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Part 1: Basics of Measurement System: Terms and Definitions

The document discusses key concepts in measurement systems including: 1) Definitions of important metrological terms like measurand, accuracy, precision and types of measurement errors. 2) Sources of error in measurement systems like systematic errors, random errors, alignment issues, elastic deformation, and thermal expansion. 3) Standard devices used to take measurements like gage blocks, rulers and micrometers and how measurements can be improved through techniques like averaging results. 4) Methods for calculating total measurement uncertainty including the Guide to the Expression of Uncertainty in Measurement and distinguishing type A and B uncertainties.

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77 views

Part 1: Basics of Measurement System: Terms and Definitions

The document discusses key concepts in measurement systems including: 1) Definitions of important metrological terms like measurand, accuracy, precision and types of measurement errors. 2) Sources of error in measurement systems like systematic errors, random errors, alignment issues, elastic deformation, and thermal expansion. 3) Standard devices used to take measurements like gage blocks, rulers and micrometers and how measurements can be improved through techniques like averaging results. 4) Methods for calculating total measurement uncertainty including the Guide to the Expression of Uncertainty in Measurement and distinguishing type A and B uncertainties.

Uploaded by

123andyb
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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ES3D9: Applied Control Revision Guide

Part 1: Basics of Measurement System


 Metrological terms and definitions
 Error analysis in a measurement
 Characteristics of a measurement system

Terms and Definitions


 Measurand: quantity subjected to measurement
 Range/Span – extent over which measuring system can reliably function
 Accuracy – ‘closeness’ of measured value to true value
 Precision – ability to stick to same results
 Repeatability (measurement conditions = CONSTANT) – ability of instrument to give
identical responses when input is applied repetitively over short period of time, with
same instrument, same observer and same measurement conditions
 Reproducibility (measurement conditions = VARY) – closeness in output readings
when changes in environmental settings
 Calibrations – applying KNOWN value to a measurement system to establish
relationship between input and output.
o Known values are standards
o Standards = reproducible and stable for long time period
 Traceability – chain-like structure in which every instrument in chain is calibrated
against a more accurate instrument immediately above it in the chain
o E.g

Measurement Errors
Types
 Systematic Errors – can be corrected
o Zero drifted
o Improper calibration
o Assumptions on linear response and no deformation on contact
o Estimated constants used in calculation
 Random Errors – not possible to correct
o Vibrations
o EM interference
o Electrical and electronic noise

Systematic Disturbances – when measuring process


itself is a disturbance to the variable being measured.
 In electrical system: To make Em close to Eo,
Rm>>Rab

Signal Processing
 For a set of data can apply statistical method to analyse and minimise random errors
o Mean values
o Standard Deviation
 For set of data made repeatedly on same work piece, mean standard
𝜎
deviation is: 𝜎𝑚 = √𝑛
o Individual Error, 𝑒𝑖 = 𝑥𝑖 − 𝑥0
𝑛
1
𝐴𝑐𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑦 = 𝑒̅ = ∑ 𝑒𝑖 = 𝑋̅ − 𝑥0
𝑛
𝑖=1
o Precision = repeatability = ± 3𝜎

Error Sources
Alignment Errors
 Cosine Errors
 Parallax Errors – misalignment between eye and the indicating device
 Abbe’s Offset – distance between line of measurement and line of the dimension.
o E.g. Vernier callipers BUT NOT micrometer

Elastic Deformation

Thermal Expansion Errors – all materials have thermal expansion coefficient


Support Points
 Bars sag under their own weight

𝐿
=𝑠
√𝑛2 − 1

Standard Devices
Length
 Line Standards – length defined by distance between engraved lines
o Rulers, callipers, micrometres
o Contact force needs to be controlled
 Ratchet Stop
 Friction thimble – more delicate than ratchet stop
 End Standards – length defined by nominal distance between opposing faces
o (block gauges, length bars, roller gauges, limit gauges)
o Contains blocks of known range and increments. Assembled together into a
unit by ‘wringing’
o Gauging surfaces are very flat and parallel to each other
o Applications of gauge blocks
 Lower grades have smaller tolerance

Compound/Total Error Calculation


 Arithmetic Sum – if final measurement M is a function of a number of individual
measurements a,b, c which have individual errors delta_a, b and c then compound
error can be calculated by:

𝜕𝑀 𝜕𝑀 𝜕𝑀
𝛿𝑀 = ±( 𝛿𝑎 + 𝛿𝑏 + 𝛿𝑐)
𝜕𝑎 𝜕𝑏 𝜕𝑐
 Quadratic Sum (using example in slides)

∆𝑉 = ± √(∆𝑉ℎ )2 + (∆𝑉ℎ )2 + (∆𝑉ℎ )2 = ± √(𝑤𝑙𝛿ℎ)2 + (ℎ𝑙𝛿𝑤)2 + (𝑤ℎ𝛿𝑙)2

Uncertainty Estimation – G.U.M


 Guide to expression of Uncertainty in Measurement
 Ensures consistency among research labs and manufacturers
 Measurement model
o Define measurand
o Determine mathematical model with input quantities and an output quantity
𝑅 = 𝑓(𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐)

o Value for output is called output estimate denoted by R


o Derive uncertainty model by total differential theorem to give weightings for
different uncertainties

𝛿𝑓 𝛿𝑓 𝛿𝑓
𝛿𝑅 = 𝛿𝑎 + 𝛿𝑏 + 𝛿𝑐
𝛿𝑎 𝛿𝑏 𝛿𝑐

Uncertainty Classification
 Type A – evaluation of uncertainty by statistical analysis
o Modelled by normal distribution (mean, std dev)
o Come from set of observations
 Type B – evaluation of uncertainty by means other than stat analysis
o Finite range of (+/- a) equally likely values
o Modelled by rectangular distribution 𝜎 = 𝑎/√3
o Manufacturers specification
o Other reports

 Combined uncertainty
o 𝑈𝑐 = √∑𝑈 2 (𝑥𝑖 )
o 𝑈𝑐 = 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑦, 𝑥𝑖 = 𝑠𝑡𝑑 𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒
 Expanded Uncertainty kU_c
o Coverage factor k
 K=1  68% confidence
 K=2  95% confidence = normal practise
 K=3  99.7% confidence
o 𝑌 = 𝑦 ± 𝑘𝑈𝑐 (𝑦 = 𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑢𝑙𝑡)

Coordinate Measuring Machines (CMM)


 Measures physical geometry of an object
 Touch-trigger probe to locate coordinates of a line, a
plane or a circle
o Trigger signal is generated on contact with
component and is used to stop the machine
 Has three moveable axes
 All movements are imperfect against their design
goals
 Error Sources
o Alignment errors
o Abbe-offset errors
o Thermal expansion error
o Elastic contact error
o Support points
 To calibrate a CMM there are 21 error parameters to be evaluated

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