M. Sc.

Examination by course unit 2012

ASTM002 The Galaxy

Duration: 3 hours

Date and time: 11 May 2012, 2:30pm .

Apart from this page, you are not permitted to read the contents of
this question paper until instructed to do so by an invigilator.

You may attempt as many questions as you wish and all questions carry
equal marks. Except for the award of a bare pass, only the best 5 ques-
tions answered will be counted.

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use of material stored in pre-programmable memory constitutes an exam-
ination offence. Please state on your answer book the name and type of
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Complete all rough workings in the answer book and cross through
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conditions is an assessment offence and can lead to expulsion from QMUL.
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examination offence.
Exam papers must not be removed from the examination room.
Examiner(s): W.J. Sutherland, J.P. Emerson

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Useful information
In this paper π and e represent the conventional mathematical constants.
G is the gravitational constant, with G = 6.67 × 10−11 m3 kg−1 s−2 .
c is the velocity of light, with c = 3.00 × 108 m s−1 .
1 pc = 3.09 × 1016 m.
1 astronomical unit (AU) = 1.50 × 1011 m.
The mass of the Sun is M = 2.0 × 1030 kg.
The distance of the Sun from the Galactic Centre is R0 = 8.0 kpc.

Poisson’s equation states that ∇2 Φ = 4πGρ at any point in a gravitational field,

where Φ is the gravitational potential, G is the constant of gravitation, and ρ is the
mass density at that point.

The Laplacian of a scalar function Φ in a spherical coordinate system (r, θ, φ) is

1 ∂ ∂Φ 1 ∂ ∂Φ 1 ∂2Φ
   
2
∇ Φ = 2 r2 + 2 sin θ + .
r ∂r ∂r r sin θ ∂θ ∂θ r2 sin2 θ ∂φ2

The Laplacian of a scalar function Φ in a cylindrical coordinate system (R, φ, z) is

1 ∂ ∂Φ 1 ∂2Φ ∂2Φ
 
∇2 Φ = R + + .
R ∂R ∂R R2 ∂φ2 ∂z 2

The Jeans equations in a steady-state (i.e. time-independent), spherically-symmetric

galaxy give the following result
d n dΦ
  
n hvr2 i + 2hvr2 i − hvθ2 i − hvφ2 i = −n ,
dr r dr
in spherical coordinates, where n is the number density of stars at a distance r
from the centre, vr , vθ and vφ are the components of the velocity in the r, θ and φ
directions, and Φ(r) is the gravitational potential.

In the absence of cosmological effects, the apparent magnitude m of an astronomical

object in a photometric band is related to its absolute magnitude M in that band
and its distance D from the observer by

m − M = 5 log10 (D/pc) − 5 + A ,

where A is the extinction in the band expressed in magnitudes.

[End of Useful Information]

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Question 1 (a) Describe and compare the observed properties of Elliptical, Sa,
and Sc type galaxies; including morphologies, colours, spectra, gas content and
stellar populations. [8]
(b) A category of galaxies is found to have an observed surface brightness profile
I(R) = I0 f (R/R0 ) where f is some function, and I0 and R0 are constants for
a given galaxy. Observations show that all the galaxies have the same I0 and
f , but different galaxies have different values of R0 .
Show that if the mass–to–light ratio has the same value in all these galaxies,
then
L ∝ v4
where L is the total luminosity and v is a characteristic velocity. [3]
(c) Explain how the Tully-Fisher relation L ∝ v 4 can be used to determine the
distances of spiral galaxies. Observations show that one spiral galaxy (A)
has vrot = 140 km s−1 and apparent magnitude mV = 14.0, while a second
spiral galaxy (B) has vrot = 220 km s−1 and apparent magnitude mV = 16.5.
Assuming galactic extinction is negligible, estimate the ratio of their distances. [5]
(d) Explain the difference between dissipational and dissipationless collapse in
galaxy formation. Explain why gas is likely to settle to a rotating disc during
galaxy formation. [4]

Question 2 An isolated system of N stars is bound by their own self-gravity. The

ith star has a mass mi , position vector xi and velocity ẋi ≡ dxi /dt where t is time,
and the origin is the centre of mass of the system. The total moment of inertia I of
the system is defined as
N
I≡
X
.
mi xi xi .
i=1

(a) Show that

N N
1 d2 I
2 dt2
=
X
m i ẋi ẋ.
i +
X
mi xi ẍi . .
i=1 i=1 [4]
(b) Give an expression for T, the total kinetic energy of the system. [2]
(c) Give an expression for the gravitational force on star i due to star j in terms
of vectors xi , xj . Hence write down an expression for the acceleration ẍi of
star i as a sum over j 6= i. [3]
(d) Hence, prove that
N
1 X Gmi mj
X
.
mi xi ẍi = −
2 i,j,(i6=j) |xi − xj |
;
i=1
[5]
thus deduce the virial theorem,

