Machining & Machining Tools

Unit-1

Metal Cutting

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 Overview
Classification of metal removal process and machines: Concept of
generatrix and directrix Geometry of single point cutting tool and
tool angles, tool nomenclature in ASA, ORS, NRS and
interrelationship. Concept of orthogonal and oblique cutting,
Mechanism of Chip Formation: Type of chips. Mechanics of metal
cutting, interrelationships between cutting force, shear angle,
strain and strain rate. Various theories of metal cutting, Thermal
aspects of machining and measurement of chip tool interface
temperature, Friction in metal cutting, Introduction to tool
geometry of milling cutters and drills
2
 Metal Removal Processes
DEFINITION: A family of shaping operations, the common feature of which is removal of
material from a starting work part so the remaining part has the desired geometry. The
machines on which these operations are performed are called machine tools.

Variables in Processes of Metal Cutting:

 Machine tool selected to perform the
processes
 Cutting tool (geometry and material)
 Properties and parameters of workpiece
 Cutting parameters (speed, feed, depth
Fig. 1.0 Value addition by machining
of cut)
 Workpiece holding devices (fixture or
It is a value addition process by which
jigs)
raw materials of low utility and value
due to its inadequate material
properties and poor or irregular size,
shape and finish are converted into
high utility and valued products with
definite dimensions, forms and finish
imparting some functional ability. 3
Inputs & Outputs

4
 Classification
Traditional Process (Machining) –
Material removal by a sharp cutting tool.
e.g., turning, milling and drilling. The
‘‘other machining operations’’ in Figure
1.1 include shaping, planing, broaching,
and sawing.
Abrasive processes – Material removal
by hard, abrasive particles, e.g.,
grinding. The ‘‘other abrasive processes’’
in Figure 1.1 include honing, lapping,
and superfinishing.
Nontraditional processes - Various
energy forms other than sharp cutting
tool or abrasive materials to remove
material generally by erosion. e.g., Laser
and Electron Beam machining. The
energy forms include mechanical,
Figure 1.1: Classification of
electrochemical, thermal, and chemical material removal processes 5
 Metal Removal Processes
MAJOR CHARACTERISTICS OF CONVENTIONAL MACHINING
 Generally macroscopic chip formation by shear deformation
 Material removal takes place due to application of cutting forces – energy
domain can be classified as mechanical
 Cutting tool is harder than work piece at room temperature as well as under
machining conditions

ADVANTAGES OF MACHINING
 Variety of work materials can be machined
 Variety of part shapes and special geometric features possible
 Good dimensional accuracy
 Good surface finish

DISADVANTAGES WITH MACHINING

 Chips generated in machining are wasted material
 Time consuming process

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 Basic Principle of Machining
Machining is a manufacturing process in which a sharp cutting tool is used to cut
away material to leave the desired part shape. The predominant cutting action in
machining involves shear deformation of the work material to form a chip; as the
chip is removed, a new surface is exposed. Machining is most frequently applied
to shape metals.

Figure 1.2: Machining process principle overview

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 Machining Operations
Turning: Single point cutting tool removes material from a rotating workpiece to form a cylindrical
shape
Drilling: Used to create a round hole, usually by means of a rotating tool (drill bit) with two cutting
edges
Milling: Rotating multiple-cutting-edge tool is moved across work to cut a plane or straight surface.
Shaping and planning: Used to create flat surface
Broaching : Multi teeth tool used to make roughing and finishing in single stroke
Sawing: Used for cutoff operations

Figure 1.3: Seven basic machining processes in chip formation

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 Concept of Generatrix and Directrix
The machine tools, in general, provide two kinds of relative motions.
Primary Motion: It is the relative motion between the tool and work responsible
for the cutting action is and absorbs most of the power required to perform the
machining action.
Secondary Motion: It is responsible for gradually feeding the uncut portion and
may proceed in steps or continuously and absorbs only a fraction of the total
power required for machining.
Depending upon the nature of two relative motions, various types of surfaces can
be produced.
Generatrix: The line generated by the primary motion (cutting motion) is called
the generatrix.
Directrix: The line representing the secondary motion (feed motion) is called the
directrix. It provides path to generatrix.
Depending upon the shapes of the generatrix and the directrix and their
relative orientation various geometries can be produced on the
workpiece.

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 Concept of Generatrix and Directrix
GENERATION OF FLAT SURFACE
cutting motions as well as the feed motion are rectilinear but perpendicular to each other. Here the
machined surface produced is a plane. The principle is shown in Fig. 1.4 where on a flat plain a straight
line called Generatrix (G) is traversed in a perpendicular direction called Directrix (D). This results in a flat
surface.

Fig. 1.4 Generation of flat surfaces by

Generatrix and Directrix Fig. 1.5 Generation of cylindrical surfaces (of revolution)

GENERATION OF CYLINDRICAL SURFACES

The principles of production of various cylindrical surfaces (of revolution) are shown in Fig. 1.5, where, A
long straight cylindrical surface is obtained by a circle (G) being traversed in the direction (D) parallel to
the axis as shown in Fig. 1.5(a)
A cylindrical surface of short length is obtained by traversing a straight line (G) along a circular path (D) as
indicated in Fig. 1.5(b)
Form cylindrical surfaces by rotating a curved line (G) in a circular path (D) as indicated in Fig. 1.5 (c and
d).

