power quality. Thus the evolution of electronics technology has
rendered the CBEMA curve inaccurate. For this reason, in 1996 a new power acceptability
curve was published by the successor of the CBEMA, the Information Technology Industry

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 Electric Power Quality: Chapter 1 – Meliopoulos & Cokkinides

Council (ITIC). The new “curve” is known as the ITIC power acceptability curve and it is
illustrated in Figure 1.4.

250

200 Overvoltage Conditions

Percent Change in Bus Voltage

150

0.5 Cycle
100

50
+10%
Acceptable
0 Power Rated Voltage
8.33 ms

-50
Undervoltage Conditions
-100
0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000
Time (seconds)

Figure 1.4. The ITIC Power Acceptability Curve

For a specific class of end-use equipment, the susceptibility curve can be derived from careful
consideration of the design characteristics of the equipment including their protection system.
Many times the protection design of the equipment defines the acceptable power region shape.
These procedures are discussed in this book.

In this book, we will also discuss methods for assessing the power quality level at a specific site.
The basic approach is to determine the actual disturbances that will reach specific equipment and
then compare these disturbances to the susceptibility of this equipment. The actual disturbances
depend on the design parameters of the system as well as its exposure to exogenous factors such
as lightning. The disturbances are random in nature and therefore, this assessment must be
probabilistic. In addition, since disturbances cannot be avoided altogether at reasonable cost,
these methods strive to provide a cost versus benefit evaluation. These methods will be discussed
later in this book.

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3.0 Typical PQ Problems

Power quality problems can be classified in terms of the type of deviation from the nominal
magnitude sinusoidal voltage. A list of these classes is given in Table 1.1 along with a brief
explanation and their causes. Each one of these phenomena, their causes and mathematical
models are discussed in other chapters of this book.

Table 1.1 Common Power Quality Problems

Disturbance Type Description and Causes

Noise Voltage and current deviations from the sinusoidal waveform
without any specific pattern and in general of high frequency
content
Harmonics Voltage and current deviations from the sinusoidal waveform with a
specific pattern that is repeatable each cycle of the base frequency of
the system. Sources of harmonics are switching devices and
nonlinear devices.
Notches Voltage sags of short duration relative to the period of the power
frequency. Sources of voltage notches are switching electronic
devices and commutation circuits
Sags and swells Voltage sags or swells, primarily at the fundamental power
frequency that last a few cycles of the power frequency. Ground
faults typically cause voltage sags at certain locations and voltage
swells at other locations of the power system.
Outages Loss of voltage or voltage sag to a value below 10% of nominal,
lasting more than 4 milliseconds. The causes are faults and
subsequent protective device action to disconnect the faulted
circuits.
Transients Oscillatory voltage or current deviations from the sinusoidal
waveform of relatively high frequency. Sources are numerous, such
as lightning, switching, abrupt load level changes, load energization,
etc.
Frequency Deviations Changes of the voltage and current fundamental frequency. The
cause is generator rotational speed oscillations.
Spikes or Impulses Overvoltages of short duration and typically non-oscillatory. The
cause is typically lightning or inductive component switching.
Flicker Slow oscillatory variations of the voltage RMS value. Frequencies
of these variations may be in the range 0.1 to 20 Hertz. The causes
are variations of major electric loads such as steel mills.

4.0 Definitions

This section provides pertinent definitions used in power quality assessment procedures.

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4.1 Sinusoidal Steady State Operation (SSS)

The sinusoidal steady state operation of electric power systems is characterized by the fact that
the current and voltage at any point in the system will be a pure sinusoid:

i (t ) = I m cos(ωt + ϕ )
v (t ) = Vm cos(ωt + θ )

where Im is the maximum value of the electric current

Vm is the maximum value of the voltage
ω is the angular frequency
ϕ is the phase of the electric current
θ is the phase of the voltage

This operating condition is referred to as Sinusoidal Steady State Condition (SSSC).

This condition has a number of interesting properties. First the root mean square (RMS) value of
the electric current and voltage is:

T
1 2 V
Vrms = ∫
T 0
v (τ )dτ = m
2

Similarly:

T
1 2 I
I rms = ∫
T 0
i (τ )dτ = m
2

The above relations tell us that under SSS, the root mean square value of the electric current or
voltage is equal to the maximum value divided by the square root of 2. Thus we can write:

i (t ) = 2 I rms cos(ωt + ϕ )
v (t ) = 2Vrms cos(ωt + θ )

Another interesting property can be obtained by writing the above equations in the following
equivalent form:

i (t ) = Re{I m e j (ωt +ϕ ) }
v (t ) = Re{Vm e j (ωt +θ ) }

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Where Re [ . ] is the real part of the argument. The above relationships are identities, which can
be shown using Euler's identity

e ja = cos(a ) + j sin(a )

By rearranging

{ } ~
i (t ) = Re 2 I rms e jϕ e jωt = Re 2 I e jωt { }
{ } ~
v (t ) = Re 2Vrms e jθ e jωt = Re 2V e jωt { }
where:
~
I = I rms e jϕ
~
V = Vrms e jθ

Let's examine a useful geometric interpretation of the above equation. Consider Figure 1.5. The
~
complex quantity I e jωt is a vector in the complex plane. Note that the angle between this vector
and the real axis is ωt+ϕ, i.e. it is changing with time. The projection of this vector on the real
~
axis is the instantaneous value of the electric current, i(t). As time progresses, the vector I e jωt
rotates with angular speed ω, and as a result its projection on the real axis varies sinusoidally.
~
The quantity I e jωt is called the phasor of the electric current. Since the magnitude of the current
phasor is defined as the RMS value of the current, it would be more precise to call it the root
~
mean square phasor of the electric current. For simplicity we refer to I as the phasor current or
the complex current. A similar construction and discussion applies to the voltage quantity.

~ jω t
Ie
Imaginary Axis

ωt

φ
Real Axis i(t)

Figure 1.5 Geometric Interpretation of the Phasor Equation

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Electric power systems operate very close to sinusoidal steady state condition if there are no
switching or nonlinear devices that may cause deviations from the sinusoidal steady state
operation.

4.2 Periodic Steady State Operation (PSS)

The operation of most electric power apparatus is characterized with periodic waveforms.
Modern systems include many power electronic based apparatus as well as nonlinear devices.
These subsystems tend to distort the waveforms but the resulting waveform distortion is
identically repeated cycle after cycle, resulting in a condition known as steady state periodic
operation. In this case, the voltage waveforms are distorted but they are periodic, the period
being one cycle of the fundamental power frequency. Periodic voltage or current waveforms can
be expressed in terms of a Fourier series. Specifically, any periodic waveform can be expressed
as a linear combination of sinusoids as follows:

f (t ) = a0 + a1 cos(ωt ) + b1 sin(ωt ) + a2 cos(2ωt ) + b2 sin(2ωt ) + ...

The coefficients of above expansion can be computed from:

T
1
a0 =
T ∫ f (τ )dτ
0
T
2
T ∫0
ah = f (τ ) cos(hωτ )dτ

T
2
T ∫0
bh = f (τ ) sin(hωτ )dτ

The above expansion can be also written in the following general form.

f (t ) = a0 + 2 A1 cos(ωt + ϕ1 ) + 2 A2 cos(2ωt + ϕ 2 ) + ...

where:

1
Ah = ah2 + bh2
2

⎧ ⎛ bh ⎞
⎪− arctan ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ for a ≥ 0
⎪ ⎝ ah ⎠
ϕh = ⎨
⎪π − arctan ⎛⎜ bh ⎞⎟ for a < 0
⎪⎩ ⎜a ⎟
⎝ h⎠

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 Electric Power Quality: Chapter 1 – Meliopoulos & Cokkinides

Note that the quantities that are described with the subscript h are pure sinusoids of angular
frequency hω. We shall refer to this quantity as the harmonic h (or more accurately, the
harmonic h of the fundamental frequency ω). Each harmonic h is characterized with an RMS
value ( Ah ) and a phase angle ( ϕ h ).

Example E1.1. Consider the periodic waveform of Figure E1.1. Compute the Fourier series of
this waveform.

1.0

0.0

-1.0
T

Figure E1.1 Example Periodic Waveform

Solution: Upon application of the Fourier expansion, the following is obtained.

∞
4 1
i (t ) =
π
∑ n sin(nωt )
n =1

Example E1.2. An electric current waveform can be expressed with the following equation:

i (t ) = 141.0 cos(ωt ) + 14.1cos(3ωt + φ ) Amperes

Graph the waveform of above current for the following φ values: 0.0, 90.0 and 180 degrees.

Solution: The three graphs are given below:

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 Electric Power Quality: Chapter 1 – Meliopoulos & Cokkinides

200.00

150.00 φ =0

100.00 φ =180

50.00

0.00

-50.00

-100.00

-150.00 φ =90 (dashed line)

-200.00
0.0000 0.0050 0.0100 0.0150 0.0200 0.0250 0.0300 0.0350
Time (sec)

Figure E1.2 Waveform Graph of Example E1.2

Example E1.3. The Fourier series of an electric current is

i (t ) = 162 cos(ωt ) + 39 cos(3ωt ) + 12 cos(5ωt ) + 59 sin(ωt ) − 17 sin(3ωt ) + 5 sin(5ωt )

Find the RMS magnitude and phase of the fundamental, 3rd harmonic and 5th harmonic.

