I.

Kinesics interest and is an innate submission gesture that audience is engaged, confused, or bored and then
 The word kinesics comes from the root word kinesis, exposes the neck and subconsciously makes people adapt his or her message accordingly.
which means “movement,” and refers to the study of feel more trusting of us, and a head down signals a  Conveying Information. Making eye contact
hand, arm, body, and face movements. negative or aggressive attitude (Pease & Pease, 2004). with others also communicates intimidation or
 There are four general human postures: standing, flirtation. Eye contact is a key immediacy
A. Gestures sitting, squatting, and lying down (Hargie, 2011). behavior, and it signals to others that we are
 There are three main types of gestures: adaptors, Within each of these postures there are many available for communication.
emblems, and illustrators (Andersen, 1999). variations, and when combined with particular  Establishing interpersonal connections. Eye
 Adaptors are touching behaviors and movements that gestures or other nonverbal cues they can express contact helps establish rapport or connection. We
indicate internal states typically related to arousal or many different meanings. can also use our eye contact to signal that we do
anxiety. Adaptors can be targeted toward the self, not want to make a connection with other eye
objects, or others. C. Eye Contact contact sends and receives important
 Adaptors result from uneasiness, anxiety, or a  It is communicating through eye behaviors, primarily communicative messages that help us interpret
general sense that we are not in control of our eye contact. others’ behaviors, convey information about our
surroundings.  Eye contact sends and receives important thoughts and feelings, and facilitate or impede
 Three types of adaptors based on focus, direction, or communicative messages that help us interpret others’ rapport or connection.
target: self-adaptors, alter-adaptors, and object- behaviors, convey information about our thoughts and
adaptors. feelings, and facilitate or impede rapport or D. Facial Expressions
 Self-adaptors usually satisfy a physical need, connection.  Our faces are the most expressive part of our body
especially to make you more comfortable.  Oculesics, which comes from the Latin word oculus, and can communicate an array of different emotions.
 Alter-adaptors are body movements you make in meaning “eye.”  Much research has supported the universality of a
response to your current interactions.  The face and eyes are the main point of focus during core group of facial expressions: happiness, sadness,
 Object-adaptors are body movements that communication, and along with our ears our eyes take fear, anger, and disgust. The first four are especially
involve your manipulation of some objects, often in most of the communicative information around us. identifiable across cultures (Andersen, 1999).
sign of negative feelings. The saying “The eyes are the window to the soul.”  If your facial expressions and speech content are not
 Emblems are gestures that have a specific agreed-on  Eye contact serves several communicative functions consistent, your audience could become confused by
meanings with a culture. Even though they have a ranging from regulating interaction to monitoring the mixed messages, which could lead them to
generally agreed-on meaning, they are not part of a interaction, to conveying information, to establishing question your honesty and credibility.
formal sign system like ASL that is explicitly taught interpersonal connections.
to a group of people. Emblems can be still or in  Regulating communication. We use eye contact II. Haptics
motion. to signal to others that we are ready to speak or we  Haptics refers to the study of communication by touch.
 Illustrators are the most common type of gesture and use it to cue others to speak. During an interaction,  This positive power of touch is countered by the potential
are used to illustrate the verbal message they eye contact also changes as we shift from speaker for touch to be threatening because of its connection to
accompany. Unlike emblems, illustrators do not to listener. Toward the end of our speaking turn, sex and violence.
typically have meaning on their own and are used we make more direct eye contact with our listener  There are several types of touch, including functional-
more subconsciously than emblems. These largely to indicate that we are finishing up. While professional, social-polite, friendship-warmth, love-
involuntary and seemingly natural gestures flow from listening, we tend to make more sustained eye intimacy, and sexual-arousal touch (Heslin & Apler,
us as we speak but vary in terms of intensity and contact, not glancing away as regularly as we do 1983).
frequency based on context. while speaking (Martin & Nakayama, 2010).  At the functional-professional level, touch is related
 Monitoring interaction. Through eye contact, to a goal or part of a routine professional interaction,
B. Head Movements and Posture one is taking in feedback and other nonverbal cues which makes it less threatening and more expected.
 Head movements and posture are often both used to and to send information. Our eyes bring in the For example, we let barbers, hairstylists, doctors,
acknowledge others and communicate interest or visual information we need to interpret people’s nurses, tattoo artists, and security screeners touch us
attentiveness. We also move our head to indicate movements, gestures, and eye contact. A speaker in ways that would otherwise be seen as intimate or
interest. For example, a head up typically indicates an can use his or her eye contact to determine if an inappropriate if not in a professional context.
engaged or neutral attitude, a head tilt indicates
  At the social-polite level, socially sanctioned which includes the vocal qualities that go along with  Repetition. Vocalic cues reinforce other verbal
touching behaviors help initiate interactions and show verbal messages, such as pitch, volume, rate, vocal and nonverbal cues (e.g., saying “I’m not sure”
that others are included and respected. A handshake, a quality, and verbal fillers (Andersen, 1999). with an uncertain tone).
pat on the arm, and a pat on the shoulder are  Pitch helps convey meaning, regulate conversational  Complementing. Vocalic cues elaborate on or
examples of social-polite touching. A handshake is flow, and communicate the intensity of a message. modify verbal and nonverbal meaning (e.g., the
actually an abbreviated hand-holding gesture, but we  Paralanguage provides important context for the verbal pitch and volume used to say “I love sweet
know that prolonged hand-holding would be content of speech. For example, volume helps potatoes” would add context to the meaning of
considered too intimate and therefore inappropriate at communicate intensity. A louder voice is usually thought the sentence, such as the degree to which the
the functional-professional or social-polite level. of as more intense, although a soft voice combined with a person loves sweet potatoes or the use of
 At the functional-professional and social-polite levels, certain tone and facial expression can be just as intense. sarcasm).