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 Concept of Generatrix and Directrix
TOOL – WORK MOTIONS Formative motions
The lines representing the Generatrix and Directrix  Cutting motion (CM) : Primary Motion
are usually produced by the locus of a point moving  Feed motion (FM) : Secondary Motion
in two different directions and are actually obtained • Auxiliary motions
by the motions of the tool-tip (point) relative to the  Indexing motion
work surface. Hence, for machining flat or curved  Additional feed motion
surfaces the machine tools need relative tool work  Relieving motion
motions
Interconnections

Fig. 1.7 Principle of producing flat surface in

Fig. 1.6 Principle of turning (cylindrical
shaping machine
surface)
Shaper Planer
Generatrix (G) – Cutting motion (CM) – Work (W) G – CM – T G – CM – Work
Directrix (D) – Feed motion (FM) – Tool (T) D – FM – W D – FM – Tool 11
 Concept of Generatrix and Directrix
The Generatrix and Directrix can be obtained in four ways:
Tracing (Tr) – where the continuous line is attained as a trace of path of a
moving point

Forming (F) – where the Generatrix is

simply the profile of the cutting edge

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 Concept of Generatrix and Directrix

Tangent Tracing (TTr) – where the

Directrix is taken as the tangent to the
series of paths traced by the cutting
edges as indicated in Fig. 1.8

The G and D are connected here with the tool

work motions as
Figure 1.8 Directrix formed by tangent
G–x–T–F
tracing in plain milling
D – FM – W – TTr
CM – T
Here G and D are independent of the cutting
motion and the G is the line of contact between
the milling cutter and the flat work surface. The
present cutter being of roller shape, G has been
a straight line and the surface produced has
also been flat.
Form milling cutters will produce similar formed
surfaces as shown in Fig. 1.9 where the ‘G’ is
Fig. 1.9 Tool-work motions and G & D in
the tool-form. form milling 13
 Concept of Generatrix and Directrix
Generation (G)
Here the G or D is obtained as an envelope
being tangent to the instantaneous positions
of a line or surface which is rolling on another
surface. Gear teeth generation by hobbing or
gear shaping is the example as can be seen in
Fig. 1.10

Figure 1.10 Generatrix or directrix

in gear teeth cutting by generation
For making holes in drilling machines both
the cutting motion and feed motion are
imparted to the cutting tool i.e., the drill bit
whereas the workpiece remains stationary.
This is shown in Fig. 1.11. The G and D are
linked with the tool-work in the way:
G-CM-T-Tr
Figure 1.11 Tool Work Motions and G & D D – FM – W –Tr
in Drilling
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 Concept of Rake & Clearance angles of cutting tools

The word tool geometry is basically referred to some specific angles or slope of
the salient faces and edges of the tools at their cutting point. Rake angle and
clearance angle are the most significant for all the cutting tools.

Fig. 1.12 Rake and clearance angles of cutting tools

Definition
Rake angle (α): Angle of inclination of rake surface from reference plane

Clearance angle (γ): Angle of inclination of clearance or flank surface

from the finished surface 15
 Rake Angles
Rake Angle: Rake angle is provided for ease of chip flow and overall machining.
Rake angle may be positive, or negative or even zero as shown in Fig. 1.13.

(a) Positive rake (b) zero rake (c) negative rake

Fig. 1.13 Three possible types of rake angles

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 Rake Angles
Positive rake –A tool has a positive rake when the face of the tool slopes away from the cutting
edges and slants towards the back or side of the tool. In most cases, tools are provided with a
positive rake

 Helps reduce cutting force requirement and thus cutting

power requirement. (Imagine cutting by blunt knife v/s sharp
knife)
 The force acting on tool tends to break tool tip or shear off the
cutting edge of the tool.
 Positive rake angle makes the tool sharp and pointed, but reduce
the strength of cutting edge. (Very sharp pencil tip breaks)
 It helps the formation of continues chip in ductile material and
contributes to avoiding the formation of built-up edge chip.

Recommended for-
 Low-strength/soft ferrous and non-ferrous metal
 Low power machine
 Long shaft of small diameters (To avoid bending)
 Set up lacks strength
 Low cutting speed
 Cutting tool material is HSS.

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 Rake Angles
Negative rake – A tool has a negative rake when the face of the tool slopes away from the
cutting edges and slants upwards the back or side of the tool.
 To increase edge-strength (mechanically and thermally) and
life of the tool. More area helps in heat dissipation as well as
provides strength.
 Cutting tool with negative rake angle is stronger (blunt) , can take
heavier depth of cut and used to cut high-strength material. Fig
shows the force acting on the tool. The force directed to the
strongest part of the tool.
 Negative rake angle prevents adhesion.
 Increase the surface finish.
 Decreases tool wear and increases the tool life.
 Higher cutting force during machining, this also increases the power
consumption.
 Increase vibration, friction and temperature at cutting edge.

Recommended for-
 Machining high strength alloy
 High speed cutting
 With rigid setup to resist vibrations
 Cutting tools are ceramic and carbide
 Tools are subjected to compressive forces
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 Zero Rake Angle & Clearance Angle
Zero rake – To simplify design and manufacture of the
form tools.
 A neutral rake angle tool is simplest and easiest to
manufacture, but it causes a massive crater wear when
compared to other types.
 Neutral rake angle obstructs the movement of chip flow and
causes build-up chip formation.
 Examples-Gear cutting in milling machine, Thread cutting in
lathe machine
Benefits: Increase tool strength, Avoids digging of tools into
workpiece, Brass and CI are cut with zero rake.

Clearance Angle: Clearance angle is essentially provided to avoid rubbing of the

tool (flank) with the machined surface which causes loss of energy and damages of
both the tool and the job surface. Hence, clearance angle is a must and must be
positive 3o ~ 15o depending upon tool-work materials and type of the machining
operations like turning, drilling, boring etc.)

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 Cutting Parameters

Cutting Speed: Cutting speed is the distance traveled by the work surface in unit time
with reference to the cutting edge of the tool. The cutting speed, v is simply referred to
as speed and usually expressed in m/min.
Feed: The feed is the distance advanced by the tool into or along the workpiece each
time the tool point passes a certain position in its travel over the surface. In case of
turning, feed is the distance that the tool advances in one revolution of the workpiece.
Feed f is usually expressed in mm/rev. Sometimes it is also expressed in mm/min and is
called feed rate.
Depth of cut: It is the distance through which the cutting tool is plunged into the
workpiece surface. Thus it is the distance measured perpendicularly between the
machined surface and the unmachined (uncut) surface or the previously machined
surface of the workpiece. The depth of cut d is expressed in mm. For Turning
DOC = 0.5(D1 – D2) = d
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 Classification of Cutting Tools

According to cutting edges

 Single point: e.g., turning tools, shaping, planning and slotting tools and
boring tools
 Double (two) point: e.g., drills
 Multipoint (more than two): e.g., milling cutters, broaching tools, hobs,
gear shaping cutters etc.

According to motion
 Linear motion tools – lathe tools, brooches
 Rotary motion tools – milling cutters, grinding wheels
 Linear & rotary motion tools – drills, taps, etc.