Solution:

The fundamental magnitude and phase are:

Fundamental RMS magnitude and phase are:

1 ⎛ 59 ⎞
A1 = 162 2 + 59 2 = 121.91 , and φ1 = − arctan ⎜ ⎟ = −20.0
0

2 ⎝ 162 ⎠

The third harmonic RMS magnitude and phase are:

1 ⎛ 17 ⎞
A3 = 39 2 + 17 2 = 30.08 , and φ3 = arctan ⎜ ⎟ = 23.60
2 ⎝ 39 ⎠

The fifth harmonic RMS magnitude and phase are:

1 ⎛ 5⎞
A5 = 12 2 + 52 = 9.19 , and φ5 = − arctan ⎜ ⎟ = −22.6 0
2 ⎝ 12 ⎠

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 Electric Power Quality: Chapter 1 – Meliopoulos & Cokkinides

i (t ) = 2 (121.91) cos(ωt − 200 ) + 2 (30.08) cos(3ωt + 23.550 ) + 2 (9.19 ) cos(5ωt − 22.62 0 )

4.3 Three-Phase Systems and Symmetrical Components

Modern power systems are generating, transmitting and distributing electric power mostly in the
form of three-phase alternating current. One reason for the proliferation of three phase AC
power systems is that more power can be transmitted via three-phase power transmission than
single phase power transmission for a given total conductor weight and insulation level. A
second reason is that three-phase motors are naturally self-starting and generate continuous
torque resulting in smoother and more efficient operation.

The majority of power systems comprise three phase arrangements, which consist of the
interconnection of three phase generators, three phase lines, three phase transformers, and other
supporting equipment. Three phase transmission systems are configured as three wire (phase
wires only), four wire (three phase wires plus neutral) or five wire systems (three phases, neutral,
and ground wires). A typical three-phase device with neutral is illustrated in Figure 1.6.

~
IA
A
~
IB ~
Three B VAN
Phase ~
IC ~
Device C VBN
~ ~
IN VCN
N

Ground

Figure 1.6. A Three Phase Device

A three-phase device, such as a transformer or a motor may consist of single-phase elements

connected in a three-phase arrangement. The elements may be connected in a delta or a wye
configuration or any combination of these two. The delta and wye connections are illustrated in
Figure1.7.

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A A

C C

B B
(a) (b)

Figure 1.7: Three-Phase Devices Consisting of Three Single-Phase Elements

(a) Delta Connection, (b) Wye Connection

Next, we introduce terminology used in describing three phase systems.

Balanced Set of Three-Phase Voltages. A set of three-phase voltages, va(t), vb(t), vc(t), is
called balanced if and only if:

• The voltages vary sinusoidally with time.

• The amplitudes of the voltages are equal.
• There is a 120o phase difference between any two voltages.

For example, the following set of three-phase voltages is balanced:

v a ( t ) = 2 V cos(ωt + φ )
v b ( t ) = 2 V cos(ωt − 120o + φ)
v c ( t ) = 2 V cos(ωt − 240o + φ)

In the above equations, the phase angle of va leads the phase angle of vb by 120o. Similarly, the
phase angle of v leads the phase angle of v by 120o. This phase angle relationship among the
b c
three phases is called positive phase sequence. (Other phase sequences are discussed later in this
chapter). Note that an analogous Balanced Set definition applies to a set of three-phase currents.

It is apparent that a set of balanced three-phase voltages can be completely specified by the
following information:

• The voltage magnitude V,

• The angular frequency ω,
• The phase angle φ, and

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 Electric Power Quality: Chapter 1 – Meliopoulos & Cokkinides

• The phase sequence.

An alternative specification consists of the following:

• % = Ve jφ
The phase A voltage phasor, Va
• The phase sequence

Throughout this text, when the sequence is not specified, it will be assumed to be the positive
sequence.

An ideal three-phase source generates a set of balanced three-phase voltages, typically with
positive phase sequence. Three-phase sources can be constructed by combining three single-
phase sources of appropriate parameters. Two such configurations forming ideal three-phase
voltage sources are illustrated in Figure 1.8.

A A

vA(t)
eAB(t) eCA(t) eA(t) vA(t)

N
C eB(t)
eBC(t) vC(t) vC(t)
B
eC(t) C
vB(t) vB(t)
B
(a) (b)

Figure 1.8 Ideal Three-Phase Voltage Source

(a) Delta Connected, (b) Wye Connected

Symmetric Three-Phase System. A three-phase passive system is called symmetric if and only
if the following two statements are true:

• It is a linear system.
• When fed by a balanced set of three-phase voltages a balanced set of three-phase currents
flows into it.

The definition of a symmetric three-phase system is illustrated in Figure 1.9. Practical three-
phase systems comprise three-phase components that are symmetric or nearly symmetric. For
example, three-phase transformers are symmetric three-phase devices, three-phase synchronous
generators are nearly symmetric devices, overhead transmission lines are nearly symmetric, etc.

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va(t) ia(t)

vb(t) ib(t)
Symmetric
Ideal
Passive
3-Phase vc(t) ic(t)
3-Phase
Source
System
vn(t) in(t)

⎛ BalancedVoltages ⎞ ⎛ BalancedCurrents ⎞
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⇔ ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ va (t ), vb (t ), vc (t ) ⎠ ⎝ ia (t ), ib (t ), ic (t ) ⎠

Figure 1.9. Definition of a Symmetric Three-Phase System

Traditional power system analysis techniques (i.e. load flow, fault analysis, transient stability
analysis, etc.) have been developed on the assumption of symmetric three-phase systems. Since
most practical three-phase power system elements are nearly symmetric, this assumption
generates a small error. In most applications, this error is acceptable.

Most of the time, three-phase power systems operate under balanced conditions. Whenever the
balanced operation is disturbed, the analysis of the system can be performed in two ways:

(a) Direct analysis of the entire three phase system.

(b) The Method of Symmetrical Components.

The method of symmetrical components is based on a linear transformation of the system

voltages and currents. This transformation converts the problem of solving a full three-phase
system problem into solving three uncoupled single-phase system problems. This typically
represents a reduction of computational effort by a factor of three.

The symmetric component transformation is presented next. Consider a set of three phase
~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~
voltages and electric currents ( Va ,Vb ,Vc ), and ( I a , I b , I c ), respectively. These sets are
transformed by multiplication with a transformation matrix T into a new set of voltages and
~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~
electric currents ( V1 ,V2 ,V0 ), and ( I 1 , I 2 , I 0 ) as follows:

~ ~
V120 = T Vabc (xxx)
~ ~
I120 = T I abc
where:

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~
⎡Va ⎤
~
⎡V1 ⎤ ⎡ I~ a ⎤ ⎡ I~ 1 ⎤ ⎡1 a a2 ⎤
~ ⎢~⎥ ~ ⎢~⎥ ~ ⎢~ ⎥ ~ ⎢~ ⎥ 1⎢ ⎥
Vabc = ⎢Vb ⎥ , V120 = ⎢V2 ⎥ , I abc = ⎢ I b ⎥ , I 120 = ⎢ I 2 ⎥ , and T = ⎢1 a 2
o
a⎥ , a = e j120
⎢ I~ ⎥ ⎢ I~ ⎥ 3
⎢V~c ⎥ ⎢V~0 ⎥ ⎢1 1 1 ⎥⎦
⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦ c ⎣ ⎦ 0 ⎣

The inverse transformation is:

~ ~
Vabc = T −1V120 (xxx)
~ ~
I abc = T −1 I120
where:
⎡1 1 1⎤
T −1
= ⎢a 2 a 1⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ a a2 1⎥⎦

The importance of this transformation relies on the fact that it can transform the model of any
symmetric three-phase device, into three uncoupled single-phase device models. This property
of the transformation is illustrated with an example next.

Example E1.3: Consider a simple model of a three-phase generator, which is illustrated in

Figure E1.3. The generator consists of three ideal voltage sources EA, EB, and EC and three coils.
Each coil has a self inductance Ls and two mutual inductances with the other two coils both
equal to Lm. Write the model equations of the generator in terms of the phase voltages and
electric currents and then transform these equations using the symmetrical transformation. Then
compute the complex power delivered by the generator in terms of the symmetrical components.

Solution: The three phase model equations for the simplified generator are:
~ ~ ~ ~ ~
V AN = jωLs I A + jωLm ( I B + I C ) + E A
~ ~ ~ ~ ~
VBN = jωLs I B + jωLm ( I A + I C ) + E B
~ ~ ~ ~ ~
VCN = jωLs I C + jωLm ( I A + I B ) + EC

In compact matrix notation, above equations are written as follows:

~ ~ ~
Vabc = ZI abc + Eabc
where:
~
⎡VAN ⎤ ⎡ I~ a ⎤ ⎡ Ls Lm Lm ⎤
⎢~ ⎥ ~ ⎢~ ⎥
= ⎢VBN ⎥ , I abc = ⎢ I b ⎥ , and Z = ⎢ Lm Lm ⎥
~
Vabc Ls
⎢ ⎥
⎢V~CN ⎥ ⎢ I~ ⎥ ⎢⎣ Lm Lm Ls ⎥⎦
⎣ ⎦ ⎣ c⎦

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 Electric Power Quality: Chapter 1 – Meliopoulos & Cokkinides

Ls ~
IA
A
~
EA

Lm Lm
~ ~
EB EC
Ls ~
IC
C
Lm
~
IB
B
Ls
N

Figure E1.3 A Simplified Three Phase Source.