touch still has interpersonal implications. The touch,  In our age of computer-mediated communication,  Accenting. Vocalic cues allow us to emphasize
although professional and not intimate, between hair TYPING IN ALL CAPS is usually seen as offensive, as particular parts of a message, which helps
stylist and client, or between nurse and patient, has it is equated with yelling. A voice at a low volume or a determine meaning (e.g., “She is my friend,” or
the potential to be therapeutic and comforting. In whisper can be very appropriate when sending a covert “She is my friend,” or “She is my friend”).
addition, a social-polite touch exchange plays into message or flirting with a romantic partner, but it  Substituting. Vocalic cues can take the place of
initial impression formation, which can have wouldn’t enhance a person’s credibility if used during a other verbal or nonverbal cues (e.g., saying “uh
important implications for how an interaction and a professional presentation. huh” instead of “I am listening and understand
relationship unfold.  Speaking rate refers to how fast or slow a person speaks what you’re saying”).
 At the friendship-warmth level, touch is more and can lead others to form impressions about our  Regulating. Vocalic cues help regulate the flow
important and more ambiguous than at the social- emotional state, credibility, and intelligence. of conversations (e.g., falling pitch and slowing
polite level. At this level, touch interactions are As with volume, variations in speaking rate can interfere rate of speaking usually indicate the end of a
important because they serve a relational maintenance with the ability of others to receive and understand verbal speaking turn).
purpose and communicate closeness, liking, care, and messages.  Contradicting. Vocalic cues may contradict
concern. The types of touching at this level also vary  Our tone of voice can be controlled somewhat with pitch, other verbal or nonverbal signals (e.g., a person
greatly from more formal and ritualized to more volume, and emphasis, but each voice has a distinct could say “I’m fine” in a quick, short tone that
intimate, which means friends must sometimes quality known as a vocal signature. indicates otherwise).
negotiate their own comfort level with various types  Voices vary in terms of resonance, pitch, and tone, and
of touch and may encounter some ambiguity if their some voices are more pleasing than others. People IV. Proxemics
preferences don’t match up with their relational typically find pleasing voices that employ vocal variety  Proxemics refers to the study of how space and distance
partner’s. In a friendship, for example, too much and are not monotone, are lower pitched (particularly for influence communication.
touch can signal sexual or romantic interest, and too males), and do not exhibit particular regional accents.  In general, space influences how people communicate
little touch can signal distance or unfriendliness.  Verbal fillers are sounds that fill gaps in our speech as and behave. Smaller spaces with a higher density of
 At the love-intimacy level, touch is more personal we think about what to say next. They are considered a people often lead to breaches of our personal space
and is typically only exchanged between significant part of nonverbal communication because they are not bubbles. If this is a setting in which this type of density is
others, such as best friends, close family members, like typical words that stand in for a specific meaning or expected beforehand, like at a crowded concert or on a
and romantic partners. Touching faces, holding hands, meanings. Verbal fillers such as “um,” “uh,” “like,” and train during rush hour, then we make various
and fullfrontal embraces are examples of touch at this “ah” are common in regular conversation and are not communicative adjustments to manage the space issue.
level. Although this level of touch is not sexual, it typically disruptive. As we learned earlier, the use of  Additionally, research has shown that crowding can lead
does enhance feelings of closeness and intimacy and verbal fillers can help a person “keep the floor” during a to criminal or delinquent behavior, known as a “mob
can lead to sexual-arousal touch, which is the most conversation if they need to pause for a moment to think mentality” (Andersen, 1999).
intimate form of touch, as it is intended to physically before continuing on with verbal communication. Verbal  To better understand how proxemics functions in
stimulate another person. fillers in more formal settings, like a public speech, can nonverbal communication, we will more closely examine
hurt a speaker’s credibility. the proxemic distances associated with personal space
III. Vocalics  The following is a review of the various communicative and the concept of territoriality.
 Paralanguage refers to the vocalized but nonverbal parts functions of vocalics:
of a message. Vocalics is the study of paralanguage, A. Proxemic Distances
  We all have varying definitions of what our “personal because the possibility for intentional or unintentional would, which can be beneficial in professional settings.
space” is, and these definitions are contextual and touching doesn’t exist. It is also possible to have The inner-personal zone extends from 1.5 feet to 2.5
depend on the situation and the relationship. Although people in the outer portion of our social zone but not feet and is a space reserved for communication with
our bubbles are invisible, people are socialized into feel obligated to interact with them, but when people people we are interpersonally close to or trying to get
the norms of personal space within their cultural come much closer than six feet to us then we often feel to know. In this subzone, we can easily touch the other
group. obligated to at least acknowledge their presence. In person as we talk to them, briefly placing a hand on his
 Scholars have identified four zones for US many typically sized classrooms, much of your or her arm or engaging in other light social touching
Americans, which are public, social, personal, and audience for a speech will actually be in your social that facilitates conversation, self-disclosure, and
intimate distance (Hall, 1968). The zones are more zone rather than your public zone, which is actually feelings of closeness.