2hT i + hU i = 0 ,

where U is the total gravitational potential energy. [2]

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(e) Describe the main assumptions and limitations in applying the virial theorem
to real observational data. [4]

Question 3 (a) Explain the meaning of the terms weak encounter and strong
encounter for two stars in a large stellar system approaching each other. [2]

(b) In a weak encounter between two stars each of mass m with relative velocity
v, the change in the velocity of one star in the reference frame of the other is
given by
2Gm
δv = ,
bv
where G is the constant of gravitation and b is the impact parameter.
A star moves through a spherical distribution of overall radius R containing
N stars distributed uniformly in space. If the mean change in the square of
the velocity is δ(v 2 ) = (δv)2 in a weak encounter, show that the changes in v 2
caused by all encounters with impact parameters in the range b to b + db in a
time t is
2Gm 2 3bvtN db
   
∆v 2 = .
bv 2R3 [5]

(c) Hence show that the total change in the square of the velocity in a time t
caused by weak encounters with all impact parameters is
2
Gm vtN bmax
  
2
∆v (t) = 6 ln ,
v R3 bmin
where bmax and bmin are the largest and smallest values of the impact param-
eter. [3]

(d) Define the crossing time Tcross and the relaxation time Trelax .
For a stellar system of radius
p R containing N stars each of mass m, the typical
velocity v is given by v ≈ GN m/R. From the above, derive an expression
for the relaxation time, and show that for suitable choices of bmin , bmax , the
ratio of the relaxation time to the crossing time is given approximately by
Trelax N
≈ .
Tcross 6 ln N [7]

(e) When running a computer simulation, explain why two-body encounters may
be neglected for a typical galaxy with Tcross ∼ 108 years, but not for a typical
globular cluster with Tcross ∼ 106 years. [3]

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Question 4 (a) The continuity equation for the distribution function f of stars in
the six-parameter phase space (x1 , x2 , x3 , v1 , v2 , v3 ) of position x and velocity
v states that
3 
∂f ∂ dxi ∂ dvi
X    
+ f + f = 0 ,
∂t i=1
∂xi dt ∂vi dt

where t is time.
Derive the collisionless Boltzmann equation
3 
∂f dxi ∂f dvi ∂f
X 
+ + = 0
∂t i=1
dt ∂xi dt ∂vi

from the continuity equation, showing your working. [6]

(b) Derive the first of the Jeans equations,

3
∂n X ∂
+ (nhvi i) = 0 ,
∂t i=1
∂xi

from the collisionless Boltzmann equation, where n is the number density of

stars and hvi i is the mean value of the vi velocity component at a point. (Ex-
plain your working and assumptions). [8]

(c) One of the Jeans equations in a cylindrical coordinate system (R, θ, z) centred
on the Galaxy, with z = 0 in the plane, gives

∂(nhvz i) ∂(nhvR vz i) ∂(nhvz2 i) nhvR vz i ∂Φ

+ + + = −n ,
∂t ∂R ∂z R ∂z
where n is the star number density, vR and vz are the velocity components in
the R and z directions, Φ(R, z) is the Galactic gravitational potential and t is
time. Assuming that the Galaxy is in a steady state, show that the surface
mass density Σ(z, R0 ) within a distance z of the mid-plane of the Galactic disc
at the solar radius R0 is given by
−1 ∂  
Σ(z, R0 ) = nhvz2 i
2πGn ∂z
for stars lying towards the Galactic poles. Explain any other assumptions you
make. [6]

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Question 5 (a) Explain the difference between pressure support and rotational
support for a galaxy. Which of these dominate for spiral and elliptical galaxies
respectively ? [3]

(b) Define the term integral of motion as applied to a stellar orbit. For an orbit
in any time-independent axisymmetric potential, state two integrals of the
motion. [3]

(c) The diagrams below show the orbit of a star in two gravitational potentials,
shown projected in the x − y and the x − z planes.
Potential A:

Potential B:

What do you conclude about each of the potentials A and B: are they (i)
spherical, (ii) flattened (oblate), or (iii) triaxial? Justify your answer on the
basis of the character of the orbit. [4]