Note that above equations are coupled, i.e. each phase voltage is a function of all three phase
currents. Now let's apply the symmetrical transformation.
~ ~
Vabc = T −1V120
~ ~
I abc = T −1 I120
~ ~
Eabc = T −1E120

Upon substitution into the matrix equation:

T −1V120 = ZT −1 I120 + T −1E120

Upon pre-multiplication of above equation by the matrix T:

V120 = TZT −1 I120 + E120

The key property of the symmetric component transformation is that the matrix product TZT-1 is
a diagonal matrix, namely:

⎡ Ls − Lm 0 0 ⎤
TZT −1
=⎢ 0 Ls − Lm 0 ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ 0 0 Ls + 2 Lm ⎥⎦

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 Electric Power Quality: Chapter 1 – Meliopoulos & Cokkinides

This property holds provided that the system consists of symmetric devices, which implies that
impedance matrices have all off-diagonal terms equal and all diagonal terms equal. This
condition is valid or approximately valid for most 3-phase power system devices, such as
transformers, generators, transmission lines etc. Writing the equations explicitly we obtain:
~ ~ ~
V1 = jω ( Ls − Lm ) I 1 + E1
~ ~ ~
V2 = jω ( Ls − Lm ) I 2 + E2
~ ~ ~
V0 = jω ( Ls + 2 Lm ) I 0 + E0

Note that above equations are decoupled, i.e. the variables appearing in any one equation do not
appear in any other equations. Consequently, these equations represent three independent
single-phase networks, as shown in Figure E1.3a. It should be also noted that in case that the
~ ~
source is balanced, E2 = E0 = 0 . The three networks of Figure E1.3a are referred to as the
positive sequence model, the negative sequence model and the zero sequence model,
respectively.

Ls-Lm ~
I1
~
E1 ~
V1

Ls-Lm ~
I2
~
E2 ~
V2

Ls+2Lm ~
I0
~
E0 ~
V0

Figure E1.3a. The Sequence Networks of the Simplified Three Phase Source of
Figure E1.3

The complex power delivered by the generator is:

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 Electric Power Quality: Chapter 1 – Meliopoulos & Cokkinides

~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ T ~*
S = Van I *a + Vbn I *b + Vcn I *c = Vabc I abc

Application of the symmetrical component transformation to the above equation yields:

~ ~ ~ T T *~ * ~~ ~~ ~~
S = (T -1V120 )T (T −1 I120 )* = V120 T -1 T −1 I120 = 3V1 I1* + 3V2 I 2* + 3V0 I 0*

⎡ 3 0 0⎤
The above equality can be proven by observing that T T -1T −1*
= ⎢ 0 3 0⎥ .
⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣0 0 3⎥⎦

4.4 Real and Reactive Power - SSS

Consider a two terminal, one port device as it is illustrated in Figure 1.6. The voltage and
electric current at the port of the device are v(t) and i(t) respectively, where:

v (t ) = 2Vrms cos(ωt + θ )
i (t ) = 2 I rms cos(ωt + ϕ )

The instantaneous power flowing into the device is

p(t ) = v (t )i (t ) = 2Vrms I rms cos(ωt + θ ) cos(ωt + ϕ )

Using appropriate trigonometric identities, the above expression becomes:

p(t ) = Vrms I rms cos(θ − ϕ ) + Vrms I rms cos(2ωt + θ + ϕ )

Note that the instantaneous power equation consists of two terms: one that is independent of time
and another term that is a sinusoidal function of time. Note that when the instantaneous power
is integrated over time, in order to evaluate the average power, the time varying sinusoidal term
integrates to zero. Only the constant term provides a non-zero contribution. Specifically, the
average power flowing into the device is:

T
1
P = ∫ p (τ )dτ = Vrms I rms cos(θ − ϕ )
T 0

Note that the average power is equal to the product of the RMS values of voltage and current
multiplied by the cosine of the angle (θ - ϕ). The last term, namely δ = cos(θ − ϕ ) , is known as
the power factor.

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 Electric Power Quality: Chapter 1 – Meliopoulos & Cokkinides

i(t)
+
Single
v(t) Port
Device
-

Figure 1.10 Electric Power into a Single Port Device

The time varying term of the instantaneous power represents a pulsating power, i.e. power that
flows into and out of the device with a net flow of zero. Note that the angular frequency of this
term is twice the power frequency. This power was named the reactive power many decades
ago. In 1932, Fryze provided a theory, which simplified the representation of reactive power.
Specifically, Fryze postulated that the 'apparent' power absorbed by a device is simply the
product of the voltage across its terminals times the current through it:

Sa = Vrms Irms

Then he postulated that the reactive power Q is related to the apparent power S and the real
power P as follows:

Q 2 = S a2 − P 2 = Vrms
2 2
I rms (1 − cos2 (θ − ϕ )) = Vrms
2 2
I rms sin 2 (θ − ϕ )
or

Q = ±Vrms I rms sin(θ − ϕ )

He adopted the convention of using the + sign resulting to the definition:

Q = Vrms I rms sin(θ − ϕ )

This theory, in essence, postulates that the real and reactive powers are projections of the
apparent power on the real and imaginary axes of the complex plane. Algebraically, this can be
stated as follows:
~ ~*
S = P + jQ = Vrms I rms cos(θ − ϕ ) + jVrms I rms sin(θ − ϕ ) = Vrms I rms

The above relationship involves four quantities, S, Sa, P, and Q. All of them express power but
they are all different physical quantities. To distinguish them, the following nomenclature has
been adopted many years ago and it is used in power engineering:

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Quantity Name Units

S Complex Power VA (Volt Ampere)
Sa Apparent Power VA (Volt Ampere)
P Real Power W (Watt)
Q Reactive Power VAr (Volt Ampere reactive)

Now let’s examine the term Q = Sa sin(θ - ϕ). If the phase of the electric current, ϕ, is less than
θ, then sin(θ - ϕ) > 0 and Q > 0. In this case we say that the electric current lags the voltage
because if the voltage and electric current phasors are depicted on the same complex plane as it
is illustrated in Figure 1.5, the voltage phasor appears to be ahead of the electric current phasor.
(Note that the positive direction for phase angle is assumed to be the counterclockwise direction.
See also Figure 1.7). On the other hand, if θ < ϕ, then Q < 0. Again, by observing the voltage
and current phasors we conclude that in this case, the current phasor leads the voltage phasor.
When specifying power consumption in power engineering, it is customary to state the value of
the real power and the power factor (i.e the value of the term cos(θ - ϕ) ). Since cos(θ - ϕ) =
cos(ϕ- θ), we do not know whether θ > ϕ or θ < ϕ. This information is given, by also stating
whether the electric current is lagging or leading the voltage. For example, a power factor of 0.8
lagging means that cos(θ - ϕ) = 0.8 and the electric current phasor lags the voltage phasor, i.e.
θ > ϕ.
Volts, Amps, or Vars
Imaginary Axis

~
V Positive
Direction
of Rotation

~
θ−φ I
~ ~*
Q S=V I
θ−φ
Real Axis
P Volts, Amps, or Watts

~*
I

Figure 1.11. Phasor Representation of Voltage, Electric Current, Real Power, and
Reactive Power

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The power relationships for sinusoidal steady state are summarized in Table 1.2

Table 1.2 Summary of Power Relationships - Sinusoidal Steady State

Quantity Equation
Instantaneous Values i (t ) = I m cos(ωt + ϕ ) , v (t ) = Vm cos(ωt + θ )
~ ~
Phasors I = I rms e jϕ , V = Vrms e jθ
Instantaneous Power p(t ) = v (t )i (t ) = 2Vrms I rms cos(ωt + θ ) cos(ωt + ϕ )
Real Power 1
T

T ∫0
P= p (τ )dτ = Vrms I rms cos(θ − ϕ )

Power Factor δ = cos(θ − ϕ ) , (leading if φ>θ, lagging otherwise)

Apparent Power Sa = Vrms Irms
Reactive Power Q = Vrms I rms sin(θ − ϕ )
~ ~*
Complex Power S = Vrms I rms = Vrms I rms cos(θ − ϕ ) + jVrms I rms sin(θ − ϕ ) = P + jQ

4.5 Real, Reactive and Distortion Power - PSS

In this section we consider the definitions of power when the system operates under periodic
steady state. The voltage and current waveforms are not sinusoidal but periodic. As we have
discussed, these distorted waveforms are described in terms of harmonics resulting from a
Fourier analysis. Consider again the single port device as in Figure 1.6. If v(t) and i(t) are not
pure sinusoids but periodic, they can be expanded into a Fourier series, i.e.

v (t ) = ∑ a cos(nωt + θ )
n
n n

i (t ) = ∑ b cos(nωt + ϕ )
n n
n

The real power is computed as the average power flow, i.e.

T
1
P = ∫ v (τ )i (τ )dτ
T 0

Using above Fourier expansion, the real power is

1
P= ∑ anbn cos(θ n − ϕ n )
2 n

Note that the real power can be determined directly from the real power definition. However, for
reactive power there is no unique generalization of the sinusoidal case approach. In fact, for the

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periodic steady state operation, the reactive power can be defined in a variety of ways. The
literature is full of proposals for the definition of reactive power under non-sinusoidal periodic
conditions. In this book we have adopted the simple definition of reactive power of the
fundamental frequency (as defined by Fryze). In addition, the concept of distortion power is
introduced. Specifically, the distortion power D is defined from the equation

S 2 = P 2 + QB2 + D 2

where:

S is the apparent power defined as the product of the voltage and electric current
rms values, i.e. S = Vrms Irms
P is the real power
QB is the fundamental reactive power, i.e. QB = V1 I1 sin(θ − ϕ )
D is the distortion power.