elliptical than circular, taking up more space in our beneficial because it helps you establish a better
front, where our line of sight is, than at our side or connection with them. Students in large lecture classes  Intimate Space
back where we can’t monitor what people are doing. should consider sitting within the social zone of the  As we breach the invisible line that is 1.5 feet from
 Public Space (12 Feet or More) professor, since students who sit within this zone are our body, we enter the intimate zone, which is
 Public and social zones refer to the space four or more more likely to be remembered by the professor, be reserved for only the closest friends, family, and
feet away from our body, and the communication that acknowledged in class, and retain more information romantic/intimate partners. It is impossible to
typically occurs in these zones is formal and not because they are close enough to take in important completely ignore people when they are in this space,
intimate. nonverbal and visual cues. Students who talk to me even if we are trying to pretend that we’re ignoring
 Public space starts about twelve feet from a person and after class typically stand about four to five feet away them. A breach of this space can be comforting in
extends out from there. This is the least personal of the when they speak to me, which keeps them in the outer some contexts and annoying or frightening in others.
four zones and would typically be used when a person part of the social zone, typical for professional We need regular human contact that isn’t just verbal
is engaging in a formal speech and is removed from interactions. When students have more personal but also physical. We have already discussed the
the audience to allow the audience to see or when a information to discuss, they will come closer, which importance of touch in nonverbal communication, and
high-profile or powerful person like a celebrity or brings them into the inner part of the social zone. in order for that much-needed touch to occur, people
executive maintains such a distance as a sign of power have to enter our intimate space. Being close to
or for safety and security reasons. In terms of regular  Personal Space (1.5–4 Feet) someone and feeling their physical presence can be
interaction, we are often not obligated or expected to  Personal and intimate zones refer to the space that very comforting when words fail. There are also
acknowledge or interact with people who enter our starts at our physical body and extends four feet. These social norms regarding the amount of this type of
public zone. It would be difficult to have a deep zones are reserved for friends, close acquaintances, and closeness that can be displayed in public, as some
conversation with someone at this level because you significant others. Much of our communication occurs people get uncomfortable even seeing others
have to speak louder and don’t have the physical in the personal zone, which is what we typically think interacting in the intimate zone. While some people
closeness that is often needed to promote emotional of as our “personal space bubble” and extends from 1.5 are comfortable engaging in or watching others
closeness and/or establish rapport. feet to 4 feet away from our body. Even though we are engage in PDAs (public displays of affection) others
getting closer to the physical body of another person, are not.
 Social Space (4–12 Feet) we may use verbal communication at this point to
 Communication that occurs in the social zone, which is signal that our presence in this zone is friendly and not Territoriality
four to twelve feet away from our body, is typically in intimate. Even people who know each other could be  Territoriality is an innate drive to take up and defend
the context of a professional or casual interaction, but uncomfortable spending too much time in this zone spaces. This drive is shared by many creatures and
not intimate or public. This distance is preferred in unnecessarily. This zone is broken up into two entities, ranging from packs of animals to individual
many professional settings because it reduces the subzones, which helps us negotiate close interactions humans to nations. Whether it’s a gang territory, a
suspicion of any impropriety. The expression “keep with people we may not be close to interpersonally neighborhood claimed by a particular salesperson, your
someone at an arm’s length” means that someone is (McKay, Davis, & Fanning, 1995). The outer-personal preferred place to sit in a restaurant, your usual desk in
kept out of the personal space and kept in the zone extends from 2.5 feet to 4 feet and is useful for the classroom, or the seat you’ve marked to save while
social/professional space. If two people held up their conversations that need to be private but that occur getting concessions at a sporting event, we claim certain
arms and stood so just the tips of their fingers were between people who are not interpersonally close. This spaces as our own. There are three main divisions for
touching, they would be around four feet away from zone allows for relatively intimate communication but territory: primary, secondary, and public (Hargie, 2011).
each other, which is perceived as a safe distance doesn’t convey the intimacy that a closer distance Sometimes our claim to a space is official. These spaces
 are known as our primary territories because they are nighters, jet lag, or other scheduling abnormalities, our thumbs-up to say “OK,” and illustrators like bouncing your
marked or understood to be exclusively ours and under physical and mental health and our communication hand along with the rhythm of your speaking.
our control. A person’s house, yard, room, desk, side of competence and personal relationships can suffer. Keep o Head movements and posture include the orientation of
the bed, or shelf in the medicine cabinet could be biological time in mind as you communicate with others. movements of our head and the orientation and positioning of
considered primary territories.  Personal time refers to the ways in which individuals our body and the various meanings they send. Head
 Secondary territories don’t belong to us and aren’t experience time. The way we experience time varies movements such as nodding can indicate agreement,
exclusively under our control, but they are associated based on our mood, our interest level, and other factors. disagreement, and interest, among other things. Posture can
with us, which may lead us to assume that the space will Think about how quickly time passes when you are indicate assertiveness, defensiveness, interest, readiness, or
be open and available to us when we need it without us interested in and therefore engaged in something. intimidation, among other things.
taking any further steps to reserve it. This happens in  Physical time refers to the fixed cycles of days, years, o Eye contact is studied under the category of oculesics and
classrooms regularly. Students often sit in the same desk and seasons. Physical time, especially seasons, can affect specifically refers to eye contact with another person’s face,
or at least same general area as they did on the first day our mood and psychological states. Some people head, and eyes and the patterns of looking away and back at
of class. experience seasonal affective disorder that leads them to the other person during interaction. Eye contact provides
 Public territories are open to all people. People are experience emotional distress and anxiety during the turn-taking signals, signals when we are engaged in cognitive
allowed to mark public territory and use it for a limited changes of seasons, primarily from warm and bright to activity, and helps establish rapport and connection, among
period of time, but space is often up for grabs, which dark and cold (summer to fall and winter). other things.