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(d) A dark matter halo of a galaxy is sometimes modelled using a spherically-

symmetric density distribution
ρ0
ρ(r) = ,
1 + r2 /a2

where ρ(r) is the mass density at a radius r from the centre, and ρ0 and a are
positive constants. Show that for this distribution, the mass M interior to a
radius r is  
M (r) = 4πρ0 a2 r − a tan−1 (r/a) . [5]
( You may assume the standard integral

dx 1 x
Z
= tan−1 + const ).
x2 +a 2 a a

(e) Derive an expression for the circular velocity vcirc (r) for the above mass dis-
tribution. What is the behaviour at radius r  a and r  a respectively ? [3]

(f) Discuss how realistic this density profile is for the Milky Way Galaxy, and how
it may need to be modified at large distances. [2]

Question 6 (a) Explain the meanings of H I, H II, and H2 referring to hydrogen

in the interstellar medium of a galaxy. Give a description of the main observa-
tional methods for tracing each of these species, referring to the main emission
processes and typical wavelengths involved. [8]

(b) Give a short discussion of dust in the interstellar medium, including its ap-
proximate composition, its importance to observations, and its importance to
star and planet formation. [6]

(c) A star near the Galactic plane is observed to have apparent magnitudes in the
blue and visual bands of mB = 15.48, mV = 14.58. Comparing the observed
spectrum of the star to a library of local star spectra indicates that it has
absolute magnitudes MB = 3.00, MV = 2.50. Assuming that the reddening
ratio for interstellar dust is AV /E(B − V ) = 3.0, estimate (i) the reddening of
the star, (ii) the V-band extinction in magnitudes, and (iii) the distance to the
star. [6]

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Question 7 (a) The symbols X, Y and Z denote the fractions by mass of Hy-
drogen, Helium and heavy elements (metals) respectively, with approximate
values of X ≈ 0.71, Y ≈ 0.27, Z ≈ 0.02. Which processes were responsible for
creating (i) most of the helium, and (ii) most of the heavy elements ? [2]

(b) List any four assumptions behind the Simple Model of galactic chemical evo-
lution. [4]

(c) In a region of the Galaxy, the total mass of stars is Mstars , the total mass
of interstellar gas is Mgas , and the mass of heavy elements in the interstellar
medium is Mmetals , while the metallicity of the gas is Z. The changes in
these quantities in a small time interval are δMstars , δMgas , δMmetals and δZ
respectively.
For the Simple Model of galactic chemical enrichment, derive the expression
δMmetals δMgas
δZ = − Z .
Mgas Mgas
[4]

(d) If δMmetals and δMstars above are related by

δMmetals = − Z δMstars + p δMstars , where p is the yield of heavy elements,
show that
δMgas
δZ = − p . [3]
Mgas
(e) Hence show that if n(Z) is the number of stars with metallicity less than Z,
and Z1 is the present-day metallicity of the intergalactic medium, the Simple
Model predicts that for long-lived stars we should observe

n(Z) 1 − e−Z/p
= .
n(Z1 ) 1 − e−Z1 /p [5]

(f) How well does the above prediction match observations for G dwarfs in our
galaxy ? [2]

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Question 8 (a) General Relativity predicts that the bending angle α (assumed
small) for a light ray passing a distance b from a compact object of mass M is
given by
4GM
α= 2 .
c b
Using this, considering a gravitational lens system where the Earth, lens and
source are exactly collinear, show that the physical Einstein ring radius is
s
4GM DLS DL
rE = ,
c2 DS

where M is the lens mass, and DL is the distance from Earth to the lens, DS
is the distance from Earth to the source, and DLS is the distance between lens
and source. [5]

(b) Assuming a lens mass M = 0.01 M , an Earth–to–source distance DS =

50 kpc, and a lens half-way between Earth and source, calculate the Einstein
radius. Convert to astronomical units (see Useful Information). [4]

(c) The optical depth τ to microlensing is defined as the mean number of lenses
within 1 rE of the line of sight to a background source star. Show that the
optical depth τ through a distribution of microlenses of mass M along a line
of sight to a given source is given by
Z DS
4πG
τ = DL DLS ρ(DL ) dDL ,
c2 DS 0

where ρ(DL ) is the mean mass density of lenses at distance DL . What is the
approximate value of τ along a line of sight through the Galaxy ? [6]

(d) The optical depth to microlensing above is independent of compact-object

masses for a given ρ; while actual microlensing experiments have ruled out
the dark matter being mostly composed of compact objects between approxi-
mately 10−6 M and 10 M , but do not give useful limits outside this range.
Give a short explanation of the physical reasons underlying these mass scales.
(You may assume the typical lens velocity is ∼ 200km s−1 ) [5]

End of Paper

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