The distortion power, as defined above, provides a measure of the waveform distortion.
Specifically, for the sinusoidal steady state case, the distortion power is exactly zero, and in the
general non-sinusoidal case, the following relationship holds:

S 2 ≥ P 2 + QB2

Thus D2 is never negative. The reader is encouraged to prove this property.

The power relationships for non-sinusoidal periodic steady state are summarized in Table 1.3.

Table 1.3 Summary of Power Relationships - Periodic Steady State

Quantity Equation
Instantaneous Values v (t ) = ∑ an cos(nωt + θ n ) , i (t ) = ∑ bn cos(nωt + ϕ n )
n n
~ ~
Phasors I n = I n , rms e jϕ n , Vn = Vn , rms e jθ n , for n = 0, 1, 2, 3,…
Instantaneous Power p(t ) = v (t )i (t )
Real Power 1
T
1
P = ∫ v (τ )i (τ )dτ , or P = ∑ an bn cos(θ n − ϕ n )
T 0 2 n
Power Factor δ = cos(θ1 − ϕ1 ) , (leading if φ1>θ1, lagging otherwise)
Apparent Power S = Vrms Irms
Reactive Power QB = V1 I1 sin(θ − ϕ )
Distortion Power D 2 = S 2 − P 2 − Q B2

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 Electric Power Quality: Chapter 1 – Meliopoulos & Cokkinides

4.6 Total Harmonic Distortion

The total harmonic distortion is the most commonly used power quality index. It can be defined
for the current or the voltage. The THD is defined as the ratio of the root-mean square of all
harmonics except the fundamental to the root-mean square value of the fundamental. It can be
expressed in p.u. or in per cent.

V22 + V32 + V42 + ....

THDv =
V1

I 22 + I 32 + I 42 + ....
THDi =
I1

For a purely sinusoidal waveform the THD is zero. Note also that if there are harmonics and the
fundamental is zero, the THD is infinity.

The Europeans use a slightly different THD Definition:

V22 + V32 + V42 + ....

THD = e
v
V rms

I 22 + I 32 + I 42 + ....
THD = i
e

I rms

Note that the difference is that the denominator is the fundamental RMS value in the American
definition, and the RMS value of the waveform in the European definition.

Example E1.4. Consider the problem of Example E1.1. Compute the THD of the waveform.

Solution: Application of the definition yields:

2 2 2
⎛c⎞ ⎛c⎞ ⎛c⎞
⎜ ⎟ + ⎜ ⎟ + ⎜ ⎟ + ...
⎝ 3⎠ ⎝ 5⎠ ⎝ 7 ⎠ 4
THD = = 0.483 , where c is .
c π

Example E1.4. Find the relationship among the THD, the RMS value, and the fundamental
magnitude of a periodic waveform.

Solution: Consider the definition of the THD (without loss of generality we consider voltage
waveforms).

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 Electric Power Quality: Chapter 1 – Meliopoulos & Cokkinides

V22 + V32 + V42 + ....

THD =
V1
The RMS value of this waveform is given by (Fourier):

V rms = V12 + V 22 + V32 + V 42 + ....

Squaring both sides and rearranging the above two equations, yields:

V12 ⋅ THD 2 = V22 + V32 + V42 + ... , and

V 2 rms = V12 + V22 + V32 + V42 + ...

thus:

V 2 rms = V12 + V12 ⋅ THD , or:

Vrms = V1 1 + THD

Example E1.5. A linear and a nonlinear electric load are connected to an ideal sinusoidal
voltage source. The linear load is 35 kW with power factor 0.9 current lagging. The nonlinear
load absorbs 21 kW and its current has a THD of 0.16 (16%). The power factor of the nonlinear
load is 0.80, current lagging. Compute the total harmonic distortion of the source current.

Solution:

The source current is the sum of the linear and nonlinear load currents. Since the voltage is
sinusoidal, the linear load current will also be sinusoidal. Thus, the harmonic currents are only
due to the nonlinear load, and the source THD can be expressed as:

I N 2 + I N 3 + I N 4 + ...
2 2 2

THDsource =
I L1 + I N 1

While the known nonlinear load THD is:

I N 2 + I N 3 + I N 4 + ...
2 2 2

THD N = = 0.16
I N1
thus

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 Electric Power Quality: Chapter 1 – Meliopoulos & Cokkinides

I N1 I N1
THDsource = THDN = 0.16
I L1 + I N 1 I L1 + I N 1

Let VRMS be the system voltage. For simplicity, assume that the voltage phase angle is zero.

The linear load complex power is:

P
S L = P + jQ = P + j 1 − δ 2 = 35000 + j16951 VA
δ

Recall that: S L = VI * and thus,

I L1 = (S L / VRMS ) =
~ 1
(35000 − j16951) A
*

VRMS
Similarly from the nonlinear load specifications we get:

PN
PN + jQN = PN + j 1 − δ 2 = 21000 + j15750 VA
δ

~ 1 ~ 1
I N1 = ( 21000 − j15750) A I N1 = 26250 A
VRMS , and V RMS

thus, the fundamental component of the source current is:

~ ~ ~ 1 ~ 1
I S 1 = I L1 + I N 1 = (56000 − j 32701) A I S1 = 64849 A
VRMS , and VRMS
Thus the source THD is:

26250
THDsource = 0.16 = 0.065 = 6.5%
64849

Example E1.6. A three-phase electric load draws the following electric currents at the three
phases:

i a (t ) = 141.0 cos(ωt − 10 0 ) + 14.1 cos(3ωt + 35 0 )

i b (t ) = 141.0 cos(ωt − 130 0 ) + 14.1 cos(3ωt + 35 0 )
i c (t ) = 141.0 cos(ωt − 250 0 ) + 14.1 cos(3ωt + 35 0 )

Compute the total harmonic distortion of the phase currents and the total harmonic distortion of
the neutral current.

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 Electric Power Quality: Chapter 1 – Meliopoulos & Cokkinides

Solution:

The phase current THD is

I 2 + I 3 + I 4 + ...
2 2 2
14.1
THD = = = 0.1 = 10%
I1 141.0

Since the fundamental components of the phase currents are balanced (magnitudes are equal and
phase angles are 1200 apart), the neutral current fundamental will be zero. The third harmonic
components have equal phase angles, and thus the neutral third harmonic magnitude is 3 x 14.1
A. Thus the neutral THD is infinite.

Example E1.7. Develop the relationship between the American definition of the total harmonic
distortion and the European definition.

Solution:

The European THD definition is:

I 2 + I 3 + I 4 + ... I 2 + I 3 + I 4 + ...
2 2 2 2 2 2

THDE = THDE =
2

I 1 + I 2 + I 3 + I 4 + ...
2 2 2 2
I 1 + I 2 + I 3 + I 4 + ... , thus
2 2 2 2

The American THD definition is:

I 2 + I 3 + I 4 + ... I + I 3 + I 4 + ...
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
THD A
THD A = = 2 2
I1 , thus 1 I1

adding the numerators to the denominators on both sides yields the equality:

I 2 + I 3 + I 4 + ...
2 2 2 2
THD A
= = THDE
2

1 + THD A I 1 + I 2 + I 3 + I 4 + ...
2 2 2 2 2

thus:

THD A
THDE =
1 + THD A
2

similarly the inverse relationship can be shown to be:

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 Electric Power Quality: Chapter 1 – Meliopoulos & Cokkinides

THDE
THD A =
1 − THDE
2

4.7 Telephone Influence Factor

Analog telephone lines located near power lines are subject to induced voltages caused by power
line currents. The induced voltages are reproduced by telephone receivers in the form of audible
noise of the same frequency as the power line currents. Obviously, if the audible noise level is
large this effect can be objectionable.

Subjective listening tests have shown that the human hearing sensitivity is a function of
frequency. Specifically human hearing is much more sensitive near 1000 Hz than at 100 or
10,000 Hz. Thus, in order to characterize the telephone interference as perceived by human
hearing, the telephone influence factor index was defined by taking into account the human
hearing frequency response. If a power line carries a distorted current, this current can be
analyzed into a Fourier series. Each component of the series (i.e. each harmonic) induces a
certain voltage on the telephone circuit. Through subjective tests, the relative influence of each
harmonic was established in the form of weigh factors wi, given in Figure 1.xxx. Using these
weigh factors the telephone influence factor (TIF) is defined as follows:

w12 I 12 + w 22 I 22 + w 32 I 32 + ...
TIF =
I 12 + I 22 + I 32 + ...

Note that the above term is normalized (divided by the RMS value of the current). It describes
the relative influence harmonic distortion. For example the TIF of a pure 60 Hz sinusoidal
current is approximately 0.7, while a sinusoidal current a 1000 Hz has a TIF of approximately
71. Two additional related telephone interference metrics are the V.T product and the I.T
product. These are defined as follows:

V .T = w12V12 + w 22V 22 + w 32V 32 + ... = V rms TIFV

I .T = w12 I 12 + w 22 I 22 + w 32 I 32 + ... = I rms TIFI

The above indices provide a quantitative measure of telephone interference for specific levels of
voltage or current harmonics. The TIF appears in the ANSI Standard 368 and the IEEE 519.