makes public space difficult to manage for some people  Cultural time refers to how a large group of people view o Facial expressions refer to the use of the forehead, brow, and
and can lead to conflict. To avoid this type of situation, time. Polychronic people do not view time as a linear facial muscles around the nose and mouth to convey meaning.
people use a variety of objects that are typically progression that needs to be divided into small units and Facial expressions can convey happiness, sadness, fear,
recognized by others as nonverbal cues that mark a place scheduled in advance. Polychronic people keep more anger, and other emotions.
as temporarily reserved—for example, jackets, bags, flexible schedules and may engage in several activities at  Haptics refers to touch behaviors that convey meaning during
papers, or a drink. There is some ambiguity in the use of once. Monochronic people tend to schedule their time interactions. Touch operates at many levels, including
markers, though. A half-empty cup of coffee may be seen more rigidly and do one thing at a time. A polychronic or functional-professional, social-polite, friendship-warmth, and
as trash and thrown away, which would be an annoying monochronic orientation to time influences our social love-intimacy.
surprise to a person who left it to mark his or her table realities and how we interact with others.  Vocalics refers to the vocalized but not verbal aspects of
while visiting the restroom. One scholar’s informal  Additionally, the way we use time depends in some ways nonverbal communication, including our speaking rate, pitch,
observation revealed that a full drink sitting on a table on our status. For example, doctors can make their volume, tone of voice, and vocal quality. These qualities, also
could reserve a space in a university cafeteria for more patients wait for extended periods of time, and executives known as paralanguage, reinforce the meaning of verbal
than an hour, but a cup only half full usually only worked and celebrities may run consistently behind schedule, communication, allow us to emphasize particular parts of a
as a marker of territory for less than ten minutes. People making others wait for them. Promptness and the amount message, or can contradict verbal messages.
have to decide how much value they want their marker to of time that is socially acceptable for lateness and  Proxemics refers to the use of space and distance within
have. Obviously, leaving a laptop on a table indicates waiting varies among individuals and contexts. communication. US Americans, in general, have four zones that
that the table is occupied, but it could also lead to the Chronemics also covers the amount of time we spend constitute our personal space: the public zone (12 or more feet
laptop getting stolen. A pencil, on the other hand, could talking. We’ve already learned that conversational turns from our body), social zone (4–12 feet from our body), the
just be moved out of the way and the space usurped. and turn-taking patterns are influenced by social norms personal zone (1.5–4 feet from our body), and the intimate zone
and help our conversations progress. We all know how (from body contact to 1.5 feet away). Proxemics also studies
annoying it can be when a person dominates a territoriality, or how people take up and defend personal space.
IV. Chronemics conversation or when we can’t get a person to contribute  Chronemics refers the study of how time affects communication
 Chronemics refers to the study of how time affects anything. and includes how different time cycles affect our
communication. Time can be classified into several communication, including the differences between people who
different categories, including biological, personal, are past or future oriented and cultural perspectives on time as
physical, and cultural time (Andersen, 1999). Key Takeaways fixed and measured (monochronic) or fluid and adaptable
 Biological time refers to the rhythms of living things.  Kinesics refers to body movements and posture and (polychronic).
Humans follow a circadian rhythm, meaning that we are includes the following components:  Personal presentation and environment refers to how the
on a daily cycle that influences when we eat, sleep, and o Gestures are arm and hand movements and include adaptors objects we adorn ourselves and our surroundings with, referred
wake. When our natural rhythms are disturbed, by all- like clicking a pen or scratching your face, emblems like a to as artifacts, provide nonverbal cues that others make
 meaning from and how our physical environment—for verbal part of a spoken message, such as speaking rate, volume, (Andersen, 1999). Nonverbal communication also evolved earlier
example, the layout of a room and seating positions and and pitch. Nonvocal elements of verbal communication include than verbal communication and served an early and important
arrangements—influences communication. the use of unspoken symbols to convey meaning. Writing and survival function that helped humans later develop verbal
American Sign Language (ASL) are nonvocal examples of verbal communication. While some of our nonverbal communication
communication and are not considered nonverbal communication. abilities, like our sense of smell, lost strength as our verbal
Nonvocal elements of nonverbal communication include body capacities increased, other abilities like paralanguage and
language such as gestures, facial expressions, and eye contact. movement have grown alongside verbal complexity. The fact that
Gestures are nonvocal and nonverbal since most of them do not nonverbal communication is processed by an older part of our
refer to a specific word like a written or signed symbol does. brain makes it more instinctual and involuntary than verbal
communication.
Table 4.1 Vocal and Nonvocal Elements of Communication
4.1 Principles and Functions of Nonverbal Communication Nonverbal Communication Conveys Important
Interpersonal and Emotional Messages
Learning Objectives Verbal
Nonverbal Communication
Communication You’ve probably heard that more meaning is generated from
1. Define nonverbal communication. nonverbal communication than from verbal. Some studies have
claimed that 90 percent of our meaning is derived from nonverbal
2. Compare and contrast verbal communication and nonverbal
signals, but more recent and reliable findings claim that it is closer
communication.
to 65 percent (Guerrero & Floyd, 2006). We may rely more on
3. Discuss the principles of nonverbal communication.
Paralanguage (pitch, volume, nonverbal signals in situations where verbal and nonverbal
4. Provide examples of the functions of nonverbal Vocal Spoken words messages conflict and in situations where emotional or relational
communication. speaking rate, etc.)