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 Geometry of Single Point Cutting Tool (Turning)
TOOL ELEMENTS

Fig. 1.14 Elements of Single Point Cutting Tool

Shank – It is main body of tool. It is the Base –The bottom surface of tool is known as base. It is
backward part of tool which is hold by tool post. just opposite surface of face.
The shank is gripped by tool holder. Heel – It is the intersection of the flank & base of the
Flank – Sometime flank is also known as tool. It is curved portion at the bottom of the tool.
cutting face. It is the vertical surface adjacent to Nose or cutting point – It is the front point where side
cutting edge. According to cutting edge, there cutting edge & end cutting edge intersect.
are two flank side flank and end flank. The Cutting edge – It is the edge on face of the tool which
major flank lies below and adjacent to the side removes the material from workpiece. The cutting edges
cutting edge and the minor flank surface lies are side cutting edge (major cutting edge) & end cutting
below and adjacent to the end cutting edge. edge ( minor cutting edge)
Face – It is top surface of the tool along which Noise radius –It is radius of the nose. Nose radius
the chips slides. It is the horizontal surface increases the life of the tool and provides better surface
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adjacent of cutting edges finish. Too large a nose radius will induce chatter.
 Geometry of Single Point Cutting Tool (Turning)
TOOL ANGLES

End Cutting Edge Angle: The angle formed in

between the end cutting edge and a line
perpendicular to the shank is called end cutting
edge angle. It provides clearance between tool
cutting edge and workpiece.
Side Cutting Edge Angle: The angle formed
in between the side cutting edge and a line
parallel to the shank. It is responsible for
turning the chip away from the finished surface.

Fig. 1.15 Figure explaining end cutting edge angle and 23

side cutting edge angle
 Geometry of Single Point Cutting Tool (Turning)
TOOL ANGLES

3. Back Rack Angle: The angle formed between the

tool face and line parallel to the base is called back rake
angle. Positive back rake angle takes the chips away
from the machined surface, whereas negative back rake
angle directs the chips on to the machined surface.
4. End Relief Angle: The angle formed between the
minor flank and a line normal to the base of the tool is
called end relief angle. It is also known as front
clearance angle. It avoids the rubbing of the workpiece
against tool.
5. Lip Angle/ Wedge Angle: It is defined as the
angle between face and minor flank of the single point
cutting tool.
Fig. 1.16 Figure explaining Back rake angle, End relief 24
angle and Wedge or lip angle
 Geometry of Single Point Cutting Tool (Turning)
TOOL ANGLES

6. Side Rake Angle: the angle formed

between the tool face and a line perpendicular
to the shank is called side rake angle.
7. Side Relief Angle: the angle formed
between the major flank surface and plane
normal to the base of the tool is called side
relief angle. This angle avoids the rubbing
between workpiece and flank when the tool is
fed longitudinally.

Fig. 1.17 Figure explaining Side rake angle & Side relief 25
angle
 Tool Angles

Fig. 1.18 Figure explaining all angles & geometry of single point cutting tool 26
 System of Description of Tool Geometry
Tool in Hand System: where only the salient features of the cutting tool point are
identified or visualized as shown in Fig. 1.19. There is no quantitative
information, i.e., value of the angles.

Fig. 1.19 Tool in Hand System

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 System of Description of Tool Geometry
Machine Reference System: This system is also called ASA system; ASA stands
for American Standards Association. In this system angles of the tool face are
defined in two orthogonal planes, parallel to the axis of the cutting tool &
perpendicular to the axis of cutting tool, both planes being perpendicular to the
base of the tool.
πR = Reference plane :
plane perpendicular to the velocity
vector
πX = Machine longitudinal plane :
plane perpendicular to πR and taken
in the direction of assumed
longitudinal feed
πY = Machine Transverse plane:
plane perpendicular to both πR and πX
taken in the direction of assumed
cross feed
Axes: Xm, Ym and Zm in the direction
of longitudinal feed, cross feed and
Fig. 1.20 Planes and axes of reference in ASA system cutting velocity (vector) respectively.

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System of Description of Tool Geometry
Fig. 1.21 Tool Angles in ASA system

Tool Nomenclature in ASA System

The ASA system consists of seven elements to
denote a single point cutting tool. They are always
written in the following order. Back rake angle, Side
rake angle, End relief angle, Side relief angle, End
cutting edge angle, Side cutting edge angle, and
nose radius.
For example, tool signature 0, 10, 6, 6, 10, 12, 1
means
Back rake angle = 0°
Side rake angle = 10°
End relief angle = 6°
Side relief angle = 6°
End cutting edge angle = 10°
Side cutting edge angle = 12°
Nose radius = 1mm 29
 System of Description of Tool Geometry
Orthogonal Rake System (ORS)

This system is also known as ISO – old. The

planes of reference and the co-ordinate
axes used for expressing the tool angles in
ORS are:
πR - πC - πO and Xo - Yo - Zo which are
taken in respect of the tool configuration as
indicated in Fig. 1.22
here,
πR = Refernce plane perpendicular to the
cutting velocity vector, CV
πC = cutting plane; plane perpendicular to
πR and taken along the principal cutting
edge
πO = Orthogonal plane; plane perpendicular
to both πR and πC and the axes;
Xo = along the line of intersection of πR and
πO
Yo = along the line of intersection of πR and
πC Figure1.22: Planes and axis of reference in ORS
Zo = along the velocity vector, i.e., normal
to both Xo and Yo axes
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System of Description of Tool Geometry

Orthogonal Rake System (ORS)

Figure 1.23: Tool

angles in ORS
System

Figure1.24: Auxiliary
Orthogonal Clearance Angle
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 System of Description of Tool Geometry

Tool Nomenclature in ORS System

The ORS system comprises seven parameters to describe a tool.
The main elements of ORS designated in the following order-
Angle of inclination, Normal rake angle, Side relief angle, End relief angle, End
cutting edge angle, Approach angle and Nose radius.
Example: Tool signature 5, 10, 6, 6, 5, 90, 1
Angle of inclination = 5°
Normal rake angle = 10°
Side relief angle = 6°
End relief angle = 6°
End cutting edge angle = 5°
Approach angle = 90°
Nose radius =1mm
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 System of Description of Tool Geometry
Normal Rake System (NRS)
This system is also known as ISO – new. ASA system has limited advantage and use like convenience of
inspection. But ORS is advantageously used for analysis and research in machining and tool performance. But
ORS does not reveal the true picture of the tool geometry when the cutting edges are inclined from the
reference plane, i.e., λ≠0. Besides, sharpening or resharpening, if necessary, of the tool by grinding in ORS
requires some additional calculations for correction of angles. These two limitations of ORS are overcome by
using NRS for description and use of tool geometry.
The basic difference between ORS and NRS is-
in ORS, rake and clearance angles are visualized in the orthogonal plane, πo, whereas in NRS those angles are
visualized in another plane called Normal plane, πN. The orthogonal plane, πo is simply normal to πR and πC
irrespective of the inclination of the cutting edges, i.e., λ, but πN (and πN’ for auxiliary cutting edge) is always
normal to the cutting edge. The differences between ORS and NRS have been depicted in Fig. 1.25.