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 Electric Power Quality: Chapter 1 – Meliopoulos & Cokkinides

12,000
11,000
10,000
9,000
8,000
Weighting

7,000
6,000
5,000
4,000
3,000
2,000
1,000
0
0 400 800 1200 1600 2000 2400 2800 3200 3600 4000 4400 4800

Frequency (Hz)

Figure 1.12 Graph of TIF Weighting Factors – 1960 IEEE Std 519-1992

A similar index is the C-Message Weighted Index, C. This index is defined in terms of the C-
message weights. The definition is:

c1 I12 + c2 I 22 + c3 I 32 + ...
C=
I12 + I 22 + I 32 + ...

The C-message weights and the TIF weights are shown in Table 1.4 for comparison purposes.
Note that both indices are normalized with the rms value of the electric current.

It is important to emphasize that the above defined indices are important only for analog wire-
line communication circuits, i.e. for circuits where induced voltages from power lines can occur.
Fiber optic communication circuits are immune to these effects. In addition, circuits that use
sophisticated modulation/demodulation techniques are less susceptible to interference from
power lines.

Table 1.4 C-Message and TIF Weighting Factors

Frequenc Harmoni C- TIF Frequenc Harmon C- TIF

y c Message Weigh y ic Message Weigh
(Hz) Of 60 Hz Weight t (Hz) Of 60 Weight t
Hz
60 1 0.0017 0.5 1740 29 0.841 7320
120 2 0.0167 10.0 1800 30 0.841 7570

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 Electric Power Quality: Chapter 1 – Meliopoulos & Cokkinides

180 3 0.0333 30.0 1860 31 0.841 7820

240 4 0.0875 105 1920 32 0.841 8070
300 5 0.1500 225 1980 33 0.841 8330
360 6 0.222 400 2040 34 0.841 8580
420 7 0.310 650 2100 35 0.841 8830
480 8 0.396 950 2160 36 0.841 9080
540 9 0.489 1320 2220 37 0.841 9330
600 10 0.597 1790 2280 38 0.841 9590
660 11 0.685 2260 2340 39 0.841 9840
720 12 0.767 2760 2400 40 0.841 10090
780 13 0.862 3360 2460 41 0.841 10340
840 14 0.912 3830 2520 42 0.832 10480
900 15 0.967 4350 2580 43 0.822 10600
960 16 0.977 4690 2640 44 0.804 10610
1020 17 1.000 5100 2700 45 0.776 10480
1080 18 1.000 5400 2760 46 0.750 10350
1140 19 0.988 5630 2820 47 0.724 10210
1200 20 0.977 5860 2880 48 0.692 9960
1260 21 0.960 6050 2940 49 0.668 9820
1320 22 0.944 6230 3000 50 0.645 9670
1380 23 0.923 6370 3300 55 0.490 8090
1440 24 0.924 6650 3600 60 0.359 6460
1500 25 0.891 6680 3900 65 0.226 4400
1560 26 0.871 6790 4200 70 0.143 3000
1620 27 0.860 6970 4500 75 0.0812 1830
1680 28 0.840 7060 4990 83.3 0.0336 840

Example E1.8. A telephone circuit parallels a power line. The power line carries the following
electric current.

i (t ) = 120 A cos(ωt + 10 0 ) + 12 A cos(3ωt + 5 0 ) + 6 A cos(5ωt + 1810 ) + 5 A cos(7ωt + 72 0 ) +

4 A cos(11ωt + 810 ) + 3.5 A cos(13ωt + 36 0 )

Compute the TIF.

Solution: First, the weighting factors for all the harmonics of the waveform are retrieved from
the table.

w1 = 0.5, w 3 = 30.0, w5 = 225.0, w 7 = 650.0, w11 = 2260.0, w13 = 3360.0

Next:
2 2 2 2 2 2
⎛ 120 ⎞ 2 ⎛ 12 ⎞ 2⎛ 6 ⎞ 2⎛ 5 ⎞ 2⎛ 4 ⎞ 2 ⎛ 3 .5 ⎞
∑w I
i
i i
2
= 0.52 ⎜
⎝ 2⎠
⎟ + 30.0 ⎜
⎝ 2⎠
⎟ + 225.0 ⎜
⎝ 2⎠
⎟ + 650.0 ⎜
⎝ 2⎠
⎟ + 2260 .0 ⎜
⎝ 2⎠
⎟ + 3360 .0 ⎜
⎝ 2⎠
⎟ = 116,268,700.0

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 Electric Power Quality: Chapter 1 – Meliopoulos & Cokkinides

The rms value of the electric current is:

2 2 2 2 2 2
⎛ 120 ⎞ ⎛ 12 ⎞ ⎛ 6 ⎞ ⎛ 5 ⎞ ⎛ 4 ⎞ ⎛ 3.5 ⎞
I rms = ⎜ ⎟ +⎜ ⎟ +⎜ ⎟ +⎜ ⎟ +⎜ ⎟ +⎜ ⎟ = 85.537 A
⎝ 2⎠ ⎝ 2⎠ ⎝ 2⎠ ⎝ 2⎠ ⎝ 2⎠ ⎝ 2⎠

Therefore:

116,268,700.0
TIF = = 126.06
85.537

and

I • T = 116,268,700.0 = 10,782.79

4.8 Voltage Sags and Swells

Voltage sags and swells occur whenever there is a fault in the system. Consider for example the
system of Figure 1.9. The system consists of a three phase overhead circuit, a single phase
overhead circuit and two underground distribution circuits. The single phase overhead line is
tapped on phase A of the three-phase circuit.

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 Electric Power Quality: Chapter 1 – Meliopoulos & Cokkinides

RTU RTU

Figure 1.13 A Typical Medium Voltage Distribution System

Consider a single phase to ground fault on the phase B of the there-phase overhead circuit. In
this case, the voltage of phase B will assume a low value while phases A and C will most likely
experience an overvoltage. The magnitude of the overvoltage will depend on the design
parameters of the circuit. This overvoltage is characterized by the so-called coefficient of
grounding. Specifically the coefficient of grounding is defined as the ratio of the overvoltage on
an un-faulted phase over the nominal voltage, when a ground fault occurs on another phase. For
example, assuming that a line to ground fault occurs on phase A, the coefficient of grounding is:

VB
C g
= ⋅ 100%
VLL
where VB is the phase B to ground voltage during a fault on phase A, and VLL is the nominal
system line-to-line voltage. Note that in an effectively grounded system (grounded with
negligible ground impedance) the un-faulted phase voltage is approximately equal to the nominal
voltage and the coefficient of grounding is close to 57%. In typical actual systems, the un-
faulted phase voltage may increase due to the effect of the ground potential rise. In these cases
the coefficient of grounding is higher that 57%, and may reach a maximum value of 100%. An
alternative definition of the coefficient of grounding uses line to ground nominal voltage in the
denominator, instead of the line to-line nominal voltage. In this case the coefficient of
grounding ranges from 100% for an effectively grounded system to a maximum value of 173%.

Copyright © A. P. Sakis Meliopoulos – 1996-2006 Page 34

 Electric Power Quality: Chapter 1 – Meliopoulos & Cokkinides

Approximate values of the coefficient of grounding are given in Figure 1.10 parametrically in
terms of the positive, negative and zero sequence impedances at the location of the fault. The
ratio of zero to positive sequence reactance varies along the horizontal axis, while the ratio of
zero sequence resistance to positive sequence reactance varies along the vertical axis. Note that
the two numbers located next to each curve represent the coefficient of grounding computed with
each of the two alternative definitions. During a fault on phase A, all loads fed from phase A
will experience a voltage sag while loads fed from other phases will experience voltage swell,
which can be approximately computed by multiplying the coefficient of grounding by the
nominal system voltage.

R0/X1
6

95/164
5
100/173

4
90/155

85/147
2
80/138
1 75/129

70/121
X0/X1
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
57/100 65/117

Figure 1.14 Approximate Values of the Coefficient of Grounding – Parametrically

with Respect to Sequence Parameters at the Location of the Fault

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 Electric Power Quality: Chapter 1 – Meliopoulos & Cokkinides

4.9 Flicker

Operation of nonlinear loads causes distortion of the sinusoidal waveform of the voltage and
current which are quantified with harmonics. If the nonlinear load is also varying with time, as
is the case of arc furnace loads, the rms value of the voltage is also varying. Lighting, which is
affected by the voltage variations, may flicker which cause a certain degree of unpleasantness.
This phenomenon has been known since the early days of power systems. Advances in power
system technology and interconnections resulted in large power systems and the minimization of
flicker type behavior of a power system. However a large intermittent nonlinear load can cause
these variations in its vicinity. Research into this issue indicates that variations of the rms value
of the voltage cause a bothersome effect. The severity of this effect is frequency and magnitude
dependent. The IEEE Std 141 defines permissible limits for the variation of the rms value of the
voltage versus frequency of variation. Figure 1.11 defines these limits. Note that there are two
types of limits: (a) threshold of perception and (b) threshold of objection. Typically, modern
systems should be defined to limit flicker below the threshold of perception.