communication is taking place (Hargie, 2011). For example, when
someone asks a question and we’re not sure about the “angle”
As you’ll recall from our introductory chapter, a channel is the they are taking, we may hone in on nonverbal cues to fill in the
sensory route on which a message travels. Oral communication meaning. For example, the question “What are you doing
only relies on one channel, because spoken language is tonight?” could mean any number of things, but we could rely on
Body language (gestures,
transmitted through sound and picked up by our ears. Nonverbal Writing, sign posture, tone of voice, and eye contact to see if the person is just
Nonvocal facial expressions, eye
communication, on the other hand, can be taken in by all five of language curious, suspicious, or hinting that they would like company for
contact, etc.) the evening. We also put more weight on nonverbal
our senses. Since most of our communication relies on visual and
auditory channels, those will be the focus of this chapter. But we communication when determining a person’s credibility. For
can also receive messages and generate meaning through touch, example, if a classmate delivers a speech in class and her verbal
Source: Adapted from Owen Hargie, Skilled Interpersonal content seems well-researched and unbiased, but her nonverbal
taste, and smell. Touch is an especially powerful form of
Interaction: Research, Theory, and Practice (London: Routledge, communication is poor (her voice is monotone, she avoids eye
nonverbal communication that we will discuss in this chapter, but
2011), 45. contact, she fidgets), she will likely not be viewed as credible.
we will not get into taste and smell, which have not received as
much scholarly attention in relation to nonverbal communication Conversely, in some situations, verbal communication might carry
as the other senses. Principles of Nonverbal Communication more meaning than nonverbal. In interactions where information
To further define nonverbal communication, we need to exchange is the focus, at a briefing at work, for example, verbal
distinguish between vocal and verbal aspects of communication. communication likely accounts for much more of the meaning
Nonverbal communication has a distinct history and serves generated. Despite this exception, a key principle of nonverbal
Verbal and nonverbal communication include both vocal and
separate evolutionary functions from verbal communication. For communication is that it often takes on more meaning in
nonvocal elements, and Table 4.1 “Vocal and Nonvocal Elements
example, nonverbal communication is primarily biologically interpersonal and/or emotional exchanges.
of Communication” shows the relationship among vocal,
based while verbal communication is primarily culturally based.
nonvocal, verbal, and nonverbal aspects of communication. A
This is evidenced by the fact that some nonverbal communication About 65 percent of the meaning we derive during interactions
vocal element of verbal communication is spoken words—for
has the same meaning across cultures while no verbal comes from nonverbal communication.
example, “Come back here.” A vocal element of nonverbal
communication systems share that same universal recognizability Gideon – In Perfect Congruence – CC BY 2.0.
communication is paralanguage, which is the vocalized but not
Nonverbal Communication Is More Involuntary than signals do not have any one specific meaning. If you’ve ever had influence others and regulate conversational flow. Perhaps even
Verbal someone wink at you and didn’t know why, you’ve probably more important are the ways in which nonverbal communication
experienced this uncertainty. Did they wink to express their functions as a central part of relational communication and
affection for you, their pleasure with something you just did, or identity expression.
There are some instances in which we verbally communicate
because you share some inside knowledge or joke?
involuntarily. These types of exclamations are often verbal
Just as we look at context clues in a sentence or paragraph to
responses to a surprising stimulus. For example, we say “owww!” Nonverbal Communication Conveys Meaning
derive meaning from a particular word, we can look for context
when we stub our toe or scream “stop!” when we see someone
clues in various sources of information like the physical
heading toward danger. Involuntary nonverbal signals are much
environment, other nonverbal signals, or verbal communication to Nonverbal communication conveys meaning by reinforcing,
more common, and although most nonverbal communication isn’t
make sense of a particular nonverbal cue. Unlike verbal substituting for, or contradicting verbal communication. As we’ve
completely involuntary, it is more below our consciousness than
communication, however, nonverbal communication doesn’t have already learned, verbal and nonverbal communication are two
verbal communication and therefore more difficult to control.
explicit rules of grammar that bring structure, order, and agreed- parts of the same system that often work side by side, helping us
The involuntary nature of much nonverbal communication makes
on patterns of usage. Instead, we implicitly learn norms of generate meaning. In terms of reinforcing verbal communication,
it more difficult to control or “fake.” For example, although you
nonverbal communication, which leads to greater variance. In gestures can help describe a space or shape that another person is
can consciously smile a little and shake hands with someone when
general, we exhibit more idiosyncrasies in our usage of nonverbal unfamiliar with in ways that words alone cannot. Gestures also
you first see them, it’s difficult to fake that you’re “happy” to
communication than we do with verbal communication, which reinforce basic meaning—for example, pointing to the door when
meet someone. Nonverbal communication leaks out in ways that
also increases the ambiguity of nonverbal communication. you tell someone to leave. Facial expressions reinforce the
expose our underlying thoughts or feelings. Spokespeople,
emotional states we convey through verbal communication. For
lawyers, or other public representatives who are the “face” of a
example, smiling while telling a funny story better conveys your
politician, celebrity, corporation, or organization must learn to Nonverbal Communication Is More Credible
emotions (Hargie, 2011). Vocal variation can help us emphasize a
control their facial expressions and other nonverbal
particular part of a message, which helps reinforce a word or
communication so they can effectively convey the message of
Although we can rely on verbal communication to fill in the sentence’s meaning. For example, saying “How
their employer or client without having their personal thoughts
blanks sometimes left by nonverbal expressions, we often put was your weekend?” conveys a different meaning than “How was
and feelings leak through. Poker players, therapists, police
more trust into what people do over what they say. This is your weekend?”