Figure1.25: Differences of NRS from ORS w.r.t.

cutting tool geometry. 33
 Orthogonal & Oblique Cutting
Orthogonal Cutting: In orthogonal cutting, the cutting edge inclination is zero and chip is
expected to flow along the orthogonal plane. The cutting tool is presented to the workpiece
in such a way that the cutting edge is normal to the tool feed direction. In orthogonal
cutting, the radial force is zero, and it involves only two component of force; this simplifies
the analysis of cutting motion.
Oblique Cutting: In oblique cutting, chip flow deviates from the orthogonal plane. Tool is
presented to workpiece at an acute angle (θ < 90°) to the tool feed motion. The analysis of
cutting include three mutually perpendicular component of force and it is being very difficult
to analyse.

Figure1.26: Orthogonal
and Oblique Cutting

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Comparison of Orthogonal & Oblique Cutting

35
 Orthogonal & Oblique Cutting
• Chip in Fig. a flows up the
rake face of the tool at
angle αc (chip flow angle),
which is measured in the
plane of the tool face.
• Angle αn , the normal rake
angle, is a basic geometric
property of the tool. This is
the angle between the
normal oz to the workpiece
surface and the line oa on
the tool face.
• The workpiece material
approaches the tool at a
velocity V and leaves the Extra Figure (a) Schematic illustration of
surface (as a chip) with a cutting with an oblique tool. Note the direction
velocity Vc of chip movement. (b) Top view, showing the
inclination angle, i,. (c) Types of chips produced
with tools at increasing inclination angles. 36
 Orthogonal & Oblique Cutting
Effective rake angle αe is
calculated in the plane of
these two velocities.
Assuming that the chip flow
angle αc is equal to the
inclination angle i, the
effective rake angle αe is

As i increases, the effective

rake angle increases and the
chip becomes thinner and
longer.
Extra Figure (a) Schematic illustration of
cutting with an oblique tool. Note the
direction of chip movement. (b) Top view,
showing the inclination angle, i,. (c) Types of
chips produced with tools at increasing
inclination angles.

37
 2 School of Thoughts

Thin Shear Plane Model: Deformation zone is very thin and planer. For
analysis it is convenient but impossible to exist. If the transition from
undeformed material to deformed material need to take place along a thin
plane, then the acceleration across the plane has to be infinity for the velocity
to change instantaneously from initial to cutting velocity. Similarly the stress
gradient across the shear plane has to be very large to be practical.
Thick Shear Plane Model: Actual deformation zone is thick with a fan shape.
Transition velocities and the shear stresses can be realistically accounted in this
model.

38
 Chip Formation in Metal Cutting

Process: a wedge shaped single point cutting tool moves relative to the work piece. As the
tool makes contact with the metal, it exerts pressure on it. Due to these compressive
forces shear stresses are induced on the workpiece. Whenever and wherever the value of
the shear stress reaches or exceeds the shear strength of that work material in the primary
deformation region, yielding or slip takes place. This results in shear deformation in that
region and in the plane of maximum shear stress. A chip is produced ahead of the cutting
tool by first elastic deformation or yielding and then finally by plastic deformation and
shearing the material continuously, along the shear plane AB. But the forces causing the
shear stresses in the region of the chip quickly diminishes and finally disappears while that
region moves along the tool rake surface towards the secondary shear zone and then goes
beyond the point of chip-tool engagement. As a result the slip or shear stops propagating
long before total separation takes place. In the meantime the succeeding portion of the
chip starts undergoing compression followed by yielding and shear. This phenomenon
repeats rapidly resulting in formation and removal of chips in thin layer by layer. This
phenomenon has been explained in a simple way by Piispannen using a card analogy
39
 Mechanics of in Metal Cutting
Model Used:
Orthogonal cutting 2D Model with certain assumptions is used to understand the mechanics of
metal cutting. This avoids the complex analysis of 3D machining
Assumptions
 The tool tip is sharp and that the chip makes contact only with rake face of the tool. There is no
contact along the clearance face.
 The surface where shearing is occurring is a plane (Merchant). The deformation zone is very
thin (in the order of 10-2 to 10-3 mm) adjacent to the shear plane.
 Merchant’s thin plane shear model considering the minimum energy principle is used. The model
is applicable at very high speeds.
 The cutting edge is perpendicular to the cutting velocity
 The chip does not flow to either side. The deformation is two dimensional, i.e., no side spread
 Uncut chip thickness is constant
 Width of the tool is greater than the width of work.
 Work moves with a uniform velocity
 The stresses on the shear plane are uniformly distributed.
 Continuous chip without BUE
 Workpiece material is rigid and perfectly plastic
 Coefficient of friction is constant
 The resultant force on the chip R' applied at the shear plane is equal, opposite and co-linear to
the resultant force R applied to the chip at the chip-tool interface.
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 Forces in Metal Cutting
Knowledge of the cutting forces and power involved in machining operations is important for the following
reasons:
 Machine tools can be properly designed to minimize distortion of the machine components, maintain the
desired dimensional accuracy of the machined part, and help select appropriate tool holders and work-
holding devices.
 The workpiece is capable of withstanding these forces without excessive distortion.
 Power requirements must be known in order to enable the selection of a machine tool with adequate
electric power.
Fs = Shear Force, which acts along the shear plane, is the resistance to shear of the
metal in forming the chip.
FN = Force acting normal to the shear plane, is the backing up force on the chip provided
by the work piece.
These two forces produce the resultant force, R’
F = Frictional resistance of the tool acting against the motion of the chip as it moves
upward along the tool
N = Normal to the chip force, is provided by the tool.
These two forces produce the resultant force R. Forces acting on the chip must be in
balance. Hence R' must be equal, opposite and collinear with R. Also F = R sin β & N=R
cos β
Figure 1.28 (a) forces acting on
the chip in orthogonal cutting Issue: F, N, Fs, and Fn cannot be directly measured. Forces that can be measured
using dynamometer are Cutting force Fc and Thrust force Ft which act on tool instead of
chip.