7
Threshold of Objection
6
Voltage Change in Percent

2
Threshold of Perception

0.1 0.3 0.5 1.0 3 5 10 30 50 100

Frequency of Flicker in Seconds

Figure 1.15. Range of Observable and Objectionable Voltage Flicker versus Time
(from reference [13])

4.10 K-Factor

The K-factor is used for electrical apparatus as a measure of increased losses due to the presence
of harmonics. It is defined with the following formula:

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 Electric Power Quality: Chapter 1 – Meliopoulos & Cokkinides

∑h
h =1
2
I h2
Total Losses Under Distorted Current Waveform
K factor = ∞
≈
Total Losses Under Sinusoidal Current with Same rms Value
∑I
h =1
2
h

The reasoning for the definition of the k factor is that the losses (or equivalently the apparent
resistance) of iron core transformers vary proportionally (approximately) to the square of the
frequency of the currents for a range of frequencies that cover most frequently encountered
harmonics. Figure 1.16 illustrates typical apparent resistance for a distribution power
transformer. Note that at low frequencies (typically below 2 kHz) the apparent resistance varies
approximately with the square of the frequency. In this case, the total losses of the transformer
will be approximately given by an expression proportional to the numerator of the k-factor
definition. Thus the numerator of the k-factor definition expresses the approximate total losses of
the iron core transformer. It is important to note that this behavior is due to the combination of
the iron core losses (hysteresis and eddy currents) and the transformer coil losses. In the absence
of iron core the losses would vary with a lower power of the frequency. It is also noted that the
K-factor represents a conservative approach.
Normalized Apparent Resistance

10k
C1 f
1k

100
C2 f 2

10
Typically at 2kHz
1

0.1

0.01
10 100 1k 10k 100k
Frequency (Hz)

Figure 1.16. Typical Apparent Resistance of Iron Core Transformers

The K-factor is extensively used to derate equipment in the presence of harmonics, especially
transformers. The k factor has been included in UL Standards 1561 and 1562.

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 Electric Power Quality: Chapter 1 – Meliopoulos & Cokkinides

5.0 Stray Voltages and Currents

Imbalances generate electric current flow in the soil because of the fact that most systems are
grounded in multiple points and therefore whenever there is imbalance, some of the imbalanced
current will flow into the soil. Specifically, in systems with multiple ground neutrals, the
grounds connect the neutral in parallel with the earth. (Note that the national Electrical Code
does permit the grounding of a neutral in more than one place under certain conditions). In this
case, any unbalance current that may flow in the neutral will partially return through the earth
path. Practitioners refer to the currents that flow in the earth as stray currents or objectionable
currents. One can state that neutrals with multiple grounds have the advantage that the overall
impedance of the parallel combination of neutral and earth path and ground conductors is lower.
On the other hand this practice results in stray currents or objectionable currents. These currents
are harmless whenever the system is properly designed. The only disadvantage is that it does not
permit the proper application of ground fault protection.

Figure 1.13 illustrates a topology of secondary distribution system that may generate
objectionable currents. This topology is permitted by the national Electrical Code.

Service Panel Service Panel

Building A Building B
Transformer A
A
B
B
C
C
N
N
G

Figure 1.16. Illustration of Stray Voltages and Currents Generation

Stray voltages and currents do occur in medium voltage systems as well. Figure 1.17 illustrates a
typical topology of a medium voltage distribution circuit. Note that the neutral is grounded at
many locations, as a matter of fact at each distribution pole. In this case any imbalance current
will return via the neutral of the system and since the neutral is connected in parallel with the
soil path (by virtue of the multiple ground points), the imbalance current will return via the
parallel combination of the neutral and soil path. This means that electric current will flow in the
soil (stray current) and that the neutral will be elevated at a nonzero voltage (stray voltage).

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 Electric Power Quality: Chapter 1 – Meliopoulos & Cokkinides

~
I sky
Sky Wire

HA

LA
HB
LB

LC
HC

~ Neutral
I fault

~
I neutral

Ground Mat Ground Rod

Counterpoise Ground Rod
~
I counterpoise
~
I earth

Figure 1.17 Illustration of the Generation of Stray Voltages and Currents

6.0 Electromagnetic Interference

This section provides a discussion of electromagnetic fields in typical distribution systems and
the factors affecting the level of them. It also provides information on how specific system
arrangements may lead to increased electromagnetic fields and interference.

Any electric current carrying circuit generates an electromagnetic field around it. The topic of
the effects of the electromagnetic field on humans has been controversial. The IEEE has taken

Copyright © A. P. Sakis Meliopoulos – 1996-2006 Page 39

 Electric Power Quality: Chapter 1 – Meliopoulos & Cokkinides

the position of “prudent avoidance” of electromagnetic fields. The influence of electromagnetic

fields on the performance of electrical equipment is undeniably many times undesirable. For
example, electromagnetic fields may cause flickering of CRT displays, interfere with the
operation of pacemakers, affect the current distribution in distribution lines causing local
overheating, etc. Most importantly, electromagnetic interference can occur on critical control
circuits with catastrophic results. These issues can be addressed as pure engineering problems.

Electric fields levels depend on the voltage of the various circuit conductors. Magnetic field
levels depend on the electric currents that flow in the various conductors. Because of the
relatively low operating voltage for distribution systems, the electric fields are low and are not
considered. However, the electric currents can be relatively high and thus may generate high
magnetic fields with undesirable effects. An example of E/M fields and their dependence of the
circuit characteristics is presented here. Specifically, a simplified customer system is illustrated
in Figure 1.18. The customer system consists of two identical 208 V (line-to-line) circuits. One
circuit is enclosed in aluminum conduit and the other in steel conduit of same nominal diameter.
Figures 1.19 and 1.20 illustrate the magnetic field around each one of the circuits at the equal
distance from the circuit center. Note that the magnetic field around the circuit enclosed in steel
conduit is much lower (peak value of 76 milligauss) than the magnetic field around the circuit
enclosed in the aluminum conduit (peak value of 365 milligauss).

Electromagnetic fields exist in any electric power distribution circuit. The level of the
electromagnetic fields depends on the imbalance of the system and the geometry of the circuit
conductors. The geometry of the circuit conductors can be controlled by the use of conduit that
tends to put all the conductors close together so that the magnetic fields are minimized.

SOURCE
BUS10 BUS100
G

BUS200

BUS400

1Ph

Figure 1.18 Illustration of a Distribution System in Steel and Aluminum Conduits

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 Electric Power Quality: Chapter 1 – Meliopoulos & Cokkinides

Magnetic Field Near Nonmagnetic Conduit Enclosed Circuit

Plot Circle Radius Plot Along Straight Line Return
Plot Along Conduit Centered Circle
0.500 Feet Update
Magnetic Field
6.00 inches
375

300

225

MilliGauss
150

75.0

0.00
0.00 90.0 180 270 360
Angle(Degrees)

Zoom In Zoom Out Zoom All Angle 319.1 Field 365.9

Program GEM I - Form EM F_CI RCLE

Figure 1.19 Illustration of the Magnetic Field Around the Circuit of Figure 3.17
Enclosed in Aluminum Conduit

Magnetic Field Near Steel Conduit Enclosed Power Circuit (ID=3)

Plot Circle Radius Plot Along Straight Line Return
Plot Along Conduit Centered Circle
0.50 Feet Update
Magnetic Field
6.00 inches
76.0

72.0

68.0
MilliGauss

64.0

60.0

56.0
0.00 90.0 180 270 360
Angle(Degrees)

Zoom In Zoom Out Zoom All Angle 244.1 Field 75.81

Program GEM I - Form EM F_CI RCLE

Figure 1.20 Illustration of the Magnetic Field Around the Circuit of Figure 3.17
Enclosed in Steel Conduit

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 Electric Power Quality: Chapter 1 – Meliopoulos & Cokkinides

Discuss uneven loading of multiple per phase conductors.

Another phenomenon affecting rating is the uneven distribution of electric current in the
presence of harmonics or in the absence of them. The analysis of this problem will be illustrated
with an example.

Example E1.x: Consider a 277 V power line feeding a rectifier. Assume that the rectifier
generates fifth harmonic currents that are 38% of the fundamental. The power line consists of
four 1 inch diameter copper conductors: two phase conductors and two neutral conductors. The
four conductors are arranged horizontally, in the following order: a1, a2, n1, and n2 (a1, a2 are
the two phase conductors and n1, n2 are the two neutral conductors) and spaced 2 inches apart.

Compute the resistance ratio rac/rdc for the fifth harmonic.

Compute the derating factor for this system.

-j10.180 -j5.260
0.6888 e A 1.3276 e A
a1 2.0 A
a2
n1
n2
-j10.180 -j5.260 2.0 A
0.6888 e A 1.3276 e A

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 Electric Power Quality: Chapter 1 – Meliopoulos & Cokkinides

7.0 Power Quality and Grounding Practices

Experiences as well as theoretical investigations have determined that grounding practices of

electric power systems play a very important role on power quality. In this section we present
some preliminary results that interrelate grounding to power quality performance of the system.
In later chapters of this book this interrelationship will be further explored.