officers, doctors, teachers, and actors are also in professions that
especially true in times of stress or danger when our behaviors Nonverbal communication can substitute for verbal
often require them to have more awareness of and control over
become more instinctual and we rely on older systems of thinking communication in a variety of ways. Nonverbal communication
their nonverbal communication.
and acting that evolved before our ability to speak and write can convey much meaning when verbal communication isn’t
Have you ever tried to conceal your surprise, suppress your anger,
(Andersen, 1999). This innateness creates intuitive feelings about effective because of language barriers. Language barriers are
or act joyful even when you weren’t? Most people whose careers
the genuineness of nonverbal communication, and this present when a person hasn’t yet learned to speak or loses the
don’t involve conscious manipulation of nonverbal signals find it
genuineness relates back to our earlier discussion about the ability to speak. For example, babies who have not yet developed
difficult to control or suppress them. While we can consciously
sometimes involuntary and often subconscious nature of language skills make facial expressions, at a few months old, that
decide to stop sending verbal messages, our nonverbal
nonverbal communication. An example of the innateness of are similar to those of adults and therefore can generate meaning
communication always has the potential of generating meaning
nonverbal signals can be found in children who have been blind (Oster, Hegley, & Nagel, 1992). People who have developed
for another person. The teenager who decides to shut out his dad
since birth but still exhibit the same facial expressions as other language skills but can’t use them because they have temporarily
and not communicate with him still sends a message with his
children. In short, the involuntary or subconscious nature of or permanently lost them or because they are using incompatible
“blank” stare (still a facial expression) and lack of movement (still
nonverbal communication makes it less easy to fake, which makes language codes, like in some cross-cultural encounters, can still
a gesture). In this sense, nonverbal communication is
it seem more honest and credible. We will learn more about the communicate nonverbally. Although it’s always a good idea to
“irrepressible” (Andersen, 1999).
role that nonverbal communication plays in deception later in this learn some of the local language when you travel, gestures such as
chapter. pointing or demonstrating the size or shape of something may
Nonverbal Communication Is More Ambiguous suffice in basic interactions.
Nonverbal communication is also useful in a quiet situation where
Functions of Nonverbal Communication
verbal communication would be disturbing; for example, you may
In Chapter 3 “Verbal Communication”, we learn that the symbolic
use a gesture to signal to a friend that you’re ready to leave the
and abstract nature of language can lead to misunderstandings, but
A primary function of nonverbal communication is to convey library. Crowded or loud places can also impede verbal
nonverbal communication is even more ambiguous. As with
meaning by reinforcing, substituting for, or contradicting verbal communication and lead people to rely more on nonverbal
verbal communication, most of our nonverbal signals can be
communication. Nonverbal communication is also used to messages. Getting a server or bartender’s attention with a hand
linked to multiple meanings, but unlike words, many nonverbal
gesture is definitely more polite than yelling, “Hey you!” Finally, hurtful. Deception obviously has negative connotations, but indicate closure, which can be very useful at the end of a speech
there are just times when we know it’s better not to say something people engage in deception for many reasons, including to excuse to signal to the audience that you are finished, which cues the
aloud. If you want to point out a person’s unusual outfit or signal our own mistakes, to be polite to others, or to influence others’ applause and prevents an awkward silence that the speaker ends
to a friend that you think his or her date is a loser, you’re probably behaviors or perceptions. up filling with “That’s it” or “Thank you.” We also signal our turn
more likely to do that nonverbally. The fact that deception served an important evolutionary purpose is coming to an end by stopping hand gestures and shifting our
Last, nonverbal communication can convey meaning by helps explain its prevalence among humans today. Species that are eye contact to the person who we think will speak next (Hargie,
contradicting verbal communication. As we learned earlier, we capable of deception have a higher survival rate. Other animals 2011). Conversely, we can “hold the floor” with nonverbal signals
often perceive nonverbal communication to be more credible than engage in nonverbal deception that helps them attract mates, hide even when we’re not exactly sure what we’re going to say next.
verbal communication. This is especially true when we from predators, and trap prey (Andersen, 1999). To put it bluntly, Repeating a hand gesture or using one or more verbal fillers can
receive mixed messages, or messages in which verbal and the better at deception a creature is, the more likely it is to survive. extend our turn even though we are not verbally communicating at
nonverbal signals contradict each other. For example, a person So, over time, the humans that were better liars were the ones that the moment.
may say, “You can’t do anything right!” in a mean tone but follow got their genes passed on. But the fact that lying played a part in
that up with a wink, which could indicate the person is teasing or our survival as a species doesn’t give us a license to lie.