The ratio of F to N is the coefficient of friction, μ, at the F Ft  Fc tan 

Coeffiicie nt of friction,   tan   
tool-chip interface, and the angle β is the friction angle. N Fc  Ft tan 
Friction angle related to coefficient of friction as
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 Forces in Metal Cutting
Cutting Force & Thrust Force
Forces acting on the tool that can be measured using
various kind of dynamometers are the cutting force, Fc,
acts in the direction of the cutting speed, v, and supply
the energy required for the machining operation and the
thrust force (feed force), Ft, acts in the direction normal
to cutting velocity, that is perpendicular to the
workpiece. These two forces produce the resultant
force, R’’
Equations can be derived easily by Merchant’s circle
diagram to relate the forces that cannot be measured to
the forces that can be measured:
Figure 1.29: Forces acting on the F = Fc sin + Ft cos
tool that can be measured
N = Fc cos - Ft sin
Fs = Fc cos - Ft sin
Fn = Fc sin + Ft cos
Based on these calculated force, shear stress and
coefficient of friction can be determined

42
 Construction of Merchant’s Circle
 Set up x-y axis labeled with forces, and the origin in
the center of the page. The cutting force (Fc) is
drawn horizontally, and the tangential force (Ft) is
drawn vertically. (Draw in the resultant (R) of Fc
and Ft.
 Locate the center of R, and draw a circle that
encloses vector R. If done correctly, the heads and
tails of all 3 vectors will lie on this circle.
 Draw in the cutting tool in the upper right hand
quadrant, taking care to draw the correct rake angle
(α) from the vertical axis.
 Extend the line that is the cutting face of the tool (at
the same rake angle) through the circle. This now
gives the friction vector (F).
 A line can now be drawn from the head of the
friction vector, to the head of the resultant vector
(R). This gives the normal vector (N). Also add a
friction angle (β) between vectors R and N.
Therefore, mathematically, R = Fc+Ft = F + N.
 Draw a feed thickness line parallel to the horizontal
axis. Next draw a chip thickness line parallel to the
tool cutting face.
 Draw a vector from the origin (tool point) towards
the intersection of the two chip lines, stopping at
the circle. The result will be a shear force vector
(Fs). Also measure the shear force angle between Fs
and Fc.
 Finally add the shear force normal (Fn) from the
head of Fs to the head of R.
 Use a scale and protractor to measure off all
distances (forces) and angles. 43
Force Relationships

44
Force Relationships

45
Other Calculations

Figure 1.31: Mechanics of metal cutting

46
Other Calculations

47
Other Calculations

48
 Chip Thickness Ratio/Cutting Ratio

Chip thickness ratio (r): The ratio of thickness of chip before cut (to) to the thickness of chip after cut
(tc) is known as chip thickness ratio.
Chip compression ratio (k): The reciprocal of r is known as chip compression ratio or chip reduction
ratio (1/r). The chip reduction ratio is a measure of how thick the chip has become compared to the depth
of cut (t0). Thus the chip reduction ratio is always greater than unity.

49
 Chip Thickness Ratio/Cutting Ratio

Chip thickness ratio (r): The ratio of thickness of chip before cut (to) to the thickness of chip after cut
(tc) is known as chip thickness ratio.
Chip compression ratio (k): The reciprocal of r is known as chip compression ratio or chip reduction
ratio (1/r). The chip reduction ratio is a measure of how thick the chip has become compared to the depth
of cut (t0). Thus the chip reduction ratio is always greater than unity.

50
 Other Methods of calculating Chip Thickness Ratio/Cutting Ratio

IN TERMS OF CHIP LENGTHS IN TERMS OF VELOCITIES

51
 CALCULATION OF SHEAR ANGLE (Φ)

This is the required relation to calculate the shear angle (φ). This relation shows
that φ depends upon the t0, tc, and α . It means by measuring t0, tc and α of the
tool, shear angle (φ) can be determined using above expression.

52
 VELOCITIES IN METAL CUTTING PROCESS

Figure 1.32: Velocity relationships in Orthogonal Cutting Model

Cutting Speed or Velocity (V): Velocity of the cutting tool relative to the work piece.
Shear Velocity (Vs): It is the velocity of chip relative to the work piece. In other way, the velocity at
which shearing takes place.
Chip Velocity (Vc): It is the velocity of the chip up the tool face (rake face) during cutting.

53
SHEAR STRAIN & SHEAR STRAIN RATE

Figure: 1.33 (a) Chip

formation depicted as a
series of parallel plates
sliding relative to each
other, (b) one of the plates
isolated to show shear
strain, and (c) shear strain
triangle used to derive
strain equation

54
 Approximation of Turning by Orthogonal Model

Conversion Key: Turning operation vs Orthogonal Cutting

Feed f Chip thickness before cut to
Depth d Width of cut w or b
Cutting speed v Cutting speed v
Cutting force Fc Cutting force Fc
Feed Force Ff Thrust Force Ft

Figure: 1.33 Approximation of turning by Orthogonal

Model (a) Turning (b) The corresponding Orthogonal
Cutting
55
Various Theories of Metal Cutting
ERNST-MERCHANT’S THEORY & MODIFIED MERCHANT’S THEORY

56
 Various Theories of Metal Cutting
Stabler Theory:
He modified the Ernst-Merchant equation as:

LEE AND SHAFFER’S THEORY

This theory analysis the process of orthogonal metal cutting by applying the
theory of plasticity for an ideal rigid plastic material.
Assumptions:
 The work piece material ahead of the cutting tool behaves like an ideal plastic
material.
 The behavior of the material is independent of rate of deformation
 The effects of temperature increase during deformation are negligible
 The inertia effects resulting from acceleration of material during deformation
are negligible.
 The deformation of the metal occurs on a single shear plane.
 There is a stress field within the produced chip which transmits the cutting
force from the shear plane to the tool face and therefore, the chip does not
get hardened.
 The chip separates from the parent material at the shear plane.
Based on this, they developed a slip line field for stress zone, in which no
deformation would occur even if it is stressed to its yield point. 57
 Various Theories of Metal Cutting

Stress-strain curve for a rigid plastic material

Slip line field for orthogonal cutting 58

 FRICTION IN METAL CUTTING

Amontons' laws of friction formulated in 1699 state that friction is independent

of the apparent area of contact and proportional to the normal load between the
two surfaces.