Harmonic Resonance: The first example that we will consider is harmonics and harmonic
resonance. For the purpose of identifying harmonic resonance, an appropriate model (frequency
dependent) of the system and its grounding must be used. At each frequency the impedance or
trans-impedance of the system is computed and presented in the form of a graph (frequency scan
or Bode plot). As an example, Figures 1.21, 1.22 and 1.23 present the results of this analysis.
Figure 1.21 illustrates the example system. Note that it is a small section of a typical distribution
circuit with voltage correction capacitors placed at specific points of the system. Note also that
the grounding of the system is modeled. Figure 1.22 illustrates the positive sequence impedance
as a function of frequency at BUS70 of the system, while Figure 1.23 illustrates the impedance
between phase A and neutral at the same BUS70 of the system as a function of frequency. It is
pointed out that the resonance characteristics of Figure 1.22 are mainly affected by the positive
sequence impedance of the system. In this case the design of the grounding system has very little
or no effect on the resulting resonance characteristics. On the other hand, the data of Figure 1.23
are affected by the size of the neutral wire of the system, the groundings of the distribution line
and the soil resistivity. In terms of familiar nomenclature, we state that the results of Figure 1.23
depend on positive, negative and zero sequence impedances of the system and the zero sequence
impedance is affected by the grounding system design (it is pointed out that the analysis method
does not use the positive, negative and zero sequence impedances for modeling the circuit but
rather the physically based model of the distribution circuit). This means that grounding does
affect the resonance characteristics of the system for the condition of Figure 1.21. Comparing the
two figures (1.22 and 1.23) it is apparent that there is a common resonance frequency at 334 Hz.
The resonance quality factor (Q) is quite high for the positive sequence resonance (Z=872 ohms)
and much lower for the phase to neutral resonance (Z=163ohms). This result should be expected
since the grounding system does introduce a substantial resistive component in the phase A to
neutral impedance of the circuit. This component can be controlled by appropriate grounding
system design procedures. It is important to note that this tool provides the capability to
quantitatively study the effects of alternate grounding system designs on resonance frequencies
and resonance quality factor.

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 Electric Power Quality: Chapter 1 – Meliopoulos & Cokkinides

BUS100

BUS90

BUS80
BUS110
1 2 BUS120
BUS30 BUS40

BUS50

BUS60

BUS70

Figure 1.21. Example Test System for Harmonic Resonance

Positive Sequence Frequency Scan at Bus BUS70/ P

Impedance Magnitude
1000 Frequency
(Hz)
100 334.5
Magnitude (Ohms)

10.0 Magnitude
(Ohms)
872.1
1.00

0.100
0.00 400 800 1200 1600 2000 Table
Frequency (Hz)
Impedance Phase
150 Frequency
(Hz)
75.0
Phase (Deg)

0.00
Phase
(Degrees)
-75.0

-150

-225
0.00 400 800
Frequency (Hz)
1200 1600 2000 Close
Pro gram WinIGS - Fo rm FSCAN_RES

Figure 1.22. Positive Sequence Harmonic Resonance – BUS70

Copyright © A. P. Sakis Meliopoulos – 1996-2006 Page 44

 Electric Power Quality: Chapter 1 – Meliopoulos & Cokkinides

Frequency Scan At 2-Node Port: BUS70_A to BUS70_N

Impedance Magnitude
1000 Frequency
(Hz)
334.5
Magnitude (Ohms)
100

Magnitude
(Ohms)
10.0 163.4

1.00
0.00 400 800 1200 1600 2000 Table
Frequency (Hz)
Impedance Phase
120 Frequency
(Hz)
80.0
334.5
Phase (Deg)

40.0
Phase
(Degrees)
0.00
5.501
-40.0

-80.0
0.00 400 800
Frequency (Hz)
1200 1600 2000 Close
Pro gram WinIGS - Fo rm FSCAN_RES

Figure 1.23. Phase A to Neutral Resonance at BUS70

Voltage Sags and Swells: Sequences of fault initiation, fault clearing and reclosing result in
voltage sags for certain customers and voltage swells for others. These events are quite common
occurrence for electric power systems. The level of the voltage swells and sags depends on
grounding system design. This fact was recognized a long time ago. For example, an IEEE
committee has drafted the nomogram shown in Figure 1.14. The data of Figure 1.14 have been
computed with an approximate model based on sequence parameters representation of the power
system. This nomogram provides the percent voltage (voltage swell) on the un-faulted phases for
a single line to ground fault at the same location as a function of the zero sequence resistance
(R0), zero sequence reactance (X0) and positive sequence reactance (X1). Note that the zero
sequence components depend on the design of the grounding system and the voltage swells
depend on the zero sequence impedance. In this book, we will present a method that provides the
exact voltage swells and voltage sags for any fault at any location and for any design system in
terms of neutral size, grounding design, etc. As an example, Figure 1.24 illustrates the voltage
swells and sags along a circuit during a single line to ground fault. Note that the two un-faulted
phases experience a different level of voltage sags and swells due to the asymmetry of the
system.

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 Electric Power Quality: Chapter 1 – Meliopoulos & Cokkinides

Transmission Line Voltage & Current Profile Close

Distribution Line, 12 kV
Displayed Quantity Voltage Reference Nominal Voltage Plot Mode
Volt age Remote Earth Absolute
6.92 kV (L-L)
Current Neutral Deviation
Ground

2.00 Distance
1.250
0.00 _A
-5.810
Voltage (kV)

-2.00 _B
0.3334
-4.00 _C
_A 0.974 4
-6.00 _B _N
_C
0.00
_N
-8.00
0.00 0.75 1.50 2.25 3.00 3.75
BUS40 Distance (miles) BUS50
Program IGS - Form CODE_102A

Figure 1.24. Distribution of Voltage Swells and Sags for a Specific Fault Condition
and Circuit Design
Asymmetry/Unbalance: Distribution systems are not symmetric and they typically feed many
single-phase loads. Both of these factors generate unbalanced conditions that can be accentuated
with the interaction of dynamic loads such as induction motors. These unbalances can be
controlled by appropriate grounding of circuits, use of transformers, placing neutral in symmetric
locations with multi-grounds, increasing the size of the neutrals, use of zig-zag transformers,
decreasing the impedance of the grounds, etc. In this book we will examine methods for
quantifying the effects of various design options on the unbalance. As an example, Figure 1.25
illustrates a system that consists of a small section of a typical distribution system with two
induction motor loads. One induction motor is directly connected to the distribution system via a
cable circuit and the other is connected to the distribution system via a delta-wye connected
transformer, solidly grounded on the wye side. This induction motor operates near balanced
conditions. The other induction motor, however, is experiencing a rather substantial unbalance as
it is shown in Figure 1.26.

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 Electric Power Quality: Chapter 1 – Meliopoulos & Cokkinides

BUS100

BUS90

BUS80
BUS110
1 2 BUS120
BUS30 BUS40

BUS50

BUS60

BUS70
1 2

MCLOAD2 MCBUS1

IM ANGSPEED2

MCLOAD1

IM ANGSPEED1

Figure 1.25. Example Distribution System for Unbalance Studies

Device Terminal Multimeter Close

Case: System Asymmetry and Imbalance Example
Device: Induction Motor

Total Power Voltage L-G Phase Quantities

Per Phase Power Current L-L Symmetric Comp
Voltages P 367.6 kW, Q 178.3 kVar
MCLOAD1_A Va S = 4 08.5 kVA, PF = 89.97 %
Va Pa 120.2 kW, Qa 69.04 kVar
MCLOAD1_B Vb Pb 114 .8 kW, Qb 50.20 kVar
Ic Sa
S
Sc
Ia Pc 132.5 kW, Qc 59.09 kVar
MCLOAD1_C Vc Sb Va = 255.2 V, 55.34 Deg
Vb = 24 5.3 V, -63.85 Deg
RGROUND Ref Vc Vc = 24 9.0 V, 175.7 Deg
Currents Ia = 54 3.0 A, 25.4 7 Deg
Ib = 510.9 A, -87.4 6 Deg
MCLOAD1_A Ia Ic = 582.9 A, 151.6 Deg
MCLOAD1_B Ib
Ib Vb
MCLOAD1_C Ic

Pro gram WinIGS - Fo rm FDR_M ULTIM ETER

Figure 1.26. Typical Results of Unbalance and Effects on Induction Motors

Transients Propagation: Switching operations and lightning can initiate transients that
propagate through the system and reach sensitive customer equipment. These transients can be

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 Electric Power Quality: Chapter 1 – Meliopoulos & Cokkinides

computed with appropriate time domain models and simulation methods. These procedures
provide the transients reaching at any point of the system. Thus the transient voltage waveforms
at specific device terminals can be computed and compared to the withstand capability
(susceptibility curve) of the equipment. This procedure is illustrated in Figures 1.27 and 1.28.
Figures 1.27a and 1.27b illustrate the system, the disturbance and the calculation of the transient
voltage waveforms. Figure 1.28 illustrates the identification of the frequency and duration
content of the waveform and the placement of the disturbance on the susceptibility curve of the
equipment. In this way one can determine, by inspection, the effect of the disturbance on the
equipment. Note that the computational procedure requires two components: (a) transient voltage
computation by means of system-wide disturbance analysis, and (b) characterization of the
disturbance at a specific site in terms of frequency content and peak value. It is important to
recognize that the level of transients in this case strongly depends upon the grounding system
design. Again this issue will be further explored in this book.