Nonverbal Communication Affects Relationships
joking. Mixed messages lead to uncertainty and confusion on the Aside from deception, we can use nonverbal communication to
part of receivers, which leads us to look for more information to “take the edge off” a critical or unpleasant message in an attempt
try to determine which message is more credible. If we are unable to influence the reaction of the other person. We can also use eye To successfully relate to other people, we must possess some skill
to resolve the discrepancy, we are likely to react negatively and contact and proximity to get someone to move or leave an area. at encoding and decoding nonverbal communication. The
potentially withdraw from the interaction (Hargie, 2011). For example, hungry diners waiting to snag a first-come-first- nonverbal messages we send and receive influence our
Persistent mixed messages can lead to relational distress and hurt serve table in a crowded restaurant send messages to the people relationships in positive and negative ways and can work to bring
a person’s credibility in professional settings. who have already eaten and paid that it’s time to go. People on people together or push them apart. Nonverbal communication in
competition reality television shows like Survivor and Big the form of tie signs, immediacy behaviors, and expressions of
Brother play what they’ve come to term a “social game.” The emotion are just three of many examples that illustrate how
We send mixed messages when our verbal and nonverbal social aspects of the game involve the manipulation of verbal and nonverbal communication affects our relationships.
communication contradict each other. If this woman said she was nonverbal cues to send strategic messages about oneself in an Tie signs are nonverbal cues that communicate intimacy and
excited about seeing you, would you believe her? attempt to influence others. Nonverbal cues such as length of signal the connection between two people. These relational
Helena Peixoto – bored – CC BY-NC 2.0. conversational turn, volume, posture, touch, eye contact, and indicators can be objects such as wedding rings or tattoos that are
choices of clothing and accessories can become part of a player’s symbolic of another person or the relationship, actions such as
social game strategy. Although reality television isn’t a reflection sharing the same drinking glass, or touch behaviors such as hand-
Nonverbal Communication Influences Others of real life, people still engage in competition and strategically holding (Afifi & Johnson, 2005). Touch behaviors are the most
change their communication to influence others, making it frequently studied tie signs and can communicate much about a
Nonverbal communication can be used to influence people in a important to be aware of how we nonverbally influence others and relationship based on the area being touched, the length of time,
variety of ways, but the most common way is through deception. how they may try to influence us. and the intensity of the touch. Kisses and hugs, for example, are
Deception is typically thought of as the intentional act of altering considered tie signs, but a kiss on the cheek is different from a
information to influence another person, which means that it kiss on the mouth and a full embrace is different from a half
Nonverbal Communication Regulates Conversational
extends beyond lying to include concealing, omitting, or embrace. If you consider yourself a “people watcher,” take note of
Flow
exaggerating information. While verbal communication is to the various tie signs you see people use and what they might say
blame for the content of the deception, nonverbal communication about the relationship.
partners with the language through deceptive acts to be more Conversational interaction has been likened to a dance, where Immediacy behaviors play a central role in bringing people
convincing. Since most of us intuitively believe that nonverbal each person has to make moves and take turns without stepping on together and have been identified by some scholars as the most
communication is more credible than verbal communication, we the other’s toes. Nonverbal communication helps us regulate our important function of nonverbal communication (Andersen &
often intentionally try to control our nonverbal communication conversations so we don’t end up constantly interrupting each Andersen, 2005). Immediacy behaviors are verbal and nonverbal
when we are engaging in deception. Likewise, we try to evaluate other or waiting in awkward silences between speaker turns. Pitch, behaviors that lessen real or perceived physical and psychological
other people’s nonverbal communication to determine the veracity which is a part of vocalics, helps us cue others into our distance between communicators and include things like smiling,
of their messages. Students initially seem surprised when we conversational intentions. A rising pitch typically indicates a nodding, making eye contact, and occasionally engaging in social,
discuss the prevalence of deception, but their surprise diminishes question and a falling pitch indicates the end of a thought or the polite, or professional touch (Comadena, Hunt, & Simonds, 2007).
once they realize that deception isn’t always malevolent, mean, or end of a conversational turn. We can also use a falling pitch to Immediacy behaviors are a good way of creating rapport, or a
friendly and positive connection between people. Skilled increases learning in various contexts and at various levels. Aside 1. Recall a teacher you have had that exhibited effective
nonverbal communicators are more likely to be able to create from enhancing student learning, the effective use of immediacy immediacy behaviors. Recall a teacher you have had that didn’t
rapport with others due to attention-getting expressiveness, warm behaviors also leads to better evaluations by students, which can exhibit immediacy behaviors. Make a column for each teacher
initial greetings, and an ability to get “in tune” with others, which have a direct impact on a teacher’s career. While student and note examples of specific behaviors of each. Discuss your
conveys empathy (Riggio, 1992). These skills are important to evaluations of teachers take various factors into consideration, list with a classmate and compare and contrast your lists.
help initiate and maintain relationships. judgments of personality may be formed, as we learned in Chapter 2. Think about the teachers that you listed in the previous
While verbal communication is our primary tool for solving 2 “Communication and Perception”, after only brief initial question. Discuss how their behaviors affected your learning
problems and providing detailed instructions, nonverbal impressions. Research shows that students make character and your relationship.
communication is our primary tool for communicating emotions. assumptions about teachers after only brief exposure to their
3. How much should immediacy behaviors, relative to other
This makes sense when we remember that nonverbal nonverbal behaviors. Based on nonverbal cues such as frowning,
characteristics such as professionalism, experience, training,
communication emerged before verbal communication and was head nodding, pointing, sitting, smiling, standing, strong gestures,
the channel through which we expressed anger, fear, and love for weak gestures, and walking, students may or may not evaluate a and content knowledge, factor into the evaluation of teachers
thousands of years of human history (Andersen, 1999). Touch and teacher as open, attentive, confident, dominant, honest, likable, by their students, peers, and supervisors? What, if anything,
facial expressions are two primary ways we express emotions anxious, professional, supportive, or enthusiastic. The following should schools do to enhance teachers’ knowledge of
nonverbally. Love is a primary emotion that we express are examples of immediacy behaviors that can be effectively used immediacy behaviors?