Coulomb’s laws of friction verified these laws and made a further observation: that the
coefficient of friction is substantially independent of the speed of sliding.
Bowden and Tabor has contributed much to the explanation of these empirical laws.
Microscopic examination shows that even the most carefully prepared "flat" metallic
surfaces consist of numerous hills and valleys. When two surfaces are placed together,
contact is established at the summits of only a few irregularities in each surface .If a
normal load is applied, yielding occurs at the tips of the contacting asperities, and the real
area of contact Ar increases until it is capable of supporting the applied load. For the vast
majority of engineering applications this real area of contact Ar is only a small fraction of
the apparent contact area Aa and is given by

59
 FRICTION IN METAL CUTTING

In the areas of real contact, the atoms of

the two surfaces are brought within
range of their very strong attractive
forces, i.e. they are atomically bonded.
The adhesion resulting from the intimate
metallic contact of these asperities has
been termed welding and when sliding
takes place, a force is required for
continual shearing of the welded
junctions at the tips of these asperities.
The total frictional force Ff is therefore
given by

Equation above shows that the coefficient of friction is independent of the apparent
contact area, and since the ratio would be expected to be constant for a given
metal, the frictional force is proportional to the normal load (i.e., μ is constant).
These results are consistent with the laws of dry sliding friction.
60
 FRICTION IN METAL CUTTING

Issue: During metal cutting, it has generally been observed that the mean
coefficient of friction between the chip and the tool can vary considerably and is
affected by changes in cutting speed, rake angle, and so on.
Explanation: This variance of the mean coefficient of friction results from the very high
normal pressures that exist at the chip-tool interface. For example, when steel is machined,
these normal pressures can be as high as 3.5 GN/m2 and can cause the real area of
contact to approach or become equal to the apparent contact area over a portion of the
chip-tool interface (i.e., A,/Aa equals unity). Thus, under these circumstances Ar has
reached its maximum value and is constant.
The frictional force Ff is still given by

but it is no longer possible for the real contact area to increase proportionately
to the load. Hence friction force is now independent of the normal force Fn and
the ordinary laws of friction no longer apply. Under these conditions the
shearing action is no longer confined to surface asperities but takes place
within the body of the softer metal.

61
CHIP-TOOL FRICTION MODEL
Consideration of frictional behavior in
metal cutting has led to the model of
orthogonal cutting with a continuous
chip and no built-up edge shown in
Fig. 1.38.
Sticking Region: Here the normal
stresses between the chip and the tool
are sufficiently high to cause Ar/Aa to
approach unity over the region of
length lst, adjacent to the tool cutting
edge, termed the sticking region. In
this zone shear stress constantly
approaches the work material yield
stress.
Sliding Region: In the length lf-lst,
extending from the end of the sticking
region to the point where the chip
loses contact with the tool, the ratio
Ar/Aa is less than unity, and therefore
the coefficient of friction is constant;
this region has been termed the sliding
region.
62
 Issue: Coefficient of friction increases with increase in rake
angle.

It is normally expected that with an increase in the rake angle, the metal cutting
forces decreases, and should normally be associated with a decrease in the
friction. However in actual practice, the friction coefficient increases as shown in
table below.

Explanation: This happens because the influence of the rake angle is not same on
both components of cutting force. The normal force on the rake face decreases
very fast compared to the friction force. Thus though there is an overall decrease
in the forces, the coefficient is increasing. That is how Kronenberg calls this
friction coefficient as apparent coefficient of friction.

63
 Types of Chips-Introduction
Different types of chips are produced depending on the material
being machined and the cutting conditions. These conditions
include:
• Type of cutting tool used.
• Speed and rate of cutting.
• Tool geometry and cutting angles.
• Condition of machine.
• Presence/Absence of cutting fluid, etc.
• The study of chips produced are very important because the
type of chips produced influence the surface finish of the work
piece, tool life, vibrations, chatter, force and power
requirements, etc.
64
 Chip Surfaces
Shiny Surface
It is the surface which is in contact
with the rake face of the tool. Its shiny
appearance is caused by the rubbing of
the chip as it moves up the tool face.
Rough Surface
It is the surface which does not come
into contact with any solid body and is
exposed to environment. It is the
original surface of the work piece. Its
jagged rough appearance is caused by
the shearing action.

65
 Types of Chips
Basically, there are four types of chips
commonly observed in practice
• Continuous chips
• Continuous chips with built-up
edge
• Serrated or segmented chips
• Discontinuous
66
 Continuous Chips
Continuous chips in the form of long coils having the same
thickness throughout usually are formed with ductile materials like
mild steel, copper, aluminum which can have large plastic
deformation that are machined at high cutting speeds and/or high
rake angles.

Figure: Continuous Chips

67
 Continuous Chips
Shear zone types
• Deformation of the material takes place
along a narrow shear zone called primary
shear zone. Figure (a)
• Continuous chips may, because of high
friction, develop a secondary shear zone
at tool–chip interface (b).The secondary
zone becomes thicker as tool–chip friction
increases. Figure (b)
• In CCs, deformation may also take place
along a wide primary shear zone with
curved boundaries. Figure (c). The lower
boundary is below the machined surface,
subjecting the machined surface to
distortion, as depicted by the distorted
vertical lines. This situation occurs
particularly in machining soft metals at low
speeds and low rake angles. It can produce
poor surface finish and induce residual
surface stresses.

Fig: (a) continuous chip with narrow, straight, and primary shear zone (b) continuous chip with secondary shear zone 68
at the chip-tool interface (c) Wide primary shear zone with curved boundaries
 Continuous Chips
Advantages: Limitations
 Continuous chips are difficult to handle
• They generally produce and dispose off.
good surface finish.  Continuous chips remain in contact with
• They are most desirable the tool face for a longer period,
because the forces are resulting in more frictional heat.
stable and operation  Continuous chips coil in a helix and curl
becomes vibration less. around the tool and work and even may
injure operator if sudden break loose.
• They provide high Particularly, in computer-controlled
cutting speeds. machined tools, because they tend to
get tangled around the tool, and the
operation has to stopped to clear away
the chips. That’s why Although CCs
generally produce good surface
finish, not always desirable.
69
 Continuous Chips
Use of Chip Breakers
• Chip breaker is a piece of
metal clamped to the rake
surface of the tool which
bends the chip and breaks it
• Chips can also be broken by
changing the tool geometry,
thereby controlling the chip
flow
• CBs increase the effective
rake angle of the tool and,
consequently, increase the
shear angle.

Fig (a) Schematic illustration of the action of a chip breaker .(b) Chip breaker
clamped on the rake of a cutting tool. (c) Grooves in cutting tools acting as chip
breakers Most cutting tools used now are inserts with built-in chip breaker features. 70
 Continuous Chips
Responsible Factors
• Machining more ductile materials such as copper,
aluminum.
• High cutting speed with fine feed.
• Larger rake angle.
• Sharper cutting edge.
• Efficient lubricant.
• Tool material giving low friction between tool face and
chips.
71
 Continuous Chips with Built up Edge
• Continuous chips with Built-Up Edge (BUE) are produced when machining ductile
materials under following conditions:
• High local temperature in cutting zone.
• Extreme pressure in cutting zone.
• High friction at tool-chip interface.
• The above machining conditions cause the work material to adhere or stick or
weld to the cutting edge of the tool and form Built-Up Edge (BUE).

Figure: Built Up Edge Type Chips 72

 Continuous Chips with Built up Edge
• As it becomes larger, BUE becomes unstable and eventually breaks up.
• Part of BUE material is carried away by the tool side of the chip; the rest is
deposited randomly on the workpiece surface.
• The process of BUE formation and destruction is repeated continuously during
the cutting operation, unless measures are taken to eliminate it. This cycle is
source of vibration and poor surface finish.
• In effect, a built-up edge changes the geometry of the cutting edge and dulls
it
• Because of work hardening and deposition of successive layers of material.
BUE hardness increases significantly .
• The built-up edge generates localized heat and friction, resulting in poor
surface finish, power loss.
• The built-up edge is commonly observed in practice

73
 Continuous Chips with Built up Edge
Advantages: Responsible Factors:
Although built-up edge is generally undesirable, • Low cutting speed.
a thin, stable BUE is usually desirable because it • Low rake angle.
reduces wear by protecting the rake face of the • High feed.
tool. • Inadequate supply of coolant.
• Higher affinity (tendency to form
bond) of tool material and work
material.
Limitations: Reduction or Elimination of
• This is a chip to be avoided. BUE:
• The phenomenon results in a poor surface • Increasing the cutting speed.
finish • Increasing the rake angle.
• High power consumption • Decreasing the depth of cut.
• Fluctuation in cutting force induces vibration • Using an effective cutting fluid.
that causes tool failure. Also abrasion on the • Using a sharp tool.
tool flank due to the hard fragments of BUE • Light cuts at higher speeds.
escaping away causes it. • Use a cutting tool that has lower
chemical affinity for the
workpiece material (Like ceramic
cutting tools) 74
 Serrated Chips
• Serrated chips (also called
segmented or nonhomogeneous
chips, are semi continuous chips
with large zones of low shear
strain and small zones of high
shear strain, hence the latter zone
is called shear localization.
• Metals with low thermal
conductivity and strength that
decreases sharply with
temperature (thermal softening)
exhibit this behavior, most notably
Figure: Serrated chips
titanium.
• The chips have a saw tooth-like
appearance.
75
 Discontinuous Chips
Discontinuous chips are produced when machining more brittle materials
such as grey cast iron, bronze, brass, etc. with small rake angles. These
materials lack the ductility necessary for appreciable plastic chips
deformation. The material fails in a brittle fracture ahead of the tool edge
along the shear zone. This results in small segments of discontinuous
chips.

Figure: Discontinuous Chips

76
 Discontinuous Chips
Advantages: Responsible Factors:
Since the chips break-up into small
• Machining brittle materials
segments, the friction between the tool and
the chip reduces, resulting in better surface
because they do not have the
finish. capacity to undergo the high
These chips are convenient to collect, handle shear strains involved in cutting.
and dispose of. • Very low or very high cutting
Limitations: speeds
• Because of the discontinuous nature of • Materials that contain hard
chip formation, forces continuously vary
inclusions and impurities or have
during cutting process.
• More rigidity or stiffness of the cutting
structures such as the graphite
tool, holder, and work holding device is flakes in gray cast iron.
required due to varying cutting forces. • Large depths of cut.
• Consequently, if the stiffness is not • Low rake angles.
enough, the machine tool may begin to • Lack of an effective cutting fluid.
vibrate and chatter. This, in turn, • Low stiffness of the toolholder or
adversely affects the surface finish and the machine tool, thus allowing
accuracy of the component. It may
vibration and chatter to occur.
damage the cutting tool or cause
excessive wear. 77
 Cutting Temperatures-Introduction

As in all metalworking processes where plastic deformation is

involved, approx. 98% of the energy dissipated in cutting is
converted into heat that, in turn, raises the temperature in the
cutting zone. The remaining energy (about 2%) is retained as
elastic energy in the chip.

On tool Main sources of heat in machining

• Excessive temperatures lower the strength, hardness, are:
stiffness and wear resistance of the cutting tool; Cutting edges 1. The work done in shearing in the
plastically deform; thus, tool shape is altered. primary shear zone
2. Energy dissipated as friction at the
• Rapid tool wear , which reduces tool life tool-chip interface
3. Heat generated by friction rubbing,
• Thermal flaking and fracturing of cutting edges may take place
especially for dull or worn tools.
due to thermal shock
• Built up edge formation

On work Determination of Cutting Temperature

Analytically – using mathematical models
• Uneven dimensional changes in the part being machined, (equations) if available or can be developed.
making it difficult to control its dimensional accuracy and This method is simple, quick and inexpensive
tolerances.(thermal distortion) but less accurate and precise.
• Thermal damage and metallurgical changes in the machined Experimentally – this method is more
surface, adversely affecting its properties. accurate, precise and reliable

• Surface damage by oxidation, rapid corrosion, burning etc.

78
 Analytical Determination
The mean temperature for the orthogonal
0.333
cutting is derived by Nathan Cook from 0.4U  vto 
dimensional analysis using experimental data for T  
various work materials C  K 
where T = temperature rise at tool-chip interface; U = specific energy; v = cutting speed; to = chip
thickness before cut; C = volumetric specific heat of work material; K = thermal diffusivity of work
material.
By this formula-
Cutting temperatures increase with: Cutting temperatures decrease with:
• strength of the workpiece material • increasing specific heat
• cutting speed • increasing thermal conductivity of workpiece
• depth of cut material

Tool material a b
Carbide 0.2 0.125
HSS 0.5 0.375

The mean temperature in turning on a lathe is proportional to the cutting speed and feed:
Mean temperature α Va fb
a and b are constants that depend on tool and workpiece materials, V is the cutting speed, and f is the
feed of the tool. 79
Temperature Distribution

Figure Typical temperature distribution in the cutting Figure Temperatures developed in turning 52100 steel: (a) flank
zone. Note the severe temperature gradients within the temperature distribution and (b) tool-ship interface temperature
tool and the chip, and that the workpiece is relatively distribution.
cool.

Particular temperature pattern depends on several factors pertaining to

material properties and cutting conditions, including the type of cutting fluid (if
any) used during machining
 As speed increases, the time for heat dissipation decreases and
temperature rises. Dark-bluish color of the chips (caused by
oxidation) produced (rub your hands together faster).
 The chip carries away most of the heat generated. As speed
increases, a larger proportion of the total heat generated is carried Figure Proportion of the heat generated in
away by the chip, and less heat goes into the workpiece or the tool. cutting transferred into the tool, workpiece, and
(High speed machining has evolved). chip as a function of the cutting speed. Note
that the chip removes most of the heat.
 The other main benefit is associated with the favorable economics in
reducing machining time.
80
 Experimental Determination/ Measurement of temperature
at chip-tool interface

 Calorimetric method – quite simple and low cost but

inaccurate and gives only grand average value
 Decolorizing agent – some paint or tape, which
change in color with variation of temperature, is pasted
on the tool or job near the cutting point; the as such
color of the chip (steels) may also often indicate cutting
temperature
 Tool-work thermocouple – simple and inexpensive
but gives only average or maximum value
 Moving thermocouple technique
 Embedded thermocouple technique
 Photo-cell technique
 Infra ray detection method
81
 Tool Work Thermo Couple Technique

In a thermocouple two dissimilar but electrically conductive metals are connected at two
junctions. When one of the junctions is heated, the difference in temperatures at the hot and
cold junctions produces a proportional current. This current is detected and measured by a
milli-voltmeter. In machining like turning, the tool and the job constitute the two dissimilar
metals and the cutting zone functions as the hot junction. Then the average cutting
temperature is evaluated from the mV after thorough calibration for establishing the exact
relation between mV and the cutting temperature

Figure: Tool-work thermocouple technique of measuring cutting temperature

82
 Moving Thermo Couple Technique

This simple method, schematically shown in Figure enables measure the gradual variation in
the temperature of the flowing chip before, during and immediately after its formation. A bead
of standard thermocouple like chrome-alumel is brazed on the side surface of the layer to be
removed from the work surface and the temperature is attained in terms of mV

Figure: Moving thermocouple technique

83
 Embedded Thermo Couple Technique

In operations like milling, grinding etc. where the previous methods are not applicable, embedded
thermocouple can serve the purpose. Figure shows the principle. The standard thermocouple monitors the
job temperature at a certain depth, hi from the cutting zone. The temperature recorded in oscilloscope or
strip chart recorder becomes maximum when the thermocouple bead comes nearest (slightly offset) to the
grinding zone. With the progress of grinding the depth, hi gradually decreases after each grinding pass and
the value of temperature, θm also rises as has been indicated in Figure. For getting the temperature exactly
at the surface i.e., grinding zone, hi has to be zero, which is not possible. So the θm vs hi curve has to be
extrapolated upto hi = 0 to get the actual grinding zone temperature. Log – log plot helps such
extrapolation more easily and accurately.

Figure Embedded thermocouple

technique

84
 Embedded /Measurement of chip tool
interface temperature by compound tool

In this method a conducting tool piece (carbide) is embedded in a non-

conducting tool (ceramic). The conducting piece and the job form the tool-work
thermocouple as shown in Figure which detects temperature θi at the location
(Li) of the carbide strip. Thus θi can be measured along the entire chip-tool
contact length by gradually reducing Li by grinding the tool flank. Before that
calibration has to be done as usual.

Figure: Compound rake used for measuring cutting temperature along rake surface

85
 Photo Cell Technique

This unique technique enables accurate measurement of the temperature along

the shear zone and tool flank . The electrical resistance of the cell, like PbS cell,
changes when it is exposed to any heat radiation. The amount of change in the
resistance depends upon the temperature of the heat radiating source and is
measured in terms of voltage, which is calibrated with the source temperature. It
is evident that the cell starts receiving radiation through the small hole only when
it enters the shear zone where the hole at the upper end faces a hot surface.
Receiving radiation and measurement of temperature continues until the hole
passes through the entire shear zone and then the tool flank.

Figure Measuring temperature at shear plane and tool

flank by photocell technique

86
 Infra-red photographic Technique

This modern and powerful

method is based on taking
infra-red photograph of the
hot surfaces of the tool, chip
and job and get temperature
distribution at those
surfaces. Proper calibration
is to be done before that.
This way the temperature
profiles can be recorded as
indicated in Fig. The fringe
pattern readily changes with
the change in any machining
parameter which affects Figure: temperature distribution at the tool top detected
cutting temperature. by infra ray technique

87
Numericals

88
Numerical

89
Numericals

90