Fuse
Arrester

Transformer L1 Sensitive
N Electronic
L2 Equipment
G

Ground Loop

Ground Rods

Figure 1.26a. An Example End User with Sensitive Electronic Equipment

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 Electric Power Quality: Chapter 1 – Meliopoulos & Cokkinides

L1

N
G

Figure 1.27b. Time Domain Simulation of Transient Voltages

Voltage

L1

N
G

Time or Frequency

Figure 1.28. Disturbance Characterization Relative to the Susceptibility Curve

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 Electric Power Quality: Chapter 1 – Meliopoulos & Cokkinides

Monte Carlo Simulation: A powerful method to statistically assess the performance of the
system relative to power quality is the Monte Carlo simulation. For this purpose, probability
distribution functions of random events must be modeled. Then the method consists of the
following procedure: first an event is selected (randomly from the known distributions). Then,
the condition is simulated and the effects of the condition on power quality are quantified. The
procedure is repeated many thousand times and the results are summarized into statistical
distribution of maximum overvoltages or current at any selected point in the circuit or as a
maximum violation of the susceptibility curve, etc.

An example system has been used to demonstrate the method. The system is illustrated in Figure
1.27. The system consists of an industrial facility with electronic equipment. It is fed from an
overhead 12 kV distribution circuit via a 0.5 mile underground distribution cable. The facility
has a ground loop around the building and the transformer neutral is bonded to the ground loop.
The objective of the example is to characterize the disturbances at the terminals of a specific
electronic equipment. The system of Figure 1.27 has been evaluated with a Monte Carlo
simulation. Specifically, 5000 trials of lightning and switching disturbances have been simulated
and the transients at the terminals of the electronic equipment have been recorded, characterized
and superimposed on the susceptibility curve. The results are illustrated in Figure 1.29.

4.0

3.0
Voltage (kV)

2.0

1.0

106 105 104 103 102 10 1 0.1 0.01

Frequency (Hz)
Figure 1.29. Statistical Distribution of Disturbance Voltages Relative to the
Susceptibility Curve

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 Electric Power Quality: Chapter 1 – Meliopoulos & Cokkinides

The results of Figure 1.29 illustrate that there are two clusters of overvoltages, one resulting
from lightning and another resulting from switching. The results also provide information on the
magnitude of these disturbances as related to the susceptibility of the electronic apparatus. One
view of the results of Figure 1.29 is enough to realize that there is a significant number of events
that will result in power quality problems for this system. It should be also apparent that the
method can be used to assess the effectiveness of specific design modifications on improving the
power quality of the system. For example, the grounding of the facility and the 0.5 mile long
cable can be modified (improved) by adding another ground conductor. Then the Monte Carlo
simulation can be repeated. The performance gains then can be assessed and the cost
effectiveness of the design modification can be quantified.

8.0 Power Quality Research Issues

This section provides few thoughts on current research issues in the area of electric power
quality.

The majority of power quality problems result from the interaction of the power distribution
system and the end user system/equipment. Thus a clear understanding of power quality
problems requires an in-depth understanding of the characteristics of both sides. A brief
discussion of these characteristics follows.

Distribution systems are exposed to weather conditions as any other part of the power system.
As a result, the distribution system is subjected to external disturbances such as lightning (direct
or induced), which can cause flash-overs, subsequent power faults, voltage sags and over-
voltages. In addition, the distribution system is also subjected to internal disturbances from
switching, energization transients, power faults, imbalance, etc. There is nothing new in all of
this. What is new is the fact that the electric load is changing. Residences, commercial
buildings and industrial parks are loaded with sensitive electronic equipment. Disturbances in
the transmission or distribution system may propagate and reach the sensitive equipment causing
problems which have been coined power quality problems. Of great importance are transients
and in general disturbances involving the grounding system. Because there is a direct
connection between the utility grounding system and the customer ground, disturbances can
propagate through the ground conductors and/or neutrals with very little attenuation.

Two other related issues are: (a) stray voltages and currents, and (b) safety.

Stray voltages and currents have received attention because of several high profile cases
involving livestock. Stray voltages and currents affect any other subsystem which is connected
to the distribution system.

Safety. Faults in transmission or distribution circuits cause voltage elevation of the neutral of
the system and all grounds connected to it. Since all equipment are grounded, the voltage at the
neutral may be transferred to customer installations, such as commercial building, etc. This
voltage is most severe during faults on the transmission or distribution circuit and lasts for the

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 Electric Power Quality: Chapter 1 – Meliopoulos & Cokkinides

duration of the fault. It is also possible to transfer the stray voltage to end users via the system
neutral. The stray voltage is typically continuous, i.e. it lasts for a long time. Both the
temporary voltage elevation and the stray voltage present the danger of electric shock.

Recent advances in power electronics resulted in a large number of switching devices which are
directly connected to the power system. A subclass of these devices control the power quality
and they affect system performance. These devices interact with the power system and also are
subjected to all transients which are generated by the power system. It is of interest to
characterize the dynamic interaction and to evaluate the effect of power system transients on
power electronic devices.

It is feasible to construct a comprehensive model of a typical distribution system together with

its grounding and power quality control devices. Extensive studies with this model can provide
data on the performance of the system, relative to the above mentioned issues, under the
following two conditions:

Power Frequency Performance:

1. Steady State Operation

2. Load changes
3. Switching
4. Power faults
5. Feeder energization
6. Loading imbalance

Transient Performance:

7. Lightning (direct and induced)

8. Switching
9. Circuit energization inrush current

TO BE CONTINUED

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 Electric Power Quality: Chapter 1 – Meliopoulos & Cokkinides

9.0 Problems

Problem P1.1. A certain converter draws a current which has the waveform illustrated in the
Figure, below. Compute the harmonics of this waveform up to the 11th harmonic. Note that the
graph is to scale.

200
Amperes

100

16.666
0.0

Time (mseconds)

Problem P1.2: A certain converter draws a current which has the waveform illustrated below.
Compute the 5th and 6th harmonics of this waveform. Note that the graph is to scale.

200
Amperes

One Period
100

0.0 16.666

Time (mseconds)

Problem P1.3: Consider the simplified converter of Figure P3a. The switches shown are
electronic. The sequence of switching is such that the electric current through the load has the
waveform indicated in Figure P3b. Compute the Total Harmonic Distortion of the electric
current.

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 Electric Power Quality: Chapter 1 – Meliopoulos & Cokkinides

Figure P3a

1.0

i(t)

0.0

-1.0
T
Figure P3b

Problem P1.4: The voltage and current at the terminals of an electric load are:

v(t) = 390.0 cos(ωt+30) + 22.4 cos (5ωt+120) + 12.4 cos (7ωt+720) Volts

i(t) = 165.0 cos(ωt-70) + 35.4 cos (5ωt+2020) + 19.4 cos (7ωt+1120) Amperes

Compute the real power absorbed by the electric load

Compute the distortion power of the load.

Compute the THD of the voltage.

Compute the THD of the current

Compute the Telephone Influence Factor (use the TIF table)

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 Electric Power Quality: Chapter 1 – Meliopoulos & Cokkinides

Problem P1.5. Two electric loads are connected to an ideal sinusoidal voltage source. The first
load is linear, absorbs 45 kW with power factor 0.9 current lagging. The second load is
nonlinear, absorbing 28 kW and its current has a THD of 0.16 (16%). The fundamental of the
electric current of this load lags the voltage by 37 degrees.

Compute the total harmonic distortion of the source current.

Problem P1.6: The voltage and current at the terminals of an electric load are:

v(t) = 165.0 cos(ωt+30) + 12.4 cos (3ωt+120) volts

i(t) = 65.0 cos(ωt-70) + 15.4 cos (3ωt+2020) + 9.4 cos (5ωt+1120) Amperes

Compute the real power absorbed by the electric load

Compute the distortion power of the load.

Compute the THD of the voltage.

Compute the THD of the current

Problem P1.7: An ideal three phase voltage source, 480 V line-to-line, 60 Hz supplies an
electric load via a six-pulse, three phase rectifier. The AC side of the rectifier draws a set of
three phase currents. The fundamental of these currents is a set of balanced three phase currents
of magnitude 120 Amperes and phase angle of -25 degrees with respect to the fundamental of the
voltage.

The rectifier generates the following harmonic currents:

5th , three phase, negative sequence Magnitude 17.5 %, in phase with fundamental
current
7th , three phase, positive sequence Magnitude 11 %, in phase with fundamental
current

The source also supplies current to a capacitor bank. The total reactive power absorbed by the
capacitor bank is 50 kVAr at fundamental frequency.

a) Compute the THD of the source electric current.

b) Compute the source distortion power.

Problem P1.8. A telephone circuit parallels a power line. The power line serves a load
consisting of a six-pulse converter that draws an electric current with fundamental rms value of
360 Amperes and harmonics that are listed in the table below (in per unit of the fundamental
current).

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 Electric Power Quality: Chapter 1 – Meliopoulos & Cokkinides

5TH 7 TH 11 TH 13 TH 17 TH 19 TH 23 RD 25 TH
0.175 0.110 0.045 0.029 0.015 0.010 0.009 0.008

Compute the total harmonic distortion.

Compute the I.T and the TIF.

Problem P1.9. Two electric loads are connected to an ideal sinusoidal, three-phase, 480 V,
voltage source. The first load is linear, absorbs 145 kW with power factor 0.9 current leading.
The second load is nonlinear, absorbing 128 kW. This load consists of a six pulse converter. The
electric current of this load consists of the harmonics indicated below and the fundamental of the
electric current of this load lags the voltage by 27 degrees.

5TH 7 TH 11 TH 13 TH 17 TH 19 TH 23 RD 25 TH
0.175 0.110 0.045 0.029 0.015 0.010 0.009 0.008

a) Compute the THD of the source electric current.

b) Compute the source distortion power.

Copyright © A. P. Sakis Meliopoulos – 1996-2006 Page 56