nonverbally and that forms the basis of our close relationships. by teachers:
Although no single facial expression for love has been identified, Nonverbal Communication Expresses Our Identities
it is expressed through prolonged eye contact, close interpersonal  Moving around the classroom during class activities, lectures,
distances, increased touch, and increased time spent together, and discussions (reduces physical distance)
among other things. Given many people’s limited emotional Nonverbal communication expresses who we are. Our identities
 Keeping the line of sight open between the teacher’s body and
vocabulary, nonverbal expressions of emotion are central to our (the groups to which we belong, our cultures, our hobbies and
the students by avoiding or only briefly standing behind
relationships. interests, etc.) are conveyed nonverbally through the way we set
lecterns / computer tables or sitting behind a desk while up our living and working spaces, the clothes we wear, the way
directly interacting with students (reduces physical distance) we carry ourselves, and the accents and tones of our voices. Our
“Getting Real”  Being expressive and animated with facial expressions, physical bodies give others impressions about who we are, and
gestures, and voice (demonstrates enthusiasm) some of these features are more under our control than others.
Teachers and Immediacy Behaviors  Smiling (creates a positive and open climate) Height, for example, has been shown to influence how people are
 Making frequent eye contact with students (communicates treated and perceived in various contexts. Our level of
A considerable amount of research has been done on teachers’ use attentiveness and interest) attractiveness also influences our identities and how people
of immediacy behaviors, which points to the importance of this  Calling students by name (reduces perceived psychological perceive us. Although we can temporarily alter our height or looks
communication concept in teaching professions (Richmond, Lane, distance) —for example, with different shoes or different color contact
& McCroskey, 2006). Immediacy behaviors are verbal and  Making appropriate self-disclosures to students about personal lenses—we can only permanently alter these features using more
nonverbal behaviors that lessen real or perceived physical and thoughts, feelings, or experiences (reduces perceived invasive and costly measures such as cosmetic surgery. We have
psychological distance between communicators (Comadena, Hunt, psychological distance, creates open climate) more control over some other aspects of nonverbal
& Simonds, 2007). Specific nonverbal behaviors have been found communication in terms of how we communicate our identities.
to increase or decrease perceived levels of immediacy, and such For example, the way we carry and present ourselves through
Teachers who are judged as less immediate are more likely to sit,
behaviors impact student learning, teacher’s evaluations, and the posture, eye contact, and tone of voice can be altered to present
touch their heads, shake instead of nod their heads, use sarcasm,
teacher-student relationship (Richmond, Lane, & McCroskey, ourselves as warm or distant depending on the context.
avoid eye contact, and use less expressive nonverbal behaviors.
2006). Even those who do not plan on going into teaching as a Aside from our physical body, artifacts, which are the objects and
Finally, immediacy behaviors affect the teacher-student
career can benefit from learning about immediacy behaviors, as possessions that surround us, also communicate our identities.
relationship. Immediacy behaviors help establish rapport, which is
they can also be used productively in other interpersonal contexts Examples of artifacts include our clothes, jewelry, and space
a personal connection that increases students’ investment in the
such as between a manager and employee, a salesperson and a decorations. In all the previous examples, implicit norms or
class and material, increases motivation, increases communication
client, or a politician and constituent. Much of this research in explicit rules can affect how we nonverbally present ourselves.
between teacher and student, increases liking, creates a sense of
teaching contexts has focused on the relationship between For example, in a particular workplace it may be a norm (implicit)
mutual respect, reduces challenging behavior by students, and
immediacy behaviors and student learning, and research for people in management positions to dress casually, or it may be
reduces anxiety.
consistently shows that effective use of immediacy behaviors a rule (explicit) that different levels of employees wear different
 uniforms or follow particular dress codes. We can also use conversational turns and facilitates the beginning and end of
nonverbal communication to express identity characteristics that an interaction.
do not match up with who we actually think we are. Through  Nonverbal communication affects relationships, as it is a
changes to nonverbal signals, a capable person can try to appear primary means through which we communicate emotions,
helpless, a guilty person can try to appear innocent, or an establish social bonds, and engage in relational maintenance.
uninformed person can try to appear credible.  Nonverbal communication expresses our identities, as who we
are is conveyed through the way we set up our living and
Key Takeaways working spaces, the clothes we wear, our personal
presentation, and the tones in our voices.
 Nonverbal communication is a process of generating meaning
using behavior other than words. Nonverbal communication
includes vocal elements, which is referred to
as paralanguage and includes pitch, volume, and rate, and
nonvocal elements, which are usually referred to as body
language and includes gestures, facial expressions, and eye
contact, among other things.
 Although verbal communication and nonverbal communication
work side by side as part of a larger language system, there are
some important differences between the two. They are
processed by different hemispheres of the brain, nonverbal
communication conveys more emotional and affective
meaning than does verbal communication, nonverbal
communication isn’t governed by an explicit system of rules in
the same way that grammar guides verbal communication, and
while verbal communication is a uniquely human ability, many
creatures including plants, birds, and mammals communicate
nonverbally.
 Nonverbal communication operates on the following
principles: nonverbal communication typically conveys more
meaning than verbal communication, nonverbal
communication is more involuntary than verbal
communication, nonverbal communication is often more
ambiguous than verbal communication, and nonverbal
communication is often more credible than verbal
communication.
 Nonverbal communication serves several functions.
 Nonverbal communication affects verbal communication in
that it can complement, reinforce, substitute, or contradict
verbal messages.
 Nonverbal communication influences others, as it is a key
component of deception and can be used to assert dominance
or to engage in compliance gaining.
 Nonverbal communication regulates conversational flow, as it
provides important cues that signal the beginning